Grammar Matters - (Chapter 11 Phrases Clauses and Sentences)

PHRASES, CLAUSES
AND SENTENCES
’
Chapter 11
Chapter learning goals

This chapter focuses on phrases, clauses and sentences:
• what constitutes a phrase

• what constitutes a clause
• what constitutes a sentence
• what constitutes a grammatical sentence.
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to recognise grammatical sentences, phrases and
Copyright © 2013. Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.
clauses. You will also be able to identify non-grammatical sentences. Learning goals associated
with this chapter include:
✓ identification of phrases
✓ identification of clauses
✓ identification of simple and complex sentences
✓ identification of grammatical sentences
✓ identification of sentences as statements and questions.
110
Zeegers, Margaret. Grammar Matters, Oxford University Press, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ecu/detail.action?docID=4389153.
Created from ecu on 2024-02-12 05:04:05.
11_ZEE_GRA_23096_TXT_SI.indd 110 27/08/13 1:19 PM

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Refresher
Before we consider phrases, clauses and sentences, we will refresh our knowledge of the
verb, because this is essential to understanding phrases, clauses and sentences. To do this,
underline the complete verbs in the following sentence:
Hot Tip 11.1: Watching is a participle,
Watching the pigeons, the bird catcher felt that their and so not a complete verb; to rise, to
escape, and to eat are infinitives and so
plump bodies would not only make it difficult for them
not complete verbs.
to rise and to escape his net, but also make them nice
to eat.
Hot Tip 11.2: Revise action and non-
You should have: action verbs, infinitives and participles
(Chapter 9). This knowledge is integral
Watching the pigeons, the bird catcher felt that their to understanding what constitutes
plump bodies would not only make it difficult for them grammatical sentences, phrases and
to rise and escape his net, but also (would) make them clauses. We need to know just what is a
complete verb and what is not.
nice to eat.
GRAMMATICAL SENTENCES
The aim of grammar is to describe the way sentences are constructed, in particular
regarding the patterns of words they contain, using language about language. Most
people do not speak in complete sentences, and that is fine, but formal writing requires
formal, complete sentences that are constructed correctly. Such sentences are called
grammatical sentences. Those that are not are called non-grammatical sentences. It is
our aim to construct our own grammatical sentences with confidence and ease, and to
teach children to do the same.
We examine how phrases and clauses work within sentences, and again, we come
to understand the simplicity of it all, focusing on the two forms that sentences take: the
statement and the question.
The statement is a sentence that presents itself as giving information, rather than
asking for it. The sentence that asks for information is the question. The same rules for
the construction of grammatical sentences apply to both statement and question forms
111

112 Part 2 Phrases, Clauses, Sentences and their Punctuation
of sentences. The verb will be placed differently in each form, and the end punctuation
is different, but they are to be constructed as grammatical sentences, as is discussed later
in this chapter:
He has been to school. (Verb: has been; statement with full stop)
Has he been to school? (Verb: has been separated by the pronoun, he;
question with question mark)
As both sentences are correctly constructed, they are grammatical.
THE PHRASE
This is a group of meaning making words that contains no complete verb. At this point
we need to remind ourselves:
• that words like is, are, become, rust and so on are complete verbs: they are non-
action verbs;
• that infinitives are not complete verbs
• that participles are not complete verbs.
Examples:
To stay or to go is a phrase because to stay and to go are infinitives and so

not complete verbs.
Coming round the mountain is a phrase because coming is a participle and so

not a complete verb.
THE CLAUSE
This is a group of meaning making words that contains a complete verb.

The complete verb is what distinguishes a phrase from a clause; it is as simple as this.
To identify and to construct a clause, we are still drawing on our knowledge of what
constitutes a complete verb and what does not.
Examples:
What you believe
This is a clause because believe is a complete verb, a non-action verb (see Chapter 9).

Chapter 11 Phrases, Clauses and Sentences 113
If I can interrupt
This is a clause because can interrupt is a complete verb of two words.
Is being sick
This is a clause because is being sick is a complete verb of three words.
‘ Try it 11.1
Identify the following as either phrase (P) or clause (C) (underline the right letter) and give
the reason for your decision (based on knowledge of verbs, not on guesswork):
Thinking back (P/C)

Reason:
Having second thoughts (P/C)
Reason:
Now I remember (P/C)
Reason:
When she comes (P/C)
Reason:
As I thought (P/C)
Reason:
But he was lying (P/C)
Reason:
Answers
Thinking back (P/C)

Reason: thinking is a participle, so not a complete verb.
Having second thoughts (P/C)
Reason: having is a participle, so not a complete verb.
Now I remember (P/C)
Reason: remember is a complete verb.
When she comes (P/C)
Reason: comes is a complete verb.
As I thought (P/C)
Reason: thought is a complete verb.
But he was lying (P/C)
Reason: was lying is a complete verb.
Phrases and clauses like these combine to make up sentences.

SENTENCES
Sentences are made up of words, groups of words, clauses and phrases, all in an infinite
number of possible configurations, that contain a complete verb. There has been a
number of attempts to define a sentence, and traditional descriptions include a group of
words starting with a capital letter and ending with a full stop.
This is an inadequate definition if we consider the following group of words that
starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop:
Blue instead but also infinity working none.
First of all, it contains no verb, so it cannot be a sentence. Secondly, it does not make
sense, so it conveys no meaning whatsoever. Our communications with each other, after
all, are exercises in meaning making, so we would expect that we would be able to make
sense of a sentence.
Another definition is a complete expression of a single thought.
This comes closer to an adequate definition if we consider the following group of
words that contains only part of an idea:
Because you have no opinion at all.
This is a clause, not a sentence. While it does contain a full verb (have), and it is
possible to get a sense of meaning, it does not tell us enough. It starts with a connective
(because) but it is not connected to anything that would give us a complete idea (see
Chapter 7 on the connective). That is the point of connectives, after all, to connect
phrases and clauses within a sentence. To make it a sentence, it would need an extra
phrase or clause:
It is a waste of time discussing this with you because you have no opinion
at all.
Here we have a sentence with a complete verb in both clauses (is and have) with a
complete idea once another clause (it is a waste of time discussing this with you) is added
at the beginning. What is more, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop.
Given this, we may start considering some characteristics of sentences, based
initially on the idea of completeness of an expression or an idea, with a complete verb.
As far as we are concerned, if these are not present, we do not have a sentence. Without a

complete verb, it is a phrase or a clause, or, as a teacher might write on a student’s work,
NAS (for Not A Sentence).
We will consider two types of sentence: simple and complex.
Simple sentence
A simple sentence consists of one clause:
Girls giggle.
Noun (S) verb (V) no object.
This sentence has a noun subject and a verb associated with it. It is a simple sentence.
Sentences can, and often do, have noun objects (O) too:
Girls giggle over secrets.

S–V–Prep–O.
The basic sentence structure for English is S–V(–O) (see below):
Most animals don’t fly.

Birds usually fly. Simple sentences; one clause.
Penguins make burrows.
Each of these simple sentences starts with a capital letter, ends with full stop, contains
complete meaning, has subject and verb, and at times an object (burrows).
This then is what a sentence looks like: it conveys an idea of its own that operates
independently from any other sentence(s). It can stand alone if it has to, because it has at
least a subject (S) and a complete verb (V), and often an object (O) as well. It conforms
to the S–V(–O) configurations of sentences in English.
Complex sentence
A complex sentence has a main clause and other phrases and clauses to help to amplify
it, give it more meaning or information, and to deal with more sophisticated, or complex
content. It also makes for smoother, more enjoyable reading and writing, drawing on a
number of punctuation devices to achieve this (see Chapter 13 on punctuation):
Using their flippers as if they were wings, penguins when in the water fly
like birds in the air.

Here is a complex sentence with a main clause (penguins fly), three phrases (like
birds in the air; when in the water, using their flippers), and another clause (as if they were
wings).
Here fly is the complete verb in the sentence. In the air, when in the water and using
their flippers (using is a participle so it’s not a complete verb) are phrases because they
contain no verb. Were is the verb in the final clause.
‘ Try it 11.2
Perhaps one of the most famous sentences in the history of the world is the following by
Winston Churchill. (It was delivered orally, but it may be found on a large number of websites
if you would like to read the whole of the speech.) It is an excellent example of a complex
sentence. I have treated it as an oral text, and punctuated it on the basis of how I first heard
it, never having seen it in print until relatively recently:
We shall go on to the end: we shall fight in France; we shall fight on the seas
and oceans; we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in
the air; we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be; we shall fight
on the beaches; we shall fight on the landing grounds; we shall fight in the
fields and in the streets; we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender,
and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part
of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed
and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until in God’s
good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the
rescue and the liberation of the old.
Speech copyright © Winston S Churchill. Reproduced with permission of

Curtis Brown Ltd, London on behalf of The Estate of Winston Churchill.
In the following, the sentence has been broken into individual phrases and clauses. On
the basis of your knowledge of phrases and clauses (and therefore of complete verbs, infini-
tives, non-action and action verbs and participles), say whether each is a phrase or a clause.
Again, I would stress that there is to be no guesswork. Pass if you do not know, but do not

guess; employ your knowledge. Underline the correct letter: P for phrase; C for clause. At
the same time, underline the verb that you have identified as making it a clause.
We shall go on to the end: (P/C)

we shall fight in France; (P/C)
we shall fight on the seas and oceans; (P/C)
we shall fight with growing confidence (P/C)
and growing strength (P/C)
in the air; (P/C)
we shall defend our Island, (P/C)
whatever the cost may be; (P/C)
we shall fight on the beaches; (P/C)
we shall fight on the landing grounds; (P/C)
we shall fight in the fields (P/C)
and in the streets; (P/C)
we shall fight in the hills; (P/C)
we shall never surrender, (P/C)
and even if, (P/C)
which I do not for a moment believe, (P/C)
this Island (P/C)
or a large part of it (P/C)
were subjugated and starving, (P/C)
then our Empire beyond the seas, (P/C)
armed and guarded by the British Fleet, (P/C)
would carry on the struggle, (P/C)

until in God’s good time, (P/C)
the New World, (P/C)
with all its power and might, (P/C)
steps forth to the rescue (P/C)
and the liberation of the old. (P/C)
Place a tick in front of the clauses you could make sentences.
How has Churchill managed this? What punctuation has helped him? (This is dealt with
in detail in Chapter 13.)

Answers
We shall go on to the end: (P/C)
we shall fight in France; (P/C)
we shall fight on the seas and oceans; (P/C)
we shall fight with growing confidence (P/C)
in the air; (P/C)
we shall defend our Island, (P/C)
whatever the cost may be; (P/C)
we shall fight on the beaches; (P/C)
we shall fight on the landing grounds; (P/C)
we shall fight in the fields (P/C )
we shall fight in the hills; (P/C)
we shall never surrender, (P/C) (never is an adverb that sits between the two
words that make the verb)
and even if, (P/C)
which I do not for a moment believe, (P/C) (not for a moment is an adverbial
phrase: see Chapter 12)
this Island (P/C)
were subjugated and starving, (P/C) (the auxiliary verb were also refers to the
participle starving: were subjugated and were starving are the two verbs here)

armed and guarded by the British Fleet, (P/C)
would carry on the struggle, (P/C)
steps forth to the rescue (P/C)

Clauses you could make sentences:
✓We shall go on to the end: (P/C)

✓we shall fight in France; (P/C)
✓we shall fight on the seas and oceans; (P/C)
✓we shall fight with growing confidence (P/C)
in the air; (P/C)
✓we shall defend our Island, (P/C)
*whatever the cost may be; (P/C)
✓we shall fight on the beaches; (P/C)
✓we shall fight on the landing grounds; (P/C)
✓we shall fight in the fields (P/C )
✓we shall fight in the hills; (P/C)
✓we shall never surrender, (P/C) (never is an adverb that sits between the two
words that make the verb)
and even if, (P/C)
*which I do not for a moment believe, (P/C) (not for a moment is an adverbial
phrase: see Chapter 12)
this Island (P/C)
*were subjugated and starving, (P/C) (the auxiliary verb were also refers to the
participle starving: were subjugated and were starving are the two verbs here)

✓armed and guarded by the British Fleet, (P/C)
✓would carry on the struggle, (P/C)
✓steps forth to the rescue (P/C)
* These are clauses that do not contain a complete idea; they cannot stand alone.

How has Churchill managed this?
He has managed this with the careful use of punctuation.
What punctuation has helped him?
Firstly the colon: once he has used this he is able to

Hot Tip 11.3: Know what is and is
bring in the use of semi colons and commas to give the
not a verb. It is the key to constructing
sentence weight and balance (this is examined further in
grammatically correct texts.
’
Chapter 13).
GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE CHARACTERISTICS
By now you should be able to identify five characteristics of a sentence:

.
1 It contains a complete thought or idea:
Fish live in water.
2 It contains a complete verb within this thought or idea:
Birds may be migratory.
3 Its basic structure is Subject–Verb(–Object):

I love (my little car).
4 It starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop:
I will barrack for one football team until the day that I die.
5 It may be made up of any number of clauses and phrases:
Maybe they’re badly coached; maybe they’re too old and too slow; maybe I’m
just one-eyed; they’ll always be the team for me.

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
Now that you know what a phrase, and a clause is, you can take your knowledge a step
further in relation to ways in which they function in sentences. A simple sentence has an
important function as clear and effective communication, and
Hot tip 11.4: On the basis of this
we only need a single clause for this. A complex sentence has
knowledge you may decide to write
a similar function as far as clear communication is concerned, sentences that are not grammatical
but it is for more sophisticated and detailed communication, as because you want to create a certain effect
shown by the complex sentence of Churchill’s speech. It is an or make a certain point. If you decide to
example that shows just how effective a complex sentence may do this, you need to be quite clear that is
an informed decision and not a mistake.
be in conveying the idea(s) that you want to get across. Mistakes always show, as the Grammar
Police would be quick to point out.
REVIEW
You should now feel that you understand the phrase, the clause and the sentence well enough
to teach each of these simply and clearly. Read the summary points below, then move on to
the revision and practice exercises.
Summary points
There are three main things to remember about the sentence:
1 A system of rules about phrases, clauses and sentences enables us to identify and
construct grammatical sentences.
2 The sentence is constructed in such a way that it is received as being complete, and
having a complete verb.
3 The sentence may be constructed as a question or a statement.

END OF CHAPTER REVISION
1 A sentence is:
2 A phrase is:
3 A clause is:
4 A simple sentence is:
5 A complex sentence is:
6 Mark the following as grammatical (S) or ungrammatical (NAS) and give your reasons
for your answer:
a The dentist has written to you again. (S/NAS)
b I ain’t eating. (S/NAS)
c To boldly go where no man has ever gone before. (S/NAS)

d Why did he go? (S/NAS)
e Come in. (S/NAS)

f The size of the car. (S/NAS)
g At the airport. (S/NAS)
Answers appear on page 162.


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PHRASES, CLAUSES

Chapter learning goals

• what constitutes a phrase

11_ZEE_GRA_23096_TXT_SI.indd 110 27/08/13 1:19 PM

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As both sentences are correctly constructed, they are grammatical.

To stay or to go is a phrase because to stay and to go are infinitives and so

Coming round the mountain is a phrase because coming is a participle and so

This is a group of meaning making words that contains a complete verb.

What you believe

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This is a clause because can interrupt is a complete verb of two words.

This is a clause because is being sick is a complete verb of three words.

Thinking back (P/C)

Thinking back (P/C)

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Blue instead but also infinity working none.

Because you have no opinion at all.

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Girls giggle over secrets.

The basic sentence structure for English is S–V(–O) (see below):

Most animals don’t fly.

11_ZEE_GRA_23096_TXT_SI.indd 115 27/08/13 1:19 PM

Speech copyright © Winston S Churchill. Reproduced with permission of

11_ZEE_GRA_23096_TXT_SI.indd 116 27/08/13 1:19 PM

We shall go on to the end: (P/C)

would carry on the struggle, (P/C)

Place a tick in front of the clauses you could make sentences.

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then our Empire beyond the seas, (P/C)

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Clauses you could make sentences:

✓We shall go on to the end: (P/C)

then our Empire beyond the seas, (P/C)

11_ZEE_GRA_23096_TXT_SI.indd 119 27/08/13 1:19 PM

How has Churchill managed this?

He has managed this with the careful use of punctuation.

What punctuation has helped him?

Firstly the colon: once he has used this he is able to

GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE CHARACTERISTICS

By now you should be able to identify five characteristics of a sentence:

1 It contains a complete thought or idea:

Fish live in water.

2 It contains a complete verb within this thought or idea:

Birds may be migratory.

3 Its basic structure is Subject–Verb(–Object):

I love (my little car).

4 It starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop:

5 It may be made up of any number of clauses and phrases:

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3 The sentence may be constructed as a question or a statement.

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END OF CHAPTER REVISION

4 A simple sentence is:

5 A complex sentence is:

b I ain’t eating. (S/NAS)

c To boldly go where no man has ever gone before. (S/NAS)

d Why did he go? (S/NAS)

e Come in. (S/NAS)

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f The size of the car. (S/NAS)

g At the airport. (S/NAS)

Answers appear on page 162.