Integrated Science 7th Edition Bill W.

Tillery
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Conversion Factors Powers of Ten
Length 10–10 = 0.000.000.000.1 100 = 1
1 in = 2.54 cm 10–9 = 0.000.000.001 101 = 10
1 cm = 0.394 in 10–8 = 0.000.000.01 102 = 100
1 ft = 30.5 cm 10–7 = 0.000.000.1 103 = 1,000
1 m = 39.4 in = 3.281 ft 10–6 = 0.000.001 104 = 10,000
1 km = 0.621 mi 10–5 = 0.000.01 105 = 100,000
1 mi = 5,280 ft = 1.609 km 10–4 = 0.000.1 106 = 1,000,000
1 light-year = 9.461 × 1015 m 10–3 = 0.001 107 = 10,000,000
10–2 = 0.01 108 = 100,000,000
Mass 10–1 = 0.1 109 = 1,000,000,000
1 lb = 453.6 g (where g = 9.8 m/s2) 100 = 1 1010 = 10,000,000,000
1 kg = 2.205 lb (where g = 9.8 m/s2)
1 atomic mass unit u = 1.66061 × 10−27 kg
Multipliers for Metric Units
Volume
1 liter = 1.057 quarts a atto- 10–18 da deka- 101
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3 f femto- 10–15 h hecto- 102
1 gallon = 3.786 liters p pico- 10–12 k kilo- 103
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 n nano- 10–9 M mega- 106
µ micro- 10–6 G giga- 109
Energy
m milli- 10–3 T tera- 1012
1 cal = 4.184 J
c centi- 10–2 P peta- 1015
1 J = 0.738 ft·lb = 0.0239 cal
d deci- 10–1 E exa- 1018
1 ft·lb = 1.356 J
1 Btu = 252 cal = 778 ft·lb
1 kWh = 3.60 × 106 J = 860 kcal
Physical Constants
1 hp = 550 ft·lb/s = 746 W
1 W = 0.738 ft·lb/s
Quantity Approximate Value
1 Btu/h = 0.293 W
Gravity (Earth) g = 9.8 m/s2
Absolute zero (0K) = –273.15°C
Gravitational law constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2/kg2
1 J = 6.24 × 1018 eV
Earth radius (mean) 6.38 × 106 m
1 eV = 1.6022 × 10–19 J
Earth mass 5.98 × 1024 kg
Speed Earth-Sun distance (mean) 1.50 × 1011 m
1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s = 0.6214 mi/h Earth-Moon distance (mean) 3.84 × 108 m
1 m/s = 3.60 km/h = 2.237 mi/h = 3.281 ft/s Fundamental charge 1.60 × 10−19 C
1 mi/h = 1.61 km/h = 0.447 m/s = 1.47 ft/s Coulomb law constant k = 9.00 × 109 N·m2/C2
1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s = 0.6818 mi/h Electron rest mass 9.11 × 10−31 kg
Proton rest mass 1.6726 × 10−27 kg
Force Neutron rest mass 1.6750 × 10−27 kg
1 N = 0.2248 lb Bohr radius 5.29 × 10−11 m
1 lb = 4.448 N Avogadro’s number 6.02 × 1023/mol
Planck’s constant 6.62 × 10−34 J·s
Pressure Speed of light (vacuum) 3.00 × 108 m/s
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 × 105 N/m2 = 14.7 lb/in2 Pi π = 3.1415926536
1 lb/in2 = 6.90 × 103 N/m2
Integrated
SCIENCE Seventh Edition

Bill W. Tillery
Arizona State University

Eldon D. Enger
Delta College

Frederick C. Ross
Delta College

Timothy F. Slater, Ph.D.

University of Wyoming

Stephanie J. Slater, Ph.D.

CAPER Center for Astronomy & Physics Education Research
INTEGRATED SCIENCE, SEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tillery, Bill W., author.

Title: Integrated science / Bill W. Tillery, Arizona State University, Eldon
D. Enger, Delta College, Frederick C. Ross, Delta College, Timothy F.
Slater, Ph.D., University of Wyoming, Stephanie J. Slater, Ph.D.,
CAPER Center for Astronomy & Physics Education Research.
Description: Seventh edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill, [2019] | Includes
index. | Revised edition of: Integrated science / Bill W. Tillery, Eldon
D. Enger, Frederick C. Ross. 6th ed. 2013.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017033770 | ISBN 9780077862602 (alk. paper) |
ISBN 0077862600 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Science—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC Q161.2 .T54 2019 | DDC 500—dc23 LC record available
at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017033770

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not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not
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mheducation.com/highered
CONTENTS

Preface xii 2.2 Measuring Motion 26 Moving Water 69

Speed 26 Nuclear 69
Velocity 27 Conserving Energy 69
CHAPTER Acceleration 28 3.5 Energy Tomorrow 70

1
2.3 Forces 29 Solar Technologies 70
2.4 Horizontal Motion on Land 31 Geothermal Energy 71
A Closer Look: A Bicycle Racer’s Edge 33 People Behind the Science: James
2.5 Falling Objects 34 Prescott Joule 72
2.6 Compound Motion 35 Hydrogen 72
What Is Science? 1 Vertical Projectiles 35
Horizontal Projectiles 36
Outline 1 2.7 Three Laws of Motion 37
1.1 Objects and Properties 2 Newton’s First Law of Motion 37 CHAPTER
1.2
1.3
1.4
Quantifying Properties 4
Measurement Systems 4
Standard Units for the Metric
Newton’s Second Law of Motion 38
Weight and Mass 40
Newton’s Third Law of Motion 41
4
System 6 2.8 Momentum 43
Length 6 Conservation of Momentum 43
Mass 6 Impulse 44 Heat and
Time 6 2.9 Forces and Circular Motion 45 Temperature 75
1.5 Metric Prefixes 7 2.10 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 46
1.6 Understandings from Earth Satellites 48 Outline 75
Measurements 8 A Closer Look: Gravity Problems 49 4.1 The Kinetic Molecular
Data 8 Weightlessness 49 Theory 76
Ratios and Generalizations 8 People Behind the Science: Isaac Molecules 77
The Density Ratio 9 Newton 50 Molecules Interact 77
Symbols and Equations 11 Phases of Matter 77
1.7 The Nature of Science 12 Molecules Move 78
The Scientific Method 13 4.2 Temperature 79
CHAPTER
Explanations and Investigations 13 Thermometers 79

1.8
Scientific Laws 15
Models and Theories 15
Science, Nonscience, and
3 Thermometer Scales 80
4.3 Heat 82
Heat as Energy Transfer 83
Pseudoscience 18 Measures of Heat 84
From Experimentation to Energy 54 Specific Heat 85
Application 19 Heat Flow 86
Science and Nonscience 19 Outline 54 A Closer Look: Passive Solar Design 88
Pseudoscience 20 3.1 Work 55 4.4 Energy, Heat, and Molecular
Limitations of Science 20 Units of Work 56 Theory 90
People Behind the Science: Florence Power 57 Phase Change 90
Bascom 21 A Closer Look: Simple Machines 59 Evaporation and Condensation 92
3.2 Motion, Position, and Energy 60 Relative Humidity 93
Potential Energy 60 4.5 Thermodynamics 95
CHAPTER
Kinetic Energy 62 The First Law of
3.3 Energy Flow 63

2
Thermodynamics 95
Energy Forms 63 The Second Law of
Energy Conversion 65 Thermodynamics 96
Potential and Kinetic Energy 65 The Second Law and Natural
Motion 24 Energy Conservation 66 Processes 97
Energy Transfer 67 People Behind the Science: Count
Outline 24 3.4 Energy Sources Today 67 Rumford (Benjamin
2.1 Describing Motion 25 Petroleum 68 Thompson) 98
Coal 68

v

CHAPTER
5
Wave Motions and
Sound 103
Outline 103
5.1 Forces and Elastic Materials
Forces and Vibrations 104
Describing Vibrations 105
5.2 Waves 106
Kinds of Waves 107
Waves in Air 108
Hearing Waves in Air 109
5.3 Describing Waves 110
A Closer Look: Hearing Problems 111
5.4 Sound Waves 112
Velocity of Sound in Air 112
Refraction and Reflection 112
Interference 114
5.5 Energy and Sound 115
Loudness 116
Resonance 116
5.6 Sources of Sounds 117
Vibrating Strings 118
Sounds from Moving Sources 120
People Behind the Science: Johann
Christian Doppler 121
CHAPTER
6 Relativity Theory Applied 174
Electricity 125
Outline 125
6.1 Electric Charge 126
Measuring Electric Charge 128
Measuring Electric Force 129
6.2 Electric Current 130
Resistance 131
A Closer Look: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 132
AC and DC 133
6.3 The Electric Circuit 133
6.4 Electric Power and Work 134
A Closer Look: Household Circuits
and Safety 136
6.5 Magnetism 138
Moving Charges and Magnetic
Fields 140
Magnetic Fields Interact 142
A Moving Magnet Produces
an Electric Field 143
vi Contents
A Closer Look: Solar Cells 146 8.5 Metals, Nonmetals, and
People Behind the Science: Benjamin Semiconductors 191
Franklin (1706–1790) 147
A Closer Look: The Rare Earths 192
People Behind the Science: Dmitri
Ivanovich Mendeleyev 194
CHAPTER
7 CHAPTER
9
104 Light 152
Outline 152 Chemical Reactions 197
7.1 Sources of Light 153
7.2 Properties of Light 156 Outline 197
Light Interacts with Matter 156 9.1 Compounds 198
Reflection 157 9.2 Elements 200
Refraction 159 9.3 Chemical Change 201
A Closer Look: Optics 161 9.4 Valence Electrons and Ions 203
Dispersion and Color 163 9.5 Chemical Bonds 204
7.3 Evidence for Waves 165 Ionic Bonds 204
Interference 165 Covalent Bonds 206
Polarization 165 A Closer Look: Name That
A Closer Look: The Rainbow 167 Compound 208
7.4 Evidence for Particles 169 9.6 Composition of Compounds 210
Photoelectric Effect 169 9.7 Chemical Equations 211
Quantization of Energy 169 A Closer Look: How to Write a Chemical
Formula 212
7.5 The Present Theory 170
A Closer Look: On Balancing Equations 214
7.6 Relativity 171
9.8 Types of Chemical Reactions 215
Special Relativity 171
A Closer Look: The Digital Video Disc
Combination Reactions 216
(DVD) 172 Decomposition Reactions 216
People Behind the Science: James Replacement Reactions 216
Clerk Maxwell 173 People Behind the Science: Linus
Carl Pauling 218
General Relativity 173
Ion Exchange Reactions 218
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
8 10
Water and Solutions 223
Atoms and Periodic
Properties 177 Outline 223
10.1 Household Water 224
Outline 177 10.2 Properties of Water 225
8.1 Atomic Structure Discovered 178 Structure of the Water Molecule 226
Discovery of the Electron 179 The Dissolving Process 227
The Nucleus 180 A Closer Look: Decompression
8.2 The Bohr Model 182 Sickness 228
The Quantum Concept 182 Solubility 229
Atomic Spectra 183 10.3 Properties of Water Solutions 230
Bohr’s Theory 184 Electrolytes 230
8.3 Quantum Mechanics 186 Boiling Point 230
8.4 The Periodic Table 189 Freezing Point 232
10.4 Acids, Bases, and Salts 232
Properties of Acids and Bases 232
Explaining Acid-Base
Properties 234
Strong and Weak Acids
and Bases 234
The pH Scale 235
Properties of Salts 236
Hard and Soft Water 236
A Closer Look: Acid Rain 238
People Behind the Science: Johannes
Nicolaus Brönsted 239
12.5 Star Types 272 Orbit 314
12.6 The Life of a Star 273 Rotation 315
12.7 Galaxies and the Universe 276 Precession 316
The Milky Way Galaxy 277 14.3 Place and Time 317
Other Galaxies 278 Identifying Place 317
A Closer Look: Redshift and Hubble’s Measuring Time 318
Law 279 14.4 The Earth-Moon System 325
Evolution of the Universe 279 Phases of the Moon 326
A Closer Look: Dark Matter 280 Eclipses of the Sun and Moon 326
People Behind the Science: Jocelyn Tides 328
(Susan) Bell Burnell 283 People Behind the Science: Carl Edward
Sagan 329

CHAPTER CHAPTER
CHAPTER

11 13 15
Nuclear Reactions 242 The Solar System 287 Earth 333
Outline 242 Outline 287
Outline 333
11.1 Natural Radioactivity 243 13.1 Planets, Moons, and Other
15.1 Earth Materials 334
Nuclear Equations 244 Bodies 288
Minerals 335
The Nature of the Nucleus 245 Mercury 290 A Closer Look: Asbestos 338
Types of Radioactive Decay 247 Venus 291 Rocks 339
Radioactive Decay Series 249 Earth’s Moon 292 The Rock Cycle 341
11.2 Measurement of Radiation 250 Mars 294 15.2 Earth’s Interior 342
Measurement Methods 251 Jupiter 296 The Crust 343
Radiation Units 251 Saturn 299 The Mantle 343
A Closer Look: How Is Half-Life Uranus and Neptune 300 The Core 344
Determined? 252 13.2 Small Bodies of the Solar A More Detailed
Radiation Exposure 252 System 301 Structure 345
11.3 Nuclear Energy 253 Comets 301 15.3 Plate Tectonics 346
Nuclear Fission 254 Asteroids 303 Evidence from Earth’s Magnetic
Nuclear Power Plants 256 Meteors and Meteorites 303 Field 346
A Closer Look: Three Mile Island, 13.3 Origin of the Solar System 305 Evidence from the Ocean 347
Chernobyl, and Fukushima I 257 Stage A 305 Lithosphere Plates and
Nuclear Fusion 260 Stage B 305 Boundaries 349
A Closer Look: Nuclear Waste 261 Stage C 306 Present-Day Understandings 351
People Behind the Science: Marie People Behind the Science: A Closer Look: Measuring Plate
Curie 262 Percival Lowell 307 Movement 352
People Behind the Science: Frederick
John Vine 353

CHAPTER

12 CHAPTER

14 CHAPTER

The Universe 266 16

Earth in Space 310
Outline 266
12.1 The Night Sky 267 Outline 310 Earth’s Surface 356
12.2 Origin of Stars 268 14.1 Shape and Size of Earth 311
12.3 Brightness of Stars 269 A Closer Look: The Celestial Sphere 313 Outline 356
12.4 Star Temperature 271 14.2 Motions of Earth 314 16.1 Interpreting Earth’s Surface 357

Contents vii
16.2 Processes That Build Up the Proteins 465
Surface 358 CHAPTER Nucleic Acids 468
Stress and Strain 359 Lipids 470
Folding 360
Faulting 361 18 A Closer Look: Fat and Your Diet 473
People Behind the Science: Roy J.
Plunkett 474
16.3 Earthquakes 362
16.4 Origin of Mountains 367
Folded and Faulted Mountains 367 Earth’s Waters 423
A Closer Look: Volcanoes Change the
Outline 423 CHAPTER
World 368
Volcanic Mountains 368
16.5 Processes That Tear Down
the Surface 370
18.1 Water on Earth 424
Freshwater 426
Surface Water 426
20
Weathering 370 Groundwater 428
Erosion 374 Freshwater as a Resource 429
People Behind the Science: James 18.2 Seawater 431 The Nature of Living
Hutton 379 A Closer Look: Wastewater Things 477
Treatment 432
Oceans and Seas 433 Outline 477
The Nature of Seawater 434 Part I The Characteristics of Life 478
Movement of Seawater 436 20.1 What Makes Something Alive? 478
CHAPTER A Closer Look: Key Forecasting Tool for 20.2 The Cell Theory 481

17 20.3 Cell Membranes 483

Earth’s Weather 384
Outline 384
17.1 The Atmosphere 385
Composition of the Atmosphere 386
Atmospheric Pressure 387
Warming the Atmosphere 388
A Closer Look: Hole in the Ozone
Layer? 389
Structure of the Atmosphere 389
17.2 The Winds 390
Local Wind Patterns 391
A Closer Look: The Wind Chill Factor 392
Global Wind Patterns 393
17.3 Water and the Atmosphere 394
Evaporation and Condensation 395
Fog and Clouds 398
Precipitation 399
17.4 Weather Producers 401
Air Masses 402
Weather Fronts 404
Waves and Cyclones 405
Major Storms 406
17.5 Weather Forecasting 410
17.6 Climate 411
Major Climate Groups 411
A Closer Look: El Niño and La Niña 414
Regional Climatic Influence 415
Climate Change 416
Causes of Global Climate
Change 417
Global Warming 419
People Behind the Science: Vilhelm
Firman Koren Bjerknes 420
the Chesapeake Bay 442
18.3 The Ocean Floor 442
People Behind the Science: Rachel Louise
Carson 443
CHAPTER
19
Organic and
Biochemistry 446
Outline 446
19.1 Nature of Organic
Compounds 448
19.2 Hydrocarbons 448
Hydrocarbons with Double or Triple
Bonds 449
Hydrocarbons That Form Rings 450
19.3 Petroleum 452
19.4 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 454
Functional Groups Generate
Variety 455
19.5 Synthetic Polymers 459
A Closer Look: Nonpersistent and
Persistent Organic Pollutants 462
19.6 Organisms and Their
Macromolecules 462
Carbohydrates 462
A Closer Look: Omega Fatty Acids
and Your Diet 463
A Closer Look: So You Don’t Eat Meat!
How to Stay Healthy 465
20.4 Getting Through Membranes 485
Diffusion 485
Osmosis 487
Controlled Methods of Transporting
Molecules 489
20.5 Organelles Composed of
Membranes 491
20.6 Nonmembranous
Organelles 494
20.7 Nuclear Components 496
20.8 Major Cell Types 496
The Prokaryotic Cell Structure 496
A Closer Look: How We Are Related 497
The Eukaryotic Cell Structure 497
A Closer Look: Antibiotics and Cell
Structural Differences 498
Part II Energy Transformations
in Cells 499
20.9 Respiration and
Photosynthesis 499
The Energy Transfer Molecules of
Living Things—ATP 499
Aerobic Cellular Respiration 500
A Closer Look: Stem Cells 502
Photosynthesis 502
Part III Cellular Reproduction 504
20.10 The Importance of Cell
Division 504
20.11 The Cell Cycle 504
20.12 The Stages of Mitosis 505
Prophase 506
Metaphase 506
Anaphase 506
Telophase 506
People Behind the Science: Matthias
Jakob Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann 508

viii Contents

CHAPTER
21
The Origin and Evolution
of Life 512
Outline 512
Part I How Did Life Originate? 513
21.1 Early Attempts to Understand the
Origin of Life 513
21.2 Current Thinking About the
Origin of Life 515
Extraterrestrial or Earth
Origin? 515
Meeting Metabolic Needs 516
Summary of Ideas About the Origin
of Life 517
21.3 Major Events in the Early
Evolution of Living Things 518
Reproduction and the Origin of
Genetic Material 518
The Development of an Oxidizing
Atmosphere 518
The Establishment of Three Major
Domains of Life 519
The Endosymbiotic Theory and the
Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 519
A Summary of the Early Evolution of
Life 520
Part II The Process of Evolution 520
21.4 The Development of Evolutionary
Thought 521
21.5 Evolution and Natural
Selection 523
Defining Evolution 523
The Role of the Environment in
Evolution 523
Natural Selection Leads to
Evolution 524
21.6 Genetic Diversity Is Important for
Natural Selection 524
A Closer Look: The Voyage of HMS Beagle,
1831–1836 525
Genetic Diversity Resulting from
Mutation 526
Genetic Diversity Resulting from
Sexual Reproduction 526
21.7 Processes That Drive Natural
Selection 527
Differential Survival 527
Differential Reproductive Rates 528
Differential Mate Selection 528
21.8 Acquired Characteristics Do Not
Influence Natural Selection 529
21.9 The Hardy-Weinberg
Concept 530
21.10 Accumulating Evidence of
Evolution 531
A Closer Look: The Reemerging of
Infectious Diseases 532
Part III Speciation 533
21.11 Species: A Working
Definition 533
A Closer Look: Human-Designed
Organisms 535
21.12 How New Species Originate 536
The Role of Geographic Isolation
in Speciation 536
The Role of Natural Selection
in Speciation 536
Reproductive Isolation 537
Speciation Without Isolation 537
A Closer Look: Other Mechanisms That
Cause Evolution 538
People Behind the Science:
Ernst Mayr 540
21.13 The Tentative Nature of the
Evolutionary History of
Organisms 540
CHAPTER
22
The History of Life
on Earth 543
Outline 543
22.1 Classification of Organisms 544
The Problem with Common
Names 544
Taxonomy 545
Phylogeny 547
22.2 A Brief Survey of
Biodiversity 551
Domains Bacteria and Archaea 551
A Closer Look: Cladistics—A Tool for
Taxonomy and Phylogeny 552
Domain Eucarya 553
A Closer Look: The World’s Oldest and
Largest Living Organisms 555
22.3 Acellular Infectious Particles 557
Viruses 558
Viroids: Infectious RNA 559
Prions: Infectious Proteins 559
22.4 Geologic Time 559
Early Attempts at Determining
Earth’s Age 559
Modern Techniques for Determining
the Age of Earth 560
Interpreting the Geologic
Record 561
22.5 Geologic Time and the Fossil
Record 563
Early Ideas About Fossils 563
Types of Fossils 564
A Closer Look: What Is Carbon-14
Dating? 565
Using Fossils to Determine the Order
of Geologic Events 567
The Geologic Time Scale 568
22.6 Paleontology, Archaeology, and
Human Evolution 573
A Closer Look: Another Piece of the
Human Evolution Puzzle
Unearthed? 575
Ardipithecus and Other Early
Hominins 576
The Genera Australopithecus and
Paranthropus 577
The Genus Homo 577
Where Did It All Start? 578
People Behind the Science: Lynn
(Alexander) Margulis 579
CHAPTER
23
Ecology and
Environment 582
Outline 582
23.1 A Definition of Environment 583
23.2 The Organization of Ecological
Systems 584
23.3 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 586
23.4 Community Interactions 588
23.5 Types of Terrestrial
Communities 588
Temperate Deciduous Forest 588
Temperate Grassland or
Prairie 590
Savanna 590
Desert 591
Boreal Coniferous Forest 591
Mediterranean Shrublands
(Chaparral) 591
Temperate Rainforest 592
Tundra 592
Tropical Rainforest 592
Tropical Dry Forest 593
23.6 Types of Aquatic Communities 593
Marine Communities 593
Freshwater Communities 593
Estuaries 595
Contents ix
23.7 Individual Species Requirements:
Habitat and Niche 595
Habitat 595
Niche 596
A Closer Look: The Importance of Habitat
Size 597
A Closer Look: Alien Invasion 598
23.8 Kinds of Organism
Interactions 598
Predation 598
Parasitism 598
Commensalism 600
Mutualism 600
Competition 601
Competition and Natural
Selection 601
23.9 The Cycling of Materials in
Ecosystems 602
The Carbon Cycle 602
The Nitrogen Cycle 602
A Closer Look: Scientists Accumulate
Knowledge About Climate
Change 605
The Phosphorus Cycle 605
Nutrient Cycles and Geologic
Time 606
Bioaccumulation and
Biomagnification 606
23.10 Population Characteristics 609
Genetic Differences 609
Age Structure 609
Sex Ratio 609
Population Density 610
23.11 The Population Growth
Curve 611
23.12 Population-Size Limitations 612
23.13 Limiting Factors to Human
Population Growth 613
23.14 Human Population Growth and
the Global Ecosystem 615
People Behind the Science: Dr. Jane
Lubchenco 617
CHAPTER
24
Human Biology: Materials
Exchange and Control
Mechanisms 620
Outline 620
24.1 Homeostasis 621
24.2 Exchanging Materials: Basic
Principles 621
x Contents
24.3 Transporting Materials: The
Circulatory System 622 CHAPTER
The Nature of Blood 622
The Heart 624
Arteries, Veins, and
Capillaries 625
25
24.4 Skin: The Body’s
Container 628
Primary Functions of the Skin 628 Human Biology:
The Structure of the Skin 628 Reproduction 660
Other Features of the Skin 629
24.5 Exchanging Gases: The Outline 660
Respiratory System 630 25.1 Sexual Reproduction 661
Structure and Function of 25.2 The Mechanics of
Lungs 630 Meiosis 664
A Closer Look: Cigarette Smoking and 25.3 Human Sexuality from Different
Your Health 631 Points of View 664
The Mechanism of A Closer Look: The Sexuality
Breathing 631 Spectrum 666
Homeostasis and 25.4 Chromosomal Determination
Breathing 631 of Sex and Early
24.6 Obtaining Nutrients: The Digestive Development 667
System 632 Chromosomal Abnormalities and
Processing Food 632 Sexual Development 667
Nutrient Uptake 634 A Closer Look: Karyotyping and Down
24.7 Nutrition 635 Syndrome 668
Kinds of Nutrients 635 Fetal Sexual Development 669
Guidelines for Obtaining Adequate 25.5 Sexual Maturation of Young
Nutrients 636 Adults 671
A Closer Look: Body Mass Index 638 The Maturation of Females 671
A Closer Look: The Dynamic A Closer Look: Cryptorchidism—Hidden
Skeleton 641 Testes 671
Your Health and Body The Maturation of Males 673
Weight 642 25.6 Spermatogenesis 673
A Closer Look: Exercise: More 25.7 Oogenesis 675
Than Just Maintaining Hormonal Control of Female Sexual
Your Weight 644 Cycles 677
24.8 Waste Disposal: The Excretory 25.8 Hormonal Control of
System 646 Fertility 677
24.9 Control Mechanisms 647 25.9 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and
The Structure of the Nervous Birth 678
System 647 Twins 681
The Nature of the Nerve Birth 681
Impulse 648 25.10 Contraception 682
Activities at the Synapse 648 Chemical Methods 682
Endocrine System Function 650 Hormonal Control
24.10 Sensory Input 651
Methods 682
Chemical Detection 651 Timing Method 684
Light Detection 652 Barrier Methods 684
Sound Detection 653 A Closer Look: Sexually Transmitted
Touch 654 Diseases 685
24.11 Output Mechanisms 654 Surgical Methods 686
Muscles 654 People Behind the Science:
Glands 655 Robert Geoffrey Edwards
Growth Responses 655 and Patrick Christopher
A Closer Look: Which Type of Exercise Do Steptoe 687
You Do? 656 25.11 Termination of
People Behind the Science: Henry Pregnancy 687
Molaison and William Beecher 25.12 Changes in Sexual Function
Scoville 656 with Age 688

CHAPTER
26
Mendelian and Molecular
Genetics 691
Outline 691
26.1 Genetics, Meiosis, and Cells
26.2 Single-Gene Inheritance
Patterns 693
A Closer Look: Geneticists Hard at
Work 694
26.3 A Simple Model of Inheritance—
Dominant and Recessive
Alleles 694
26.4 Mendel’s Laws of Heredity 695
26.5 Steps in Solving Heredity
Problems: Single-Factor
Crosses 696
A Closer Look: Muscular Dystrophy and
Genetics 697
26.6 More Complex Models of
Inheritance 698
X-Linked Genes 698
Codominance 698
Incomplete Dominance 698
Multiple Alleles 699
A Closer Look: Blame That Trait on Your APPENDIX B Solubilities Chart 730
Mother! 699
APPENDIX C Relative Humidity
Polygenic Inheritance 700
Pleiotropy 701
Environmental Influences on Gene
Expression 702
Table 731
APPENDIX D Problem Solving 732
Example Problem 733
Epigenetics and Gene Solution 733
Expression 703 Tips on Taking a Multiple-Choice
26.7 Molecular Basis of Genetics 704 Exam 733
The Structure of DNA and RNA 704 APPENDIX E Solutions for Second
DNA Replication 705 Example Exercises 734
DNA Transcription 708
692 A Closer Look: Basic Steps of APPENDIX F Answers for
Translation 709 Self Check 743
Translation or Protein
APPENDIX G Solutions for Group A
Synthesis 711 Parallel Exercises 744
Alterations of DNA 712
Index 771
26.8 Using DNA to Our
Advantage 713 FRONT OF BOOK
Strategy One: Genetic Modification Conversion Factors
of Organisms 713 Metric Prefixes
Strategy Two: Sequencing 714 Physical Constants
People Behind the Science: Gregor BACK OF BOOK
Johann Mendel 721 Table of Atomic Weights
APPENDIX A Mathematical Periodic Table of the Elements
­Review 724
A.1 Working with Equations 724
A.2 Significant Figures 726
A.3 Conversion of Units 727
A.4 Scientific Notation 728
Contents xi
PREFACE
WHAT SETS THIS BOOK APART?
CREATING INFORMED CITIZENS
Integrated Science is a straightforward, easy-to-read, but sub-
stantial introduction to the fundamental behavior of matter and
energy in living and nonliving systems. It is intended to serve the
needs of nonscience majors who must complete one or more sci-
ence courses as part of a general or basic studies requirement.
Integrated Science provides an introduction to a scientific
way of thinking as it introduces fundamental scientific con-
cepts, often in historical context. Several features of the text
provide opportunities for students to experience the methods of
science by evaluating situations from a scientific point of view.
While technical language and mathematics are important in de-
veloping an understanding of science, only the language and
mathematics needed to develop central concepts are used. No
prior work in science is assumed.
Many features, such as Science and Society readings, as
well as basic discussions of the different branches of science
help students understand how the branches relate. This allows
students to develop an appreciation of the major developments
in science and an ability to act as informed citizens on matters
that involve science and public policy.
FLEXIBLE ORGANIZATION
The Integrated Science sequence of chapters is flexible, and the
instructor can determine topic sequence and depth of coverage
as needed. The materials are also designed to support a concep-
tual approach or a combined conceptual and problem-solving
approach. The Integrated Science Online Learning Center’s
­Instructor’s Resources offer suggestions for integrating the
text’s topics around theme options. With laboratory studies, the
text contains enough material for the instructor to select a se-
quence for a one- or two-semester course.
 HE GOALS OF INTEGRATED
T the characteristics of interdisciplinary science is that it is not
SCIENCE
1. Create an introductory science course aimed at the non-
science major. The origin of this book is rooted in our con-
cern for the education of introductory-level students in the
field of science. Historically, nonscience majors had to en-
roll in courses intended for science or science-related ma-
jors such as premeds, architects, or engineers. Such courses
are important for these majors but are mostly inappropriate
for introductory-level nonscience students. To put a non-
xii
science student in such a course is a mistake. Few students
will have the time or background to move through the facts,
equations, and specialized language to gain any significant
insights into the logic or fundamental understandings; in-
stead, they will leave the course with a distaste for science.
Today, society has a great need for a few technically trained
people but a much larger need for individuals who under-
stand the process of science and its core concepts.
2. Introduce a course that presents a coherent and clear
picture of all science disciplines through an interdisci-
plinary approach. Recent studies and position papers have
called for an interdisciplinary approach to teaching science
to nonmajors. For example, the need is discussed in the
American Association for the Advancement of ­Science’s
book, Science for All Americans, and the ­National Research
Council’s book, A Framework for K–12 Science Education:
Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, both of
which were used in the creation of the most recent version of
the U.S. Next Generation Science Standards. Interdisciplin-
ary science is an attempt to broaden and humanize science
education by reducing and breaking down the barriers that
enclose traditional science disciplines as distinct subjects.
3. Help instructors build their own mix of descriptive and
analytical aspects of science, arousing student interest
and feelings as they help students reach the educational
goals of their particular course. The spirit of interdisci-
plinary science is sometimes found in courses called “Gen-
eral Science,” “Combined Science,” or “Integrated Science.”
These courses draw concepts from a wide range of the tradi-
tional fields of science but are not concentrated around cer-
tain problems or questions. For example, rather than just
dealing with the physics of energy, an interdisciplinary ap-
proach might consider broad aspects of energy—dealing
with potential problems of an energy crisis—including so-
cial and ethical issues. A number of approaches can be used
in interdisciplinary science, including the teaching of sci-
ence in a social, historical, philosophical, or problem-­
solving context, but there is no single best approach. One of
constrained by the necessity of teaching certain facts or by
traditions. It likewise cannot be imposed as a formal disci-
pline, with certain facts to be learned. It is justified by its
success in attracting and holding the attention and interest of
students, making them a little wiser as they make their way
toward various careers and callings.
4. Humanize science for nonscience majors. Each chapter
presents historical background where appropriate, uses every-
day examples in developing concepts, and follows a logi-
cal flow of presentation. A discussion of the people and
events involved in the development of scientific c­ oncepts
 puts a human face on the process of science. The use of
everyday examples appeals to the nonscience major, typi-
cally accustomed to reading narration, not scientific tech-
nical writing, and also tends to bring relevancy to the
material being presented. The logical flow of presentation
is helpful to students not accustomed to thinking about re-
lationships between what is being read and previous knowl-
edge learned, a useful skill in understanding the sciences.
 ALUED INPUT WENT INTO
V SCIENCE
STRIVING TO MEET YOUR
NEEDS
Text development today involves a team that includes authors and
publishers and valuable input from instructors who share their
knowledge and experience with publishers and authors through
reviews and focus groups. Such feedback has shaped this edition,
resulting in reorganization of existing content and expanded cov-
erage in key areas. This text has continued to evolve as a result of
feedback from instructors actually teaching integrated science
courses in the classroom. Reviewers point out that current and
accurate content, a clear writing style with concise explanations,
quality illustrations, and dynamic presentation materials are im-
portant factors considered when evaluating textbooks. Those cri-
teria have guided the revision of the Integrated Science text and
the development of its ancillary resources.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
∙ Many new worked Examples and end-of-chapter Parallel
Exercises have been added, especially in chapters 10 and
12–26, to assist students in exploring the computational
aspects of the chapters. The Examples should aid students
in working the end-of-chapter Parallel Exercises.
∙ A new feature, Science Sketch, engages students in creat-
ing their own explanations and analogies by challenging
them to create visual representations of concepts.
∙ A new feature, Self Checks, allows students to check their
understanding of concepts as they progress through the
chapter.
∙ The illustrations within the biological content have been
revised to reduce their complexity and to better correlate
them to the coverage within the text.
∙ The revised chapter 13 includes many new images and
updated information from the latest space missions. There
are also many new worked Examples to assist students in
exploring the computational aspects of the chapter and in
working the end-of-chapter Parallel Exercises.
∙ The revised chapter 16 contains additional information on
distances in space, with accompanying new worked
Examples and end-of-chapter Parallel Exercises. This
revised chapter also includes updated information on the
future of our universe.
∙ Chapter 17 includes the most recent information on ­climate
change, causes of global climate change, and global warming.
THE LEARNING SYSTEM
To achieve the goals stated, this text includes a variety of fea-
tures that should make students’ study of Integrated Science
more effective and enjoyable. These aids are included to help
you clearly understand the concepts and principles that serve as
the foundation of the integrated sciences.
 VERVIEW TO INTEGRATED
O
Chapter 1 provides an overview or orientation to integrated sci-
ence in general and this text in particular. It also describes the
fundamental methods and techniques used by scientists to study
and understand the world around us.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
CHAPTER OPENING TOOLS
Core Concept and Supporting Concepts
Core and Supporting Concepts integrate the chapter concepts and
the chapter outline. The Core and Supporting Concepts outline
and emphasize the concepts at a chapter level. The supporting
concepts list is designed to help students focus their studies by
identifying the most important topics in the chapter outline.
CONNECTIONS
The relationship of other science disciplines throughout the text
are related to the chapter’s contents. The core concept map, inte-
grated with the chapter outline and supporting concepts list, the
connections list, and overview, help students to see the big pic-
ture of the chapter content and the even bigger picture of how that
content relates to other science discipline areas.
CHAPTER OVERVIEWS
Each chapter begins with an introductory overview. The over-
view previews the chapter’s contents and what students can ex-
pect to learn from reading the chapter. It adds to the general
outline of the chapter by introducing students to the concepts to
be covered. It also expands upon the core concept map, facilitat-
ing in the integration of topics. Finally, the overview will help
students to stay focused and organized while reading the chap-
ter for the first time. After reading this introduction, students
should browse through the chapter, paying particular attention
to the topic headings and illustrations so that they get a feel for
the kinds of ideas included within the chapter.
 PPLYING SCIENCE TO
A
THE REAL WORLD
CONCEPTS APPLIED
As students look through each chapter, they will find one or more
Concepts Applied boxes. These activities are simple exercises
that students can perform at home or in the classroom to
Preface xiii
demonstrate important concepts and reinforce their understand-
ing of them. This feature also describes the application of those
concepts to their everyday lives.
EXAMPLES
Many of the more computational topics discussed within the
chapters contain one or more concrete, worked Examples of a
problem and its solution as it applies to the topic at hand.
Through careful study of these Examples, students can better
appreciate the many uses of problem solving in the sciences.
Follow-up Examples (with their solutions found in appendix E)
allow students to practice their problem-solving skills. The
Examples have been marked as “optional” to allow instructors
to place as much emphasis (or not) on problem solving as
deemed necessary for their courses.
NEW! SCIENCE SKETCHES
The new feature, Science Sketch, found in each chapter, engages
students in creating their own explanations and analogies by chal-
lenging them to create visual representations of concepts.
NEW! SELF CHECKS
The new feature, Self Check, allows students to check their un-
derstanding of concepts as they progress through the chapter.
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
These readings relate the chapter’s content to current societal
issues. Many of these boxes also include Questions to Discuss
that provide students an opportunity to discuss issues with
their peers.
MYTHS, MISTAKES, AND
MISUNDERSTANDINGS
These brief boxes provide short, scientific explanations to dis-
pel a societal myth or a home experiment or project that enables
students to dispel the myth on their own.
PEOPLE BEHIND THE SCIENCE
Many chapters also have one or two fascinating biographies that
spotlight well-known scientists, past and present. From these
People Behind the Science biographies, students learn about
the human side of science: science is indeed relevant, and real
people do the research and make the discoveries. These read-
ings present the sciences in real-life terms that students can
identify with and understand.
CLOSER LOOK AND CONNECTIONS
Each chapter of Integrated Science also includes one or more
Closer Look readings that discuss topics of special human or
environmental concern, topics concerning interesting techno-
xiv Preface
logical applications, or topics on the cutting edge of scientific
research. These readings enhance the learning experience by
taking a more detailed look at related topics and adding con-
crete examples to help students better appreciate the real-world
applications of science.
In addition to the Closer Look readings, each chapter
contains concrete interdisciplinary Connections that are
highlighted. Connections will help students better appreciate
the interdisciplinary nature of the sciences. The Closer Look
and Connections readings are informative materials that are
supplementary in nature. These boxed features highlight valu-
able information beyond the scope of the text and relate intrin-
sic concepts discussed to real-world issues, underscoring the
relevance of integrated science in confronting the many issues
we face in our day-to-day lives. They are identified with the
following icons:
General: This icon identifies interdisciplinary top-
ics that cross over several categories; for example,
life sciences and technology.
Life: This icon identifies interdisciplinary life sci-
ence topics, meaning connections concerning all liv-
ing organisms collectively: plant life, animal life,
marine life, and any other classification of life.
Technology: This icon identifies interdisciplinary
technology topics, that is, connections concerned with
the application of science for the comfort and well-
being of people, especially through industrial and commercial
means.
Measurement, Thinking, Scientific Methods: This
icon identifies interdisciplinary concepts and un-
derstandings concerned with people trying to make
sense out of their surroundings by making observa-
tions, measuring, thinking, developing explanations for what is
observed, and experimenting to test those explanations.
Environmental Science: This icon identifies inter-
disciplinary concepts and understandings about the
problems caused by human use of the natural world
and remedies for those problems.
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES
At the end of each chapter are the following materials:
∙ Summary: highlights the key elements of the chapter
∙ Summary of Equations: highlights the key equations to
­reinforce retention of them
∙ Key Terms: page-referenced where students will find the
terms defined in context
∙ Concept Questions: designed to challenge students to dem-
onstrate their understandings of the topic. Some exercises
include analysis or discussion questions, independent in-
vestigations, and activities intended to emphasize critical
thinking skills and societal issues, and develop a deeper
understanding of the chapter content.
 ∙ Self-Guided Labs: exercises that consist of short, open-
ended activities that allow students to apply investigative
skills to the material in the chapter
∙ Parallel Exercises: There are two groups of parallel exer-
cises, Group A and Group B. The Group A parallel exer-
cises have complete solutions worked out, along with
useful comments. The Group B parallel exercises are
similar to those in Group A but do not contain answers in
the text. By working through the Group A parallel exer-
cises and checking the provided solutions, students will
gain confidence in tackling the parallel exercises in Group B
and thus reinforce their problem-solving skills.
END-OF-TEXT MATERIAL
At the back of the text are appendices that give additional
background details, charts, and answers to chapter exercises.
Appendix E provides solutions for each chapter’s follow-up
Example exercises. There is also an index organized alpha-
betically by subject matter, and special tables are printed on
the pages just inside the covers for reference use.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
PRESENTATION TOOLS
Complete set of electronic book images and assets for instructors.
Build instructional materials wherever, whenever, and however
you want!
Accessed from your textbook’s Connect Instructor’s
­Resources, Presentation Tools is an online digital library
containing photos, artwork, animations, and other media types
that can be used to create customized lectures, visually
­enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites, or
attractive printed support materials. All assets are copyrighted
by McGraw-Hill Higher Education but can be used by instruc-
tors for classroom purposes. The visual resources in this col-
lection include:
∙ Art, Photo, and Table Library: Full-color digital files of
all of the illustrations and tables and many of the photos in
the text can be readily incorporated into lecture presenta-
tions, exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
∙ Animations Library: Files of animations and videos cov-
ering the many topics in Integrated Science are included so
that you can easily make use of these animations in a lec-
ture or classroom setting.
Also residing on your textbook’s Connect Instructor’s R
­ esources
site are:
∙ PowerPoint Slides: For instructors who prefer to create
their lectures from scratch, all illustrations, photos, and
­tables are pre-inserted by chapter into PowerPoint slides.
∙ Lecture Outlines: Lecture notes, incorporating illustra-
tions, have been written to the seventh edition text. They are
provided in PowerPoint format so that you may use these
lectures as written or customize them to fit your lecture.
LABORATORY MANUAL
The laboratory manual, written and classroom-tested by the au-
thors, presents a selection of laboratory exercises specifically
written for the interest and abilities of nonscience majors. Each
lab begins with an open-ended Invitations to Inquiry, designed
to pique student interest in the lab concept. This is followed by
laboratory exercises that require measurement and data analysis
for work in a more structured learning environment. When the
laboratory manual is used with Integrated Science, students will
have an opportunity to master basic scientific principles and
concepts, learn new problem-solving and thinking skills, and
understand the nature of scientific inquiry from the perspective
of hands-on experiences.
Preface xv
 McGraw-Hill Connect® is a highly reliable, easy-to-
use homework and learning management solution
that utilizes learning science and award-winning
adaptive tools to improve student results.

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▪ Connect will create a personalized study path
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▪ The Connect eBook makes it easy for students to
access their reading material on smartphones
and tablets. They can study on the go and don’t
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reference, with full functionality.
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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This revision of Integrated Science has been made possible by
the many users and reviewers of its seventh edition. The authors
are indebted to the seventh edition reviewers for their critical
reviews, comments, and suggestions. The reviewers were:
Sharon A. Conry, Baylor University
Danielle Dalafave, The College of New Jersey
Michele Elmer, Murray State College
Chad Evers, Florida Southwestern State College
Dave Gammon, Elon University
Inge Heyer, Loyola University Maryland
Dianne Jedlicka, DeVry University
Susannah Lomant, Georgia Perimeter College
Don Loving, Murray State College
Henry Miller, Bluefield State College
Winnie Mukami, DeVry University
Maria Neuwirth, DeVry University
Frederick Rogers, Franklin Pierce University
Heather Ryan-Sigler, Lynchburg College
Alexander Smirnov, Dowling College
Carl R. Steffan, University of Jamestown
Nikolaus J. Sucher, Roxbury Community College
Eric Warrick, State College of Florida
The authors would also like to thank Jessica Miles of Palm
Beach State College for her contributions to the LearnSmart
SmartBook.
MEET THE AUTHORS
BILL W. TILLERY
Bill W. Tillery is professor emeritus of physics at Arizona
State University. He earned a bachelor’s degree at North-
eastern State University (1960) and master’s and doctorate
degrees from the University of Northern Colorado (1967).
­Before moving to Arizona State University, he served as direc-
tor of the Science and Mathematics Teaching Center at the
University of Wyoming (1969–1973) and as an assistant
­ B.S. and M.S. from Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan,
­professor at Florida State University (1967–1969). Bill has
served on numerous councils, boards, and committees and was
honored as the “Outstanding University Educator” at the Uni-
versity of Wyoming in 1972. He was elected the “Outstanding
Teacher” in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Ari-
zona State University in 1995.
During his time at Arizona State, Bill has taught a variety
of courses, including general education courses in science and
society, physical science, and introduction to physics. He has
received more than forty grants from the National Science
Foundation, the U.S. Office of Education, private industry
(Arizona Public Service), and private foundations (Flinn Foun-
dation) for science curriculum development and science teacher
in-service training. In addition to teaching and grant work, Bill
has authored or co-authored more than sixty textbooks and
many monographs, and has served as editor of three newsletters
and journals between 1977 and 1996.
xviii Preface
ELDON D. ENGER
Eldon D. Enger is professor emeritus of biology at Delta Col-
lege, a community college near Saginaw, Michigan. He received
his B.A. and M.S. degrees from the University of Michigan.
Professor Enger has over thirty years of teaching experience,
during which he has taught biology, zoology, environmental
science, and several other courses. He has been very active in
curriculum and course development.
Professor Enger is an advocate for variety in teaching
methodology. He feels that if students are provided with varied
experiences, they are more likely to learn. In addition to the
standard textbook assignments, lectures, and laboratory activi-
ties, his classes are likely to include writing assignments, stu-
dent presentation of lecture material, debates by students on
controversial issues, field experiences, individual student proj-
ects, and discussions of local examples and relevant current
events. Textbooks are very valuable for presenting content, es-
pecially if they contain accurate, informative drawings and vi-
sual examples. Lectures are best used to help students see
themes and make connections, and laboratory activities provide
important hands-on activities.
Professor Enger has been a Fulbright Exchange Teacher to
Australia and Scotland, received the Bergstein Award for
Teaching Excellence and the Scholarly Achievement Award from
Delta College, and participated as a volunteer in Earthwatch
Research Programs in Costa Rica, the Virgin Islands, and
Australia. During 2001, he was a member of a People to People
delegation to South Africa.
Professor Enger is married, has two adult sons, and enjoys
a variety of outdoor pursuits such as cross-country skiing, hik-
ing, hunting, kayaking, fishing, camping, and gardening. Other
interests include reading a wide variety of periodicals, beekeep-
ing, singing in a church choir, and preserving garden produce.
FREDERICK C. ROSS
Fred Ross is professor emeritus of biology at Delta College, a
community college near Saginaw, Michigan. He received his
and has attended several other universities and institutions.
Professor Ross has thirty years’ teaching experience, including
junior and senior high school, during which he has taught biol-
ogy, cell biology and biological chemistry, microbiology, envi-
ronmental science, and zoology. He has been very active in
curriculum and course development. These activities included
the development of courses in infection control and microbiol-
ogy, and AIDS and infectious diseases, and a PBS ScienceLine
course for elementary and secondary education majors in
cooperation with Central Michigan University. In addition, he
was involved in the development of the wastewater microbiol-
ogy technician curriculum offered by Delta College.
He was also actively involved in the National Task Force of
Two Year College Biologists (American Institute of Biological
Sciences) and in the National Science Foundation College
­Science Improvement Program, and has been an evaluator for
science and engineering fairs, Michigan Community College
Biologists, a judge for the Michigan Science Olympiad and the
Science Bowl, a member of a committee to develop and update
blood-borne pathogen standards protocol, and a member of
Topic Outlines in Introductory Microbiology Study Group of
the American Society for Microbiology.
Professor Ross involves his students in a variety of learning
techniques and has been a prime advocate of the writing-to-
learn approach. Besides writing, his students are typically en-
gaged in active learning techniques including use of
inquiry-based learning, the Internet, e-mail communications,
field experiences, classroom presentation, as well as lab work.
The goal of his classroom presentations and teaching is to ac-
tively engage the minds of his students in understanding the
material, not just memorization of “scientific facts.” Professor
Ross is married and recently a grandfather. He enjoys sailing,
horseback riding, and cross-country skiing.
STEPHANIE J. SLATER
Stephanie Slater is the Director of the CAPER Center for As-
tronomy & Physics Education Research. After undergraduate
studies at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and graduate
work at Montana State University, Dr. Slater earned her Ph.D.
from the University of Arizona in the Department of Teaching,
Learning and Sociocultural Studies studying how undergradu-
ate research experiences influence the professional career path-
ways of women scientists. Dr. Slater was selected as the
American Physical Society’s Woman Physicist of the Month in
December 2013 and received both NASA Top Star and NASA
Gold Star Education awards.
With more than twenty years of teaching experience,
Dr. Slater has written science textbooks for undergraduate
classes and books on education research design and methods for
graduate courses. Her work on educational innovations has been
funded by the National Science Foundation and NASA, and she
serves on numerous science education and outreach committees
for the American Association of Physics Teachers, the American
Physical Society, the American Geophysical Union, and the
American Institute of Physics, among others. She is also a
­frequent lecturer at science fiction conventions, illustrating how
science fiction books, television series, and movies describe
how humans interact at the intersection of science and culture.
TIMOTHY F. SLATER
Tim Slater has been the University of Wyoming Excellence in
Higher Education Endowed Professor of Science Education
since 2008. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of
­Wyoming, he was an astronomer at the University of Arizona
from 2001–2008 where he was the first professor in the United
States to earn tenure in a top-ranked Astronomy Department on
the basis of his scholarly publication and grant award record in
astronomy education research. From 1996–2001, he was a re-
search professor of physics at Montana State University.
Dr. Slater earned a Ph.D. at the University of South Caro-
lina, an M.S. at Clemson University, and two bachelor’s degrees
at Kansas State University. He is widely known as the “pro­
fessor’s professor” because of the hundreds of college teach-
ing talks and workshops he has given to thousands of
professors on innovative teaching methods. Dr. Slater serves
as the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Astronomy & Earth
Sciences Education and was the initial U.S. Chairman of the
International Year of Astronomy. An avid motorcycle rider,
he is the author of 13 books, has written more than 100 peer-
reviewed journal articles, and been the recipient of numerous
teaching awards.
Preface xix
 1 What Is Science?
CORE CONCEPT
Science is a way of thinking about and understanding your
surroundings.
An equation is a
statement of a
relationship between
variables.
Pg. 11
Science is concerned
with your surroundings Scientific laws describe
and your concepts and relationships between
understanding of these events that happen
1.8 Science, Nonscience, and Pseudoscience
surroundings. time after time.
Pg. 15
©Brand X Pictures/
Getty Images RF
People Behind the Science: Florence Bascom
OUTLINE
1.1 Objects and Properties
1.2 Quantifying Properties Measurement is used
1.3 Measurement Systems to accurately describe
1.4 Standard Units for the Metric System properties and events.
Length Pg. 4
Mass
Time
1.5 Metric Prefixes
1.6 Understandings from Measurements
Data
Ratios and Generalizations
The Density Ratio Science investigations
Symbols and Equations include collecting
1.7 The Nature of Science observations,
The Scientific Method
developing
Explanations and Investigations
explanations, and
Scientific Laws
testing explanations.
Models and Theories
Pg. 13
From Experimentation to Application
Science and Nonscience
Pseudoscience
Limitations of Science
 CONNECTIONS

Physics Earth Science

⊲ Energy flows in and out of your surroundings (Ch. 2–7).
Chemistry
⊲ Matter is composed of atoms that interact on several
different levels (Ch. 8–11).
⊲ Earth is matter and energy that interact through cycles of
change (Ch. 14–18).
Astronomy
⊲ The stars and solar system are matter and energy that
interact through cycles of change (Ch. 12–13).

OVERVIEW
Have you ever thought about your thinking and what you know? On a very simplified level, you could say that everything
you know came to you through your senses. You see, hear, and touch things of your choosing, and you can smell and
taste things in your surroundings. Information is gathered and sent to your brain by your sense organs. Somehow, your
brain processes all this information in an attempt to find order and make sense of it all. Finding order helps you
understand the world and what may be happening at a particular place and time. Finding order also helps you predict
what may happen next.
This is a book on thinking about and understanding your surroundings. These surroundings range from the obvious,
such as the landscape and the day-to-day weather, to the not so obvious, such as how atoms are put together. Your
surroundings include natural things as well as things that people have made and used (figure 1.1). You will learn how to
think about your surroundings, whatever your previous experience with thought-demanding situations. This first chapter
is about “tools and rules” that you will use in the thinking process. We will focus on describing your world in terms of how
many, how big, how far, and how things change.

1.1 OBJECTS AND PROPERTIES
Science is concerned with making sense out of the environment.
The early stages of this “search for sense” usually involve objects
in the environment, things that can be seen or touched. These
could be objects you see every day, such as a glass of water, a
moving automobile, or a running dog. They could be quite large,
such as the Sun, the Moon, or even the solar system, or invisible
to the unaided human eye. Objects can be any size, but people are
usually concerned with objects that are larger than a pinhead and
smaller than a house. Outside these limits, the actual size of an
object is difficult for most people to comprehend.
As you were growing up, you learned to form a generalized
mental image of objects called a concept. Your concept of an ob-
ject is an idea of what it is, in general, or what it should be accord-
ing to your idea (figure 1.2). You usually have a word stored away
in your mind that represents a concept. The word chair, for exam-
ple, probably evokes an idea of “something to sit on.” Your gener-
alized mental image for the concept that goes with the word chair
probably includes a four-legged object with a backrest. Upon
close inspection, most of your (and everyone else’s) concepts are
found to be somewhat vague. For example, if the word chair
brings forth a mental image of something with four legs and a
backrest (the concept), what is the difference between a “high
chair” and a “bar stool”? When is a chair a chair and not a stool?
These kinds of questions can be troublesome for many people.
Not all of your concepts are about material objects. You
also have concepts about intangibles such as time, motion, and
relationships between events. As was the case with concepts of
material objects, words represent the existence of intangible
concepts. For example, the words second, hour, day, and month
represent concepts of time. A concept of the pushes and pulls
that come with changes of motion during an airplane flight
might be represented with such words as accelerate and falling.
Intangible concepts might seem to be more abstract since they
do not represent material objects.
By the time you reach adulthood, you have literally thou-
sands of words to represent thousands of concepts. But most,
you would find on inspection, are somewhat ambiguous and not
at all clear-cut. That is why you find it necessary to talk about
certain concepts for a minute or two to see if the other person
has the same “concept” for words as you do. That is why when

2 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?

 FIGURE 1.2 What is your concept of a chair? Is this a picture of
a row of chairs, or are they something else? Most people have
FIGURE 1.1 Your surroundings include naturally occurring ob- ­concepts—or ideas of what things in general should be—that are
jects and manufactured objects such as sidewalks and walls. ©Photo- loosely defined. The concept of a chair is one example, and this is a
disc/Getty Images RF picture of a row of beach chairs. ©rolfo/Getty Images RF

one person says, “Wow, was it hot today!” the other person may
respond, “How hot was it?” The meaning of hot can be quite
different for two people, especially if one is from the deserts of
Arizona and the other from snow-covered Alaska!
The problem with words, concepts, and mental images can
be illustrated by imagining a situation involving you and another
person. Suppose that you have found a rock that you believe
would make a great bookend. Suppose further that you are talk-
ing to the other person on the telephone, and you want to discuss
the suitability of the rock as a bookend, but you do not know the
name of the rock. If you knew the name, you would simply state
that you found a “ .” Then you would probably discuss
the rock for a minute or so to see if the other person really under-
stood what you were talking about. But not knowing the name of
the rock and wanting to communicate about the suitability of the
object as a bookend, what would you do? You would probably
describe the characteristics, or properties, of the rock. Proper-
ties are the qualities or attributes that, taken together, are usually
peculiar to an object. Since you commonly determine properties
FIGURE 1.3 Could you describe this rock to another person
with your senses (smell, sight, hearing, touch, and taste), you over the telephone so that the other person would know exactly
could say that the properties of an object are the effect the object what you see? This is not likely with everyday language, which is full
has on your senses. For example, you might say that the rock in of implied comparisons, assumptions, and inaccurate descriptions.
figure 1.3 is “big, yellow, and smooth, with shiny gold cubes on ©Bill W. Tillery

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 3

one side.” But consider the mental image that the other person
on the telephone forms when you describe these properties. It is
entirely possible that the other person is thinking of something
very different from what you are describing!
As you can see, the example of describing a proposed
bookend by listing its properties in everyday language leaves
much to be desired. The description does not really help the other
person form an accurate mental image of the rock. One problem
with the attempted communication is that the description of any
property implies some kind of referent. The word referent means
that you refer to, or think of, a given property in terms of another,
more familiar object. Colors, for example, are sometimes stated
with a referent. Examples are “sky blue,” “grass green,” or “lemon
yellow.” The referents for the colors blue, green, and yellow are,
respectively, the sky, living grass, and a ripe lemon.
Referents for properties are not always as explicit as they
are with colors, but a comparison is always implied. Since the
comparison is implied, it often goes unspoken and leads to as-
sumptions in communications. For example, when you stated
that the rock was “big,” you assumed that the other person knew
that you did not mean as big as a house or even as big as a bicy-
cle. You assumed that the other person knew that you meant
that the rock was about as large as a book, perhaps a bit larger.
SELF CHECK
1.1 The process of comparing a property of an object to
a well-defined and agreed-upon referent is called the
process of
a. generalizing.
b. measurement.
c. graphing.
d. scientific investigation.
Another problem with the listed properties of the rock is
the use of the word smooth. The other person would not know if
you meant that the rock looked smooth or felt smooth. After all,
some objects can look smooth and feel rough. Other objects can
look rough and feel smooth. Thus, here is another assumption,
CONCEPTS APPLIED
Communication Without Measurement
1. Find out how people communicate about the properties
of objects. Ask several friends to describe a paper clip
while their hands are behind their backs. Perhaps they
can do better describing a goatee? Try to make a
sketch that represents each description.
2. Ask two classmates to sit back to back. Give one of
them a sketch or photograph that shows an object in
some detail, perhaps a guitar or airplane. This person
is to describe the properties of the object without
naming it. The other person is to make a scaled sketch
from the description. Compare the sketch to the
description; then see how the use of measurement
would improve the communication.
4 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
and probably all of the properties lead to implied comparisons,
assumptions, and a not very accurate communication. This is
the nature of your everyday language and the nature of most
attempts at communication.
1.2 QUANTIFYING PROPERTIES
Typical day-to-day communications are often vague and leave
much to be assumed. A communication between two people, for
example, could involve one person describing some person, ob-
ject, or event to a second person. The description is made by
using referents and comparisons that the second person may or
may not have in mind. Thus, such attributes as “long” finger-
nails or “short” hair may have entirely different meanings to
different people involved in a conversation.
SCIENCE SKETCH
On a piece of paper with two outlines of your hand traced
on it with a pencil, illustrate and label what is meant by the
referents “short” and “long” fingernails.
Assumptions and vagueness can be avoided by using meas-
urement in a description. Measurement is a process of compar-
ing a property to a well-defined and agreed-upon referent. The
well-defined and agreed-upon referent is used as a standard
called a unit. The measurement process involves three steps:
(1) comparing the referent unit to the property being described,
(2) following a procedure, or operation, which specifies how
the comparison is made, and (3) counting how many standard
units describe the property being considered.
The measurement process thus uses a defined referent unit,
which is compared to a property being measured. The value of
the property is determined by counting the number of referent
units. The name of the unit implies the procedure that results in
the number. A measurement statement always contains a number
and name for the referent unit. The number answers the question
“How much?” and the name answers the question “Of what?”
Thus a measurement always tells you “how much of what.” You
will find that using measurements will sharpen your communica-
tions. You will also find that using measurements is one of the
first steps in understanding your physical environment.
1.3 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Measurement is a process that brings precision to a description
by specifying the “how much” and “of what” of a property in a
particular situation. A number expresses the value of the prop-
erty, and the name of a unit tells you what the referent is, as well
as implying the procedure for obtaining the number. Referent
units must be defined and established, however, if others are to
understand and reproduce a measurement. It would be meaning-
less, for example, for you to talk about a length in “clips” if other
people did not know what you meant by a “clip” unit. When
 50 leagues Yard
130 nautical miles
150 miles Cubit
158 Roman miles Inch
1,200 furlongs
12,000 chains
48,000 rods
452,571 cubits
792,000 feet

FIGURE 1.4 Any of these units and values could have been Fathom
used at some time or another to describe the same distance be-
tween these hypothetical towns. Any unit could be used for this pur-
pose, but when one particular unit is officially adopted, it becomes
known as the standard unit.

standards are established, the referent unit is called a standard

unit (figure 1.4). The use of standard units makes it possible to
communicate and duplicate measurements. Standard units are
usually defined and established by governments and their agen-
cies that are created for that purpose. In the United States, the
agency concerned with measurement standards is the National
1,000 double paces = 1 mile
Institute of Standards and Technology. In Canada, the Standards
Council of Canada oversees the National Standard System. Foot
There are two major systems of standard units in use today,
the English system and the metric system. The metric system is
used in all industrialized countries except the United States, FIGURE 1.5 Many early units for measurement were originally
where both systems are in use. The continued use of the English based on the human body. Some of the units were later standardized
system in the United States presents problems in international by governments to become the basis of the English system of
trade, so there is pressure for a complete conversion to the met- measurement.
ric system. More and more metric units are being used in every-
day measurements, but a complete conversion will involve an Treaty of the Meter, defining the English units in terms of the
enormous cost. Appendix A contains a method for converting metric system. The United States thus became officially metric
from one system to the other easily. Consult this section if you but not entirely metric in everyday practice.
need to convert from one metric unit to another metric unit or to The metric system was established by the French Academy
convert from English to metric units or vice versa. of Sciences in 1791. The academy created a measurement sys-
People have used referents to communicate about proper- tem that was based on invariable referents in nature, not human
ties of things throughout human history. The ancient Greek civ- body parts. These referents have been redefined over time to
ilization, for example, used units of stadia to communicate make the standard units more reproducible. In 1960, six standard
about distances and elevations. The “stadium” was a unit of metric units were established by international agreement. The
length of the racetrack at the local stadium (stadia is the plural International System of Units, abbreviated SI, is a modernized
of stadium), based on a length of 125 paces. Later civilizations, version of the metric system. Today, the SI system has seven
such as the ancient Romans, adopted the stadia and other refer- units that define standards for the properties of length, mass,
ent units from the ancient Greeks. Some of these same referent time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, and
units were later adopted by the early English civilization, which light intensity (table 1.1). The standard units for the properties of
eventually led to the English system of measurement. Some
adopted units of the English system were originally based on TABLE 1.1
parts of the human body, presumably because you always had The SI Standard Units
these referents with you (figure 1.5). The inch, for example,
used the end joint of the thumb for a referent. A foot, naturally, Property Unit Symbol
was the length of a foot, and a yard was the distance from the tip Length meter m
of the nose to the end of the fingers on an arm held straight out.
Mass kilogram kg
A cubit was the distance from the end of an elbow to the finger-
Time second s
tip, and a fathom was the distance between the fingertips of
two arms held straight out. As you can imagine, there were Electric current ampere A
problems with these early units because everyone was not the Temperature kelvin K
same size. Beginning in the 1300s, the sizes of the units were Amount of substance mole mol
gradually standardized by various English kings. In 1879, the Luminous intensity candela cd
United States, along with sixteen other countries, signed the

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 5

length, mass, and time are introduced in this chapter. The re-
maining units will be introduced in later chapters as the proper-
ties they measure are discussed.
1.4 STANDARD UNITS
FOR THE METRIC SYSTEM
If you consider all the properties of all the objects and events in
your surroundings, the number seems overwhelming. Yet, close
inspection of how properties are measured reveals that some
properties are combinations of other properties (figure 1.6).
Volume, for example, is described by the three length mea-
surements of length, width, and height. Area, on the other
hand, is described by just the two length measurements of
length and width. Length, however, cannot be defined in sim-
pler terms of any other property. There are four properties
that cannot be described in simpler terms, and all other prop-
erties are combinations of these four. For this reason they are
called the fundamental properties. A fundamental property
cannot be defined in simpler terms other than to describe how
it is measured. These four fundamental properties are (1) length,
(2) mass, (3) time, and (4) charge. Used individually or in
combinations, these four properties will describe or measure
what you observe in nature. Metric units for measuring the
fundamental properties of length, mass, and time will be de-
scribed next. The fourth fundamental property, charge, is as-
sociated with electricity, and a unit for this property will be
discussed in chapter 6.
LENGTH
The standard unit for length in the metric system is the meter
(the symbol or abbreviation is m). A meter is defined in terms
of the distance that light travels in a vacuum during a certain
time period, 1/299,792,458 second. The important thing to re-
member, however, is that the meter is the metric standard unit
Length
Height
Width
Area Volume
Width
Length Length
A=LxW V=LxWxH
FIGURE 1.6 Area, or the extent of a surface, can be described
by two length measurements. Volume, or the space that an object
occupies, can be described by three length measurements. Length,
however, can be described only in terms of how it is measured, so it
is called a fundamental property.
6 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
for length. A meter is slightly longer than a yard, 39.3 inches. It
is approximately the distance from your left shoulder to the tip
of your right hand when your arm is held straight out. Many
doorknobs are about 1 meter above the floor. Think about these
distances when you are trying to visualize a meter length.
SELF CHECK
1.2 The height of an average person is closest to
a. 1.0 m.
b. 1.5 m.
c. 2.5 m.
d. 3.5 m.
MASS
The standard unit for mass in the metric system is the kilogram
(kg). The kilogram is defined as the mass of a certain metal
cylinder kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Mea-
sures in France. This is the only standard unit that is still de-
fined in terms of an object. The property of mass is sometimes
confused with the property of weight since they are directly
proportional to each other at a given location on the surface of
the Earth. They are, however, two completely different proper-
ties and are measured with different units. All objects tend to
maintain their state of rest or straight-line motion, and this
property is called “inertia.” The mass of an object is a measure
of the inertia of an object. The weight of the object is a measure
of the force of gravity on it. This distinction between weight and
mass will be discussed in detail in chapter 2. For now, remem-
ber that weight and mass are not the same property.
TIME
The standard unit for time is the second (s). The second was
originally defined as 1/86,400 of a solar day (1/60 × 1/60 ×
1/24). Earth’s spin was found not to be as constant as originally
thought, so the second was redefined to be the duration required
for a certain number of vibrations of a specific type of cesium
atom. A special spectrometer called an “atomic clock” mea-
sures these vibrations and keeps time with an accuracy of sev-
eral millionths of a second per year.
SELF CHECK
1.3 Which of the following standard units is defined in
terms of an object as opposed to an event?
a. kilogram
b. meter
c. second
d. none of the above
1.5 METRIC PREFIXES 1 meter

The metric system uses prefixes to represent larger or smaller

amounts by factors of 10. Some of the more commonly used
prefixes, their abbreviations, and their meanings are listed in
1 decimeter
table 1.2. Suppose you wish to measure something smaller than
the standard unit of length, the meter. The meter is subdivided
into ten equal-sized subunits called decimeters. The prefix
deci- has a meaning of “one-tenth of,” and it takes 10 decime-
ters to equal the length of 1 meter. For even smaller measure-
ments, each decimeter is divided into ten equal-sized subunits 1 centimeter
called centimeters. It takes 10 centimeters to equal 1 decimeter
and 100 centimeters to equal 1 meter. In a similar fashion, each
prefix up or down the metric ladder represents a simple increase
or decrease by a factor of 10 (figure 1.7).
When the metric system was established in 1791, the stand-
ard unit of mass was defined in terms of the mass of a certain
volume of water. A cubic decimeter (dm3) of pure water at 4°C 1 millimeter
was defined to have a mass of 1 kilogram (kg). This definition
FIGURE 1.7 Compare the units shown above. How many
was convenient because it created a relationship between length, ­ illimeters fit into the space occupied by 1 centimeter? How many
m
mass, and volume. As illustrated in figure 1.8, a cubic decimeter millimeters fit into the space of 1 decimeter? Can you express this as
is 10 cm on each side. The volume of this cube is therefore 10 multiples of ten?
cm × 10 cm × 10 cm, or 1,000 cubic centimeters (abbreviated as
cc or cm3). Thus, a volume of 1,000 cm3 of water has a mass of
1 kg. Since 1 kg is 1,000 g, 1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1 g. 1 decimeter
The volume of 1,000 cm3 also defines a metric unit that is ( 10 centimeters)
1 cm3
commonly used to measure liquid volume, the liter (L). For 1 mL H2O
smaller amounts of liquid volume, the milliliter (mL) is used. 1 g H2O
The relationship between liquid volume, volume, and mass of
water is therefore
1 dm3 (1,000 cm3)
1.0 L → 1.0 dm3 and has a mass of 1.0 kg By definition:
1 kg H2O
or, for smaller amounts, 1 L H2O

1.0 mL → 1.0 cm3 and has a mass of 1.0 g

1 decimeter
TABLE 1.2 ( 10 centimeters)
Some Metric Prefixes
FIGURE 1.8 A cubic decimeter of water (1,000 cm3) has a liquid
Prefix Symbol Meaning volume of 1 L (1,000 mL) and a mass of 1 kg (1,000 g). Therefore,
1 cm3 of water has a liquid volume of 1 mL and a mass of 1 g.
tera- T 1012 (1,000,000,000,000 times the unit)
giga- G 109 (1,000,000,000 times the unit)
mega- M 106 (1,000,000 times the unit)
kilo- k 103 (1,000 times the unit)
SELF CHECK
hecto- h 102 (100 times the unit)
1.4 One-half liter of water has a mass of
deka- da 101 (10 times the unit) a. 0.5 g.
Unit b. 5 g.
deci- d 10−1 (0.1 of the unit) c. 50 g.
d. 500 g.
centi- c 10−2 (0.01 of the unit)
milli- m 10−3 (0.001 of the unit) 1.5 A cubic centimeter (cm3) of water has a mass of about 1
a. mL.
micro- μ 10−6 (0.000001 of the unit)
b. kg.
nano- n 10−9 (0.000000001 of the unit) c. g.
pico- p 10−12 (0.000000000001 of the unit) d. dm.

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 7

1.6 
UNDERSTANDINGS
FROM MEASUREMENTS
One of the more basic uses of measurement is to describe some-
thing in an exact way that everyone can understand. For exam-
ple, if a friend in another city tells you that the weather has been
“warm,” you might not understand what temperature is being
described. A statement that the air temperature is 70°F carries
more exact information than a statement about “warm weather.”
The statement that the air temperature is 70°F contains two
important concepts: (1) the numerical value of 70 and (2) the
referent unit of degrees Fahrenheit. Note that both a numerical
value and a unit are necessary to communicate a measurement
correctly. Thus, weather reports describe weather conditions
with numerically specified units; for example, 70° Fahrenheit
for air temperature, 5 miles per hour for wind speed, and
0.5 inch for rainfall (figure 1.9). When such numerically speci-
fied units are used in a description, or a weather report, everyone
understands exactly the condition being described.
DATA
Measurement information used to describe something is called
data. Data can be used to describe objects, conditions, events,
or changes that might be occurring. You really do not know if
the weather is changing much from year to year until you com-
pare the yearly weather data. The data will tell you, for exam-
ple, if the weather is becoming hotter or drier or is staying
about the same from year to year.
Let’s see how data can be used to describe something and
how the data can be analyzed for further understanding. The
cubes illustrated in figure 1.10 will serve as an example. Each
cube can be described by measuring the properties of size and
surface area.
First, consider the size of each cube. Size can be described
by volume, which means how much space something occupies.
The volume of a cube can be obtained by measuring and multi-
plying the length, width, and height. The data is
volume of cube a  1 cm3
volume of cube b  8 cm3
volume of cube c 27 cm3
Weather Report
Friday (24 hours ended at 5 P.M.)
Highs—airport 73°F, downtown 76°F
Lows—airport 68°F, downtown 70°F
Rainfall ..................................... 0.26 in
Average wind speed .......... 5.2 mph
Relative humidity ............. High 85%
Low 75%
Rainfall ± normal to date.....+0.94 in
FIGURE 1.9 A weather report gives exact information, data that
describe the weather by reporting numerically specified units for
each condition.
8 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
a
b
1 centimeter
c
2 centimeters
3 centimeters
FIGURE 1.10 Cube a is 1 centimeter on each side, cube b is
2 centimeters on each side, and cube c is 3 centimeters on each side.
These three cubes can be described and compared with data, or
measurement information, but some form of analysis is needed to
find patterns or meaning in the data.
Now consider the surface area of each cube. Area means
the extent of a surface, and each cube has six surfaces, or faces
(top, bottom, and four sides). The area of any face can be ob-
tained by measuring and multiplying length and width. The
data for the three cubes thus describes them as follows:
Volume Surface Area
cube a 1 cm3   6 cm2
cube b 8 cm3 24 cm2
cube c 27 cm3 54 cm2
SELF CHECK
1.6 The property of volume is a measure of
a. how much matter an object contains.
b. how much space an object occupies.
c. the compactness of matter in a certain size.
d. the area on the outside surface.
RATIOS AND GENERALIZATIONS
Data on the volume and surface area of the three cubes in
­figure 1.10 describes the cubes, but whether it says anything
about a relationship between the volume and surface area of a
cube is difficult to tell. Nature seems to have a tendency to
camouflage relationships, making it difficult to extract mean-
ing from raw data. Seeing through the camouflage requires the
use of mathematical techniques to expose patterns. Let’s see
how such techniques can be applied to the data on the three
cubes and what the pattern means.
One mathematical technique for reducing data to a more
manageable form is to expose patterns through a ratio. A ratio
is a relationship between two numbers obtained when one num-
ber is divided by another number. Suppose, for example, that an
instructor has 50 sheets of graph paper for a laboratory group of
25 students. The relationship, or ratio, between the number of
sheets and the number of students is 50 papers to 25 students,
and this can be written as 50 papers/25 students. This ratio is
simplified by dividing 25 into 50, and the ratio becomes SELF CHECK
2 ­papers/1 student. The 1 is usually understood (not stated), and
1.7 As the volume of a cube becomes larger and larger,
the ratio is written as simply 2 papers/student. It is read as
the surface-area-to-volume ratio
2 ­papers “for each” student, or 2 papers “per” student. The con- a. increases.
cept of simplifying with a ratio is an important one, and you b. decreases.
will see it time and time again throughout science. It is impor- c. remains the same.
tant that you understand the meaning of per and for each when d. sometimes increases and sometimes decreases.
used with numbers and units.
Applying the ratio concept to the three cubes in figure 1.10,
the ratio of surface area to volume for the smallest cube, cube a, THE DENSITY RATIO
is 6 cm2 to 1 cm3, or
6 cm2 cm2 The power of using a ratio to simplify things, making explana-
= 6
1 cm3 cm3 tions more accessible, is evident when you compare the simpli-
fied ratio 6 to 3 to 2 with the hodgepodge of numbers that you
meaning there are 6 square centimeters of area for each cubic
would have to consider without using ratios. The power of using
centimeter of volume.
the ratio technique is also evident when considering other proper-
The middle-sized cube, cube b, had a surface area of 24 cm2
ties of matter. Volume is a property that is sometimes confused
and a volume of 8 cm3. The ratio of surface area to volume for
with mass. Larger objects do not necessarily contain more matter
this cube is therefore
than smaller objects. A large balloon, for example, is much larger
24 cm2 cm2 than this book, but the book is much more massive than the bal-
=3 loon. The simplified way of comparing the mass of a particular
8 cm 3
cm3
volume is to find the ratio of mass to volume. This ratio is called
meaning there are 3 square centimeters of area for each cubic density, which is defined as mass per unit volume. The per means
centimeter of volume. “for each,” as previously discussed, and unit means “one,” or
The largest cube, cube c, had a surface area of 54 cm2 and “each.” Thus “mass per unit volume” literally means the “mass of
a volume of 27 cm3. The ratio is one volume” (figure 1.11). The relationship can be written as
54 cm2 cm2 mass
= 2 density =
27 cm3 cm3 volume
or 2 square centimeters of area for each cubic centimeter of or
volume. Summarizing the ratio of surface area to volume for all
three cubes, you have m
ρ= equation 1.1
V
small cube a 6:1
(ρ is the symbol for the Greek letter rho.)
middle cube b 3:1
large cube c 2:1
Now that you have simplified the data through ratios, you 1 cm 1 cm
are ready to generalize about what the information means. You
Gold Iron
can generalize that the surface-area-to-volume ratio of a cube
decreases as the volume of a cube becomes larger. Reasoning
from this generalization will provide an explanation for a num- 19.3 g 7.9 g
ber of related observations. For example, why does crushed ice
melt faster than a single large block of ice with the same vol-
ume? The explanation is that the crushed ice has a larger
surface-area-to-volume ratio than the large block, so more
surface is exposed to warm air. If the generalization is found to
be true for shapes other than cubes, you could explain why a 1 cm 1 cm
log chopped into small chunks burns faster than the whole log. Water Air
Further generalizing might enable you to predict if large pota-
toes would require more or less peeling than the same weight
of small potatoes. When generalized explanations result in pre- 1.0 g 0.0013 g
dictions that can be verified by experience, you gain confi- FIGURE 1.11 Equal volumes of different substances do not
dence in the explanation. Finding patterns of relationships is a have the same mass, as these cube units show. Calculate the densi-
satisfying intellectual adventure that leads to understanding ties in g/m3. Do equal volumes of different substances have the
and generalizations that are frequently practical. same density? Explain.

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 9

 If matter is distributed the same throughout a volume, the
TABLE 1.3 ratio of mass to volume will remain the same no matter what
Densities of Some Common Substances mass and volume are being measured. Thus, a teaspoonful, a
Density (ρ)
cup, or a lake full of freshwater at the same temperature will all
Substance (g/cm3) have a density of about 1 g/cm3 or 1 kg/L.

Aluminum 2.70
Copper 8.96
SELF CHECK
Iron 7.87 1.8 If you consider a very small portion of a material that
Lead 11.4 is the same throughout, the density of the small
Water 1.00 ­sample will be
Seawater 1.03 a. much less.
b. slightly less.
Mercury 13.6
c. the same.
Gasoline 0.680 d. greater.

As with other ratios, density is obtained by dividing one num- EXAMPLE 1.1 (Optional)
ber and unit by another number and unit. Thus, the density of an Two blocks are on a table. Block A has a volume of 30.0 cm3 and a
object with a volume of 5 cm3 and a mass of 10 g is mass of 81.0 g. Block B has a volume of 50.0 cm3 and a mass of 135 g.
Which block has the greater density? If the two blocks have the same
10 g g density, what material are they? (See table 1.3.)
density = =2
5 cm3 cm3
The density in this example is the ratio of 10 g to 5 cm3, or SOLUTION
10 g/5 cm3, or 2 g to 1 cm3. Thus, the density of the example ob- Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance per unit vol-
ject is the mass of one volume (a unit volume), or 2 g for each cm3. ume. Assuming the mass is distributed equally throughout the volume,
Any unit of mass and any unit of volume may be used to you could assume that the ratio of mass to volume is the same no mat-
express density. The densities of solids, liquids, and gases are ter what quantity of mass and volume are measured. If you can accept
usually expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3), but this assumption, you can use equation 1.1 to determine the density:
the densities of liquids are sometimes expressed in grams per Block A
milliliter (g/mL). Using SI standard units, densities are ex- mass (m) = 81.0 g m
ρ=
pressed as kg/m3. Densities of some common substances are volume (V) = 30.0 cm3 V
shown in table 1.3. density (ρ) = ? 81.0 g
=
30.0 cm3
81.0 g
=
30.0 cm3
CONCEPTS APPLIED g
= 2.70
cm3
Density Examples
Block B
1. What is the density of this book? Measure the length,
mass (m) = 135 g m
width, and height of this book in cm, then multiply to ρ=
volume (V) = 50.0 cm3 V
find the volume in cm3. Use a balance to find the
density (ρ) = ? 135 g
mass of this book in grams. Compute the density of =
the book by dividing the mass by the volume. 50.0 cm3
Compare the density in g/cm3 with other substances 135 g
=
listed in table 1.3. 50.0 cm3
2. Compare the densities of some common liquids. g
Pour a cup of vinegar in a large bottle. Carefully add = 2.70
cm3
a cup of corn syrup, then a cup of cooking oil. Drop
a coin, tightly folded pieces of aluminum foil, and As you can see, both blocks have the same density. Inspecting table 1.3,
toothpicks into the bottle. Explain what you observe you can see that aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm3, so both blocks
in terms of density. Take care not to confuse the must be aluminum.
property of density, which describes the compactness
of matter, with viscosity, which describes how much
fluid resists flowing under normal conditions. (Corn
EXAMPLE 1.2 (Optional)
syrup has a greater viscosity than water—is this true A rock with a volume of 4.50 cm3 has a mass of 15.0 g. What is the
of density, too?) density of the rock? (Answer: 3.33 g/cm3)

10 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?


SYMBOLS AND EQUATIONS
In the previous section, the relationship of density, mass, and
volume was written with symbols. Density was represented by
ρ, the lowercase letter rho in the Greek alphabet, mass was rep-
resented by m, and volume by V. The use of such symbols is
established and accepted by convention, and these symbols are
like the vocabulary of a foreign language. You learn what the
symbols mean by use and practice, with the understanding that
each symbol stands for a very specific property or concept. The
symbols actually represent quantities, or measured properties.
The symbol m thus represents a quantity of mass that is speci-
fied by a number and a unit, for example, 16 g. The symbol V
represents a quantity of volume that is specified by a number
and a unit, such as 17 cm3.
Symbols
Symbols usually provide a clue about which quantity they repre-
sent, such as m for mass and V for volume. However, in some
cases, two quantities start with the same letter, such as volume
and velocity, so the uppercase letter is used for one (V for volume)
and the lowercase letter is used for the other (v for velocity).
There are more quantities than upper- and lowercase letters, how-
ever, so letters from the Greek alphabet are also used, for exam-
ple, ρ for mass density. Sometimes a subscript is used to identify
a quantity in a particular situation, such as vi for initial, or begin-
ning, velocity and vf for final velocity. Some symbols are also
used to carry messages; for example, the Greek letter delta (Δ) is
a message that means “the change in” a value. Other message
symbols are the symbol ∴, which means “therefore,” and the
symbol ∝, which means “is proportional to.”
Equations
Symbols are used in an equation, a statement that describes a re-
lationship where the quantities on one side of the equal sign are
identical to the quantities on the other side. Identical refers to both
the numbers and the units. Thus, in the equation describing the
property of density, ρ = m/V, the numbers on both sides of the
equal sign are identical (e.g., 5 = 10/2). The units on both sides of
the equal sign are also identical (e.g., g/cm3 = g/cm3).
Equations are used to (1) describe a property, (2) define a
concept, or (3) describe how quantities change relative to
each other. Understanding how equations are used in these
three classes is basic to comprehension of physical science.
Each class of uses is considered separately in the following
discussion.
Describing a property. You have already learned that the
compactness of matter is described by the property called density.
Density is a ratio of mass to a unit volume, or ρ = m/V. The key to
understanding this property is to understand the meaning of a ratio
and what per or for each means. Other examples of properties that
will be defined by ratios are how fast something is moving (speed)
and how rapidly a speed is changing (acceleration).
Defining a concept. A physical science concept is some-
times defined by specifying a measurement procedure. This is
Connections...
Fish Density
Sharks and rays are marine animals that have an internal skeleton
made entirely of cartilage. These animals have no swim bladder to
adjust their body density in order to maintain their position in the
water; therefore, they must constantly swim or they will sink. The
bony fish, on the other hand, have a skeleton composed of bone and
most also have a swim bladder. These fish can regulate the amount
of gas in the bladder to control their density. Thus, the fish can re-
main at a given level in the water without expending large amounts
of energy.
called an operational definition because a procedure is estab-
lished that defines a concept as well as telling you how to meas-
ure it. Concepts of what is meant by force, mechanical work, and
mechanical power and concepts involved in electrical and mag-
netic interactions can be defined by measurement procedures.
Describing how quantities change relative to each other.
Nature is full of situations where one or more quantities change
in value, or vary in size, in response to changes in other quanti-
ties. Changing quantities are called variables. Your weight, for
example, is a variable that changes in size in response to changes
in another variable; for example, the amount of food you eat.
You already know about the pattern, or relationship, between
these two variables. With all other factors being equal, an in-
crease in the amount of food you eat results in an increase in
your weight. When two variables increase (or decrease) to-
gether in the same ratio, they are said to be in direct proportion.
When two variables are in direct proportion, an increase or
decrease in one variable results in the same relative increase or
decrease in a second variable.
Variables do not always increase or decrease in direct pro-
portion. Sometimes one variable increases while a second vari-
able decreases in the same ratio. This is an inverse proportion
relationship. Other common relationships include one variable
increasing in proportion to the square or to the inverse square
of a second variable. Here are the forms of these four different
types of proportional relationships:
Direct a∝b
Inverse a ∝ l/b
Square a ∝ b2
Inverse square a ∝ l/b2
Myths, Mistakes, and Misunderstandings
Tap a Can?
Some people believe that tapping on the side of a can of carbonated
beverage will prevent it from foaming over when the can is opened.
Is this true or a myth? Set up a controlled experiment to compare
opening cold cans of a carbonated beverage that have been tapped
with cans that have not been tapped. Are you sure you have con-
trolled all the other variables?
CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 11

FIGURE 1.12 The volume of fuel you have added to the fuel tank
is directly proportional to the amount of time that the fuel pump has
been running. This relationship can be described with an equation by
using a proportionality constant. ©dean bertoncelj/Shutterstock.com RF
Proportionality Statements
Proportionality statements describe in general how two vari-
ables change relative to each other, but a proportionality state-
ment is not an equation. For example, consider the last time you
filled your fuel tank at a service station (figure 1.12). You could
say that the volume of gasoline in an empty tank you are filling
is directly proportional to the amount of time that the fuel pump
was running, or
volume ∝ time
This is not an equation because the numbers and units are not
identical on both sides. Considering the units, for example, it
should be clear that minutes do not equal gallons; they are two
different quantities. To make a statement of proportionality into
an equation, you need to apply a proportionality constant,
which is sometimes given the symbol k. For the fuel pump ex-
ample, the equation is
volume = (time)(constant)
or
V = tk
In this example, the constant is the flow of gasoline from the
pump in L/min (a ratio). Assume the rate of flow is 10 L/min.
In units, you can see why the statement is now an equality.
L = (min) (
min )
L
min × L
L=
min
L=L
Here are some tips to consider if your instructor uses a
problem-solving approach. You could think of an equation as a
set of instructions. The density equation, for example, is ρ = m/V.
The equation tells you that mass density is a ratio of mass to
volume, and you can find the density by dividing the mass by
the volume. If you have difficulty, you either do not know the
instructions or do not know how to follow the instructions
12 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
CONCEPTS APPLIED
Inverse Square Relationship
An inverse square relationship between energy and dis-
tance is found in light, sound, gravitational force, electric
fields, nuclear radiation, and any other phenomena that
spread equally in all directions from a source. Box figure 1.1
could represent any of the phenomena that have an
­inverse square relationship, but let us assume it is showing
a light source and how the light spreads at a certain dis-
tance (d), at twice that distance (2d), and at three times
that distance (3d). As you can see, light twice as far from
the source is spread over four times the area and will
therefore have one-fourth the intensity. This is the same as
1 1
, or .
22 4
Light three times as far from the source is spread over
nine times the area and will therefore have one-ninth the
1 1
intensity. This is the same as 2 , or , again showing an
3 9
inverse square relationship.
You can measure the inverse square relationship by
moving an overhead projector so its light is shining on a wall
(see distance d in box figure 1.1). Use a light meter or some
other way of measuring the intensity of light. Now move the
projector to double the distance from the wall. Measure the
increased area of the projected light on the wall, and again
measure the intensity of the light. What relationship did you
find between the light intensity and distance?
A
d
2d
3d
BOX FIGURE 1.1 How much would light moving from
point A spread out at twice the distance (2d) and three times
the distance (3d)? What would this do to the brightness of
the light?
(­ algebraic rules). Appendix E and the solutions for the Group A
Parallel Exercises provide worked examples that can help you
with both the instructions and how to follow them. See also
appendix D, which deals with problem solving.
1.7 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
Most humans are curious, at least when they are young, and are
motivated to understand their surroundings. These traits have
existed since antiquity and have proven to be a powerful moti-
vation. In recent times, the need to find out has motivated the
launching of space probes to learn what is “out there,” and hu-
mans have visited the Moon to satisfy their curiosity. Curiosity
and the motivation to understand nature were no less powerful
in the past than today. Over two thousand years ago, the ancient
Greeks lacked the tools and technology of today and could only
make conjectures about the workings of nature. These early
seekers of understanding are known as natural philosophers,
and they observed, thought, and wrote about the workings of all
of nature. They are called philosophers because their under-
standings came from reasoning only, without experimental evi-
dence. Nonetheless, some of their ideas were essentially correct
and are still in use today. For example, the idea of matter being
composed of atoms was first reasoned by certain ancient Greeks
in the fifth century b.c. The idea of elements, basic components
that make up matter, was developed much earlier but refined by
the ancient Greeks in the fourth century b.c. The concept of
what the elements are and the concept of the nature of atoms
have changed over time, but the ideas first came from ancient
natural philosophers.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Some historians identify the time of Galileo and Newton, ap-
proximately three hundred years ago, as the beginning of mod-
ern science. Like the ancient Greeks, Galileo and Newton were
interested in studying all of nature. Since the time of Galileo
and Newton, the content of physical science has increased in
scope and specialization, but the basic means of acquiring un-
derstanding, the scientific investigation, has changed little. A
scientific investigation provides understanding through experi-
mental evidence, as opposed to the conjectures based on think-
ing only of the ancient natural philosophers. In chapter 2, for
example, you will learn how certain ancient Greeks described
how objects fall toward Earth with a thought-out, or reasoned,
explanation. Galileo, on the other hand, changed how people
thought of falling objects by developing explanations from
both creative thinking and precise measurement of physical
quantities, providing experimental evidence for his explana-
tions. Experimental evidence provides explanations today,
much as it did for Galileo, as relationships are found from pre-
cise measurements of physical quantities. Thus, scientific
knowledge about nature has grown as measurements and inves-
tigations have led to understandings that lead to further mea-
surements and investigations.
What is a scientific investigation and what methods are
used to conduct one? Attempts have been made to describe
scientific methods in a series of steps (define problem, gather
data, make hypothesis, test, make conclusion), but no single
description has ever been satisfactory to all concerned. Scien-
tists do similar things in investigations, but there are different
approaches and different ways to evaluate what they find. Over-
all, the similar things might look like this:
1. Observe some aspect of nature.
2. Propose an explanation for something observed.
3. Use the explanation to make predictions.
4. Test predictions by doing an experiment or by making
more observations.
5. Modify explanation as needed.
6. Return to step 3.
The exact approach a scientist uses depends on the individual
doing the investigation as well as the particular field of science
being studied.
Another way to describe what goes on during a scientific
investigation is to consider what can be generalized. At least
three separate activities seem to be common to scientists in
different fields as they conduct scientific investigations, and
these generalized activities are:
∙ Collecting observations.
∙ Developing explanations.
∙ Testing explanations.
No particular order or routine can be generalized about these
common elements. In fact, individual scientists might not even
be involved in all three activities. Some, for example, might
spend all of their time out in nature,“in the field” collecting
data and generalizing about their findings. This is an accept-
able means of scientific investigation in some fields of science.
Yet, other scientists might spend all of their time indoors, at
computer terminals, developing theoretical equations that offer
explanations for generalizations made by others. Again, the
work at a computer terminal is an acceptable means of scien-
tific investigation. Thus, there is not an order of five steps that
are followed, particularly by today’s specialized scientists.
This is one reason why many philosophers of science argue
there is no such thing as the scientific method. There are com-
mon activities of observing, explaining, and testing in scien-
tific investigations in different fields, and these activities will
be discussed next.
EXPLANATIONS AND INVESTIGATIONS
Explanations in the natural sciences are concerned with things
or events observed, and there can be several different means of
developing or creating explanations. In general, explanations
can come from the results of experiments, from an educated
guess, or just from imaginative thinking. In fact, there are sev-
eral examples in the history of science of valid explanations
being developed even from dreams.
Explanations go by various names, each depending on in-
tended use or stage of development. For example, an explana-
tion in an early stage of development is sometimes called a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative thought- or experiment-­
derived explanation. It must be compatible with observations
and provide understanding of some aspect of nature, but the
key word here is tentative. A hypothesis is tested by experiment
and is rejected, or modified, if a single observation or test does
not fit.
The successful testing of a hypothesis may lead to the de-
sign of experiments, or it could lead to the development of an-
other hypothesis, which could, in turn, lead to the design of yet
CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 13
 Science and Society
Basic and Applied Research

S cience is the process of understanding

your environment. It begins with mak-
ing observations, creating explanations, and
conducting research experiments. New in-
formation and conclusions are based on the
results of the research.
There are two types of scientific re-
search: basic and applied. Basic research is
driven by a search for understanding and
may or may not have practical applications.
Examples of basic research include seeking
understandings about how the solar system
was created, finding new information about
matter by creating a new element in a re-
search lab, or mapping temperature varia-
tions on the bottom of the Chesapeake Bay.
Such basic research expands our knowledge
but will not lead to practical results.
Applied research has a goal of solv-
ing some practical problem rather than
just looking for answers. Examples of ap-
plied research include the creation and
testing of a highly efficient fuel cell to
run cars on hydrogen fuel, improving the
energy efficiency of the refrigerator, or
creating a faster computer chip from new
materials.
Whether research is basic or applied
depends somewhat on the time frame. If a
practical use cannot be envisioned in the
future, then it is definitely basic research. If
a practical use is immediate, then the work
is definitely applied research. If a practical
use is developed some time in the future,
then the research is partly basic and partly
practical. For example, when the laser was
invented, there was no practical use for it. It
was called “an answer waiting for a ques-
tion.” Today, the laser has many, many
practical applications.
Knowledge gained by basic research
has sometimes resulted in the development
of technological breakthroughs. On the
other hand, other basic research—such as
learning how the solar system formed—has
no practical value other than satisfying our
curiosity.
QUESTIONS TO DISCUSS
1. Should funding priorities go to basic
research, applied research, or both?
2. Should universities concentrate on
basic research and industries concen-
trate on applied research, or should
both do both types of research?
3. Should research-funding organizations
specify which types of research should
be funded?

more experiments, which could lead to. . . . As you can see, this
is a branching, ongoing process that is very difficult to describe
in specific terms. In addition, it can be difficult to identify a
conclusion, an endpoint in the process. The search for new con-
cepts to explain experimental evidence may lead from a hypoth-
esis to a new theory, which results in more new hypotheses.
This is why one of the best ways to understand scientific meth-
ods is to study the history of science. Or you can conduct a
scientific investigation yourself.
Testing a Hypothesis
In some cases, a hypothesis may be tested by simply making
additional observations. For example, if you hypothesize that a
certain species of bird uses cavities in trees as places to build
nests, you could observe several birds of the species and record
the kinds of nests they build and where they are built.
Another common method for testing a hypothesis involves
devising an experiment. An experiment is a re-creation of an
event or occurrence in a way that enables a scientist to sup-
port or disprove a hypothesis. This can be difficult since a
particular event may be influenced by a great many separate
things. For example, the growth of a crop, such as corn, is
influenced by a variety of factors including sunlight, soil
moisture, air and soil temperature, soil nutrients, competition
with other plants, and damage caused by insects and diseases.
It might seem that developing an understanding of the factors
that influence the growth of corn would be an impossible
task. To help unclutter such situations, scientists have devised
what is known as a controlled experiment. A controlled
­experiment compares two situations that have all the influ-
encing factors identical except one. The situation used as the
basis of comparison is called the control group and the other
is called the experimental group. The single influencing fac-
tor that is allowed to be different in the experimental group is
called the experimental variable.
The importance of various factors in corn growth would
have to be broken down into a large number of simple ques-
tions, as previously mentioned. Each question would provide
the basis on which experimentation would occur. Each exper-
iment would provide information about one factor involved in
corn growth. For example, to test the hypothesis that nitrogen
is an important soil nutrient for corn growth, an experiment
could be performed in which two identical fields would be
prepared and planted with corn. The two fields would need to
have the same type of soil, exposure to sunlight, moisture,
pest-control treatment, and history of previous crops. In prac-
tice in agricultural experiments, the two fields are typically
side by side. One corn field would be planted with a known
quantity nitrogen-containing fertilizer added to the soil (the
experimental group), while the other field (control group)
would be grown without any nitrogen-containing fertilizer.
Data on growth would need to be gathered in a standard way.
One way to do this would be to harvest all the corn plants and
weigh them. Another way could be to determine the average
height of the plants. After the experiment, the new data (facts)
gathered would be analyzed. If there were no differences be-
tween the two groups, scientists could conclude that the vari-
able (amount of nitrogen in the soil) evidently did not
influence corn growth. However, if there was a difference, it
would be likely that the variable was responsible for the dif-
ference between the control and experimental groups. In the
case of corn growth in this kind of experiment, the presence
of nitrogen fertilizer enhances growth.

14 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?

Accept Results?
Scientists are not likely to accept the results of a single experi-
ment, since it is possible that a variable was overlooked in the
process of designing and carrying out the experiment. For ex-
ample, it is possible that a fungus pest could have affected one
field more than the other, or the machinery used to spray for
pest control may have malfunctioned on one field, or a local
rain shower could have provided more rain to one of the fields.
Therefore, scientists repeat experiments with exactly the same
conditions and compare the results of several replicates (copies)
of the experiment before arriving at a conclusion.
The results of an experiment are considered convincing
only when there is just one variable, many replicates of the
same experiment have been conducted, and the results are con-
sistent. Furthermore, scientists often apply statistical tests to the
results to help decide in an impartial manner if the results ob-
tained are valid (meaningful; fit with other knowledge), reliable
(give the same results repeatedly), and show cause-and-effect,
or if they are just the result of random events.
During experimentation, scientists learn new information
and formulate new questions that can lead to yet more experi-
ments. One good experiment can result in a hundred new ques-
tions and experiments. The discovery of the structure of the
DNA molecule by Watson and Crick resulted in thousands of
experiments and stimulated the development of the entire field
of molecular biology. Similarly, the discovery of molecules that
regulate the growth of plants resulted in much research about
how the molecules work and which molecules might be used for
agricultural purposes.
If the processes of questioning and experimentation con-
tinue, and evidence continually and consistently supports the
original hypothesis and other closely related hypotheses, the
scientific community will begin to see how these hypotheses
and facts fit together into a broad pattern.
Patterns and experimental results are shared through scien-
tific communication. This can be as simple as scientists sharing
experimental findings by e-mail. Results are also checked and
confirmed by publishing articles in journals. Such articles ena-
ble scientists to know what other scientists have done, but also
communicate ideas as well as the thinking process. Scientific
communication ensures that results and thinking processes are
confirmed by other scientists. It can also lead to new discover-
ies based on the work of others.
SCIENTIFIC LAWS
Sometimes you can observe a series of relationships that seem to
happen over and over again. There is a popular saying, for exam-
ple, that “if anything can go wrong, it will.” This is called M
­ urphy’s
law. It is called a law because it describes a relationship between
events that seems to happen time after time. If you drop a slice
of buttered bread, for example, it can land two ways, butter side
up or butter side down. According to Murphy’s law, it will land
butter side down. With this example, you know at least one way
of testing the validity of Murphy’s law.
Another “popular saying” type of relationship seems to
exist between the cost of a houseplant and how long it lives.
You could call it the “law of houseplant longevity.” The rela-
tionship is that the life of a houseplant is inversely propor-
tional to its purchase price. This “law” predicts that a $10
houseplant will wilt and die within a month, but a 50 cent
houseplant will live for years. The inverse relationship is be-
tween the variables of (1) cost and (2) life span, meaning the
more you pay for a plant, the shorter the time it will live. This
would also mean that inexpensive plants will live for a long
time. Since the relationship seems to occur time after time, it
is called a law.
A scientific law describes an important relationship that is
observed in nature to occur consistently time after time. Basi-
cally, scientific laws describe what happens in nature. The law
is often identified with the name of a person associated with
the formulation of the law. For example, with all other factors
being equal, an increase in the temperature of the air in a bal-
loon results in an increase in its volume. Likewise, a decrease
in the temperature results in a decrease in the total volume of
the balloon.
The volume of the balloon varies directly with the temper-
ature of the air in the balloon, and this can be observed to occur
consistently time after time. This relationship was first discov-
ered in the latter part of the eighteenth century by two French
scientists, A. C. Charles and Joseph Gay-Lussac. Today, the
relationship is sometimes called Charles’ law. When you read
about a scientific law, you should remember that a law is a
statement that means something about a relationship that you
can observe time after time in nature.
Have you ever heard someone state that something behaved
a certain way because of a scientific law? For example, a big
truck accelerated slowly because of Newton’s laws of motion.
Perhaps this person misunderstands the nature of scientific
laws. Scientific laws do not dictate the behavior of objects; they
simply describe it. They do not say how things ought to act but
rather how things do act. A scientific law is descriptive; it de-
scribes how things act.
SELF CHECK
1.9 A scientific law can be expressed as
a. a written concept.
b. an equation.
c. a graph.
d. Any of the above is correct.
MODELS AND THEORIES
Often the part of nature being considered is too small or too
large to be visible to the human eye and the use of a model is
needed. A model (figure 1.13) is a description of a theory or
idea that accounts for all known properties. The description can
come in many different forms, such as an actual physical model,
CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 15
A

Sunlight Second
First reflection
refraction Second
Reflection refraction First
reflection
Enlarged raindrop
Rainbow ray

42° First
51°
refraction

Second Sunlight
refraction

Rainbow ray

Observer Observer

B
FIGURE 1.13 A model helps you visualize something that cannot be observed. You cannot observe what is making a double rainbow, for
example, but models of light entering the upper and lower surface of a raindrop help you visualize what is happening. The drawings in (B) serve
as a model that explains how a double rainbow is produced. (Also, see “A Closer Look, The Rainbow” in chapter 7.) (a): ©tropicalpix/Getty Images RF

16 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?

a computer model, a sketch, an analogy, or an equation. No one 150 120 90 60 30 0 30 60 90
has ever seen the whole solar system, for example, and all you
can see in the real world is the movement of the Sun, Moon, and
60
planets against a background of stars. A physical model or
sketch of the solar system, however, will give you a pretty good
idea of what the solar system might look like. The physical
model and the sketch are both models since they give you a
mental picture of the solar system. 30

SCIENCE SKETCH 0

On a large piece of paper, make a sketch of the solar

­system as seen from above, illustrating how our Sun, Earth,
Moon, planets, and asteroid belt move.
30

At the other end of the size scale, models of atoms and

molecules are often used to help us understand what is happen-
ing in this otherwise invisible world. Also, a container of small,
bouncing rubber balls can be used as a model to explain the A
relationships of Charles’ law. This model helps you see what
happens to invisible particles of air as the temperature, volume,
and pressure of the gas change. Some models are better than
others, and models constantly change along with our under-
standing about nature. Early twentieth-century models of at-
oms, for example, were based on a “planetary model,” which
had electrons in the role of planets moving around the nucleus,
which played the role of the Sun. Today, the model has changed
as our understandings about the nature of the atom have
changed. Electrons are now pictured as vibrating with certain
wavelengths, which can make standing waves only at certain
distances from the nucleus. Thus, the model of the atom
changed from one with electrons viewed as solid particles to
one that views them as vibrations on a string. B
The most recently developed scientific theory was re-
FIGURE 1.14 (A) Normal position of the continents on a world
fined and expanded during the 1970s. This theory concerns map. (B) A sketch of South America and Africa, suggesting that they
the surface of Earth, and it has changed our model of what the once might have been joined together and subsequently separated
Earth is like. At first, however, the basic idea of today’s ac- by a continental drift.
cepted theory was pure and simple conjecture. The term con-
jecture usually means an explanation or idea based on
speculation, or one based on trivial grounds without any real
evidence. Scientists would look at a map of Africa and South working theory. A theory is defined as a broad, working
America, for example, and mull over how the two continents ­hypothesis that is based on extensive experimental evidence. A
seem to be as pieces of a picture puzzle that had moved apart scientific theory is a well-tested hypothesis that tells you why
(figure 1.14). Any talk of moving continents was considered something happens. For example, the “seafloor spreading
conjecture because it was not based on anything acceptable as ­hypothesis” did survive requisite experimental testing and, to-
real evidence. gether with other working hypotheses, is today found as part of
Many years after the early musings about moving conti- the plate tectonic theory. The plate tectonic theory describes
nents, evidence was collected from deep-sea drilling rigs that how the continents have moved apart, just like pieces of a pic-
the ocean floor becomes progressively older toward the African ture puzzle. Is this the same idea that was once considered con-
and South American continents. This was good enough evi- jecture? Sort of, but this time it is supported by experimental
dence to establish the “seafloor spreading hypothesis” that de- evidence.
scribed the two continents moving apart. The term scientific theory is reserved for historic schemes
If a hypothesis survives much experimental testing and of thought that have survived the test of detailed examination
leads, in turn, to the design of new experiments with the gener- for long periods of time. The atomic theory, for example, was
ation of new hypotheses that can be tested, you now have a developed in the late 1800s and has been the subject of extensive

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 17

 Science and Society
Herbal Medicine, Legislation, and Pseudoscience

T he Dietary Supplement Health and

Education Act of 1994 effectively re-
moved herbal medicines from regulation by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). The law, which amended the federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, defined
“dietary supplements” as a separate regula-
tory category with very few regulations.
Following passage of the Dietary
Supplement Health and Education Act,
Manufacturers no longer need to
ask for permission from the FDA to
produce and distribute products
unless it is a “new product.” There
is no useful definition of a “new
product.” Since herbal medicines
have been used for centuries,
manufacturers could show that most
of the things they would market
would have been used previously
somewhere and would not be new
products.
Manufacturers are responsible for
determining the safety of the product.
The FDA can only act if it finds a
product is unsafe.
Manufacturers determine serving size
or quantity to be taken.
Manufacturers do not need to prove
that the herbal product actually works.
The public is not protected from the
sale of useless but harmless products.
­ isinformation provided by marketers of
m
herbal medicines under the guise of scien-
tific statements—pseudoscience.
Let’s examine an example of such mis-
information.
The following is a typical information
statement supporting the use of Saint-
John’s-wort to treat depression.
Provides support for a positive
BOX FIGURE 1.2 This is Saint-John’s-
mood balance.*
wort, an herbal medicine claimed to relieve
depression. ©Pixtal/SuperStock RF
May help promote general
well-being.*
Manufacturers may not make claims Grows in Europe and the United
about curing particular disease States.
conditions but may make vague The botanical species is positively
claims such as “improves mood,” identified by the sophisticated thin
“boosts immune system,” or “sup- layer chromatography (TLC)
ports liver function.” technology.
TLC verification method is as
If a manufacturer makes a claim about
accurate and reliable for identify-
how a product affects the structure or
function of the body, it must include ing true herbal species as human
the following disclaimer: fingerprinting.
Whole ground herb is minimally
These statements have not been processed, dried, and pulverized.
evaluated by the Food and Drug Each capsule contains 500 mg of
Administration. This product is not Saint-John’s-wort herb.
intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or
*These statements have not been evaluated by the
prevent any disease. Food and Drug Administration. This product is not
One outcome of this change in law was intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any
disease.
a continued growth in the amount of

investigation and experimentation over the last century. The

atomic theory and other scientific theories form the framework
of scientific thought and experimentation today. Scientific the-
ories point to new ideas about the behavior of nature, and these
ideas result in more experiments, more data to collect, and more
explanations to develop. All of this may lead to a slight modifi-
cation of an existing theory, a major modification, or perhaps
the creation of an entirely new one. These activities continue in
an ongoing attempt to satisfy the curiosity of people by under-
standing nature.
SELF CHECK
1.10 Measurement information that is used to describe
something is called
a. referents.
b. properties.
c. data.
d. a scientific investigation.
1.8 SCIENCE, NONSCIENCE,
AND PSEUDOSCIENCE
As you can see from the discussion of the nature of science, a
scientific approach to the world requires a certain way of think-
ing. There is an insistence on ample supporting evidence by
numerous studies rather than easy acceptance of strongly stated
opinions. Scientists must separate opinions from statements of
fact. A scientist is a healthy skeptic.
Careful attention to detail is also important. Since scien-
tists publish their findings and their colleagues examine their
work, there is a strong desire to produce careful work that can
be easily defended. This does not mean that scientists do not
speculate and state opinions. When they do, however, they
should take great care to clearly distinguish fact from opinion.
There is also a strong ethic of honesty. Scientists are not
saints, but the fact that science is conducted out in the open in
front of one’s peers tends to reduce the incidence of dishonesty.
In addition, the scientific community strongly condemns and
severely penalizes those who steal the ideas of others, perform

18 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?

 Typical Herbal Supplements and Claims
Common Name of Plant Scientific Name of Plant Claimed Benefit
Saint-John’s-wort Hypericum perforatum Relieves mild or moderate depression
Gingko Ginkgo biloba Improves memory
Garlic Allium sativum Improves immune function; prevents atherosclerosis
Ginseng Panax quinquefolius or P. ginseng Elevates energy level
Green tea Camellia sinensis Prevents certain cancers, atherosclerosis, and tooth decay
Echinacea (purple coneflower) Echinacea purpurea Improves immune system
Black cohosh Cimicifuga racemosa or Actaea racemosa Relieves menopause symptoms or painful menstruation

How does this information exemplify
pseudoscience?
1. The first two statements provide vague
statements about mental health. They
3. The statement about the herb being
do not say that it is used to treat
depression because that link has not
been scientifically established to most
scientists’ satisfaction. The manufac-
turer relies on scientifically unverified
statements in popular literature and on
the Internet and propagated by word
of mouth to provide the demand for
the product.
2. The two statements about thin layer
chromatography are meant to suggest
accuracy and purity. In fact, thin layer
chromatography is a poor way to
identify plants. It simply looks at the
pigments present in plants. The use of
this technique is unnecessary, since
Saint-John’s-wort is a plant that is
easily identified by amateurs.
“minimally processed” is meant to
suggest that nothing was lost from the
plant during the preparation of the
capsule and implies a high level of
quality control and purity. Although
the statement may be true, it is quite
possible that the plant material
collected contained dust, insects, and
other contaminants. It is also highly
likely that individual plants differ
greatly in the amount of specific
chemicals they contain.
QUESTIONS TO DISCUSS
1. Select an herbal medicine and
examine the claims made about this
herb. Design a means of experimen-
tally testing these claims. Decide with
your group what would be acceptable
evidence and what would not be
acceptable.
2. Discuss with your group why people
tend to ignore experimentally testing a
claim.
3. Discuss with your group the possibil-
ity of a “placebo effect,” that is, if
someone strongly believes a claim, it
might come true.

shoddy science, or falsify data. Any of these infractions could
lead to the loss of one’s job and reputation.
FROM EXPERIMENTATION TO
APPLICATION
The scientific method has helped us to understand and control
many aspects of our natural world. Some information is ex-
tremely important in understanding the structure and function-
ing of things in our world but at first glance appears to have
little practical value. For example, understanding the life cycle
of a star may be important for people who are trying to answer
questions about how the universe is changing, but it seems of
little practical value to the average citizen. However, as our
knowledge has increased, the time between first discovery to
practical application has decreased significantly.
For example, scientists known as genetic engineers have
altered the chemical code system of small organisms (microor-
ganisms) so that they may produce many new drugs such as
antibiotics, hormones, and enzymes. The ease with which
these complex chemicals are produced would not have been
possible had it not been for the information gained from the
basic, theoretical sciences of microbiology, molecular biology,
and genetics. Our understanding of how organisms genetically
control the manufacture of proteins has led to the large-scale
production of enzymes. Some of these chemicals can remove
stains from clothing, deodorize, clean contact lenses, remove
damaged skin from burn patients, and “stone wash” denim for
clothing.
SCIENCE AND NONSCIENCE
The differences between science and nonscience are often based
on the assumptions and methods used to gather and organize
information and, most important, the testing of these assump-
tions. The difference between a scientist and a nonscientist is
that a scientist continually challenges and tests principles and
assumptions to determine a cause-and-effect relationship,
whereas a nonscientist may not feel that this is important.

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 19

 Once you understand the nature of science, you will not have
any trouble identifying astronomy, chemistry, physics, and biology
as sciences. But what about economics, sociology, anthropology,
history, philosophy, and literature? All of these fields may make
use of certain central ideas that are derived in a logical way, but
they are also nonscientific in some ways. Some things cannot be
approached using the scientific method. Art, literature, theology,
and philosophy are rarely thought of as sciences. They are con-
cerned with beauty, human emotion, and speculative thought rather
than with facts and verifiable laws. On the other hand, physics,
chemistry, geology, and biology are always considered sciences.
Music is an area of study in a middle ground where scien-
tific approaches may be used to some extent. “Good” music is
certainly unrelated to science, but the study of how the human
larynx generates the sound of a song is based on scientific prin-
ciples. Any serious student of music will study the physics of
sound and how the vocal cords vibrate to generate sound waves.
Similarly, economists use mathematical models and estab-
lished economic laws to make predictions about future eco-
nomic conditions. However, the regular occurrence of
unpredicted economic changes indicates that economics is far
from scientific, since the reliability of predictions is a central
criterion of science. Anthropology and sociology are also sci-
entific in nature in many respects, but they cannot be consid-
ered true sciences because many of the generalizations they
have developed cannot be tested by repeated experimentation.
They also do not show a significantly high degree of cause-and-
effect, or they have poor predictive value.
PSEUDOSCIENCE
Pseudoscience (pseudo = false) is a deceptive practice that uses
the appearance or language of science to convince, confuse, or
mislead people into thinking that something has scientific valid-
ity when it does not. When pseudoscientific claims are closely
examined, they are not found to be supported by unbiased tests.
For example, although nutrition is a respected scientific field,
many individuals and organizations make claims about their nu-
tritional products and diets that cannot be supported. Because of
nutritional research, we all know that we must obtain certain nu-
trients such as amino acids, vitamins, and minerals from the food
that we eat or we may become ill. Many scientific experiments
reliably demonstrate the validity of this information. However,
in most cases, it has not been proven that the nutritional supple-
ments so vigorously promoted are as useful or desirable as ad-
vertised. Rather, selected bits of scientific information (amino
acids, vitamins, and minerals are essential to good health) have
been used to create the feeling that additional amounts of these
nutritional supplements are necessary or that they can improve
your health. In reality, the average person eating a varied diet
will obtain all of these nutrients in adequate amounts, and nutri-
tional supplements are not required.
Another related example involves the labeling of products
as organic or natural. Marketers imply that organic or natural
products have greater nutritive value because they are organi-
cally grown (grown without pesticides or synthetic fertilizers)
20 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
or because they come from nature. Although there are questions
about the health effects of trace amounts of pesticides in foods,
no scientific study has shown that a diet of natural or organic
products has any benefit over other diets. The poisons curare,
strychnine, and nicotine are all organic molecules that are pro-
duced in nature by plants that could be grown organically, but
we would not want to include them in our diet.
Absurd claims that are clearly pseudoscience sometimes
appear to gain public acceptance because of promotion in the
media. Thus, some people continue to believe stories that psy-
chics can really help solve puzzling crimes, that perpetual en-
ergy machines exist, or that sources of water can be found by a
person with a forked stick. Such claims could be subjected to
scientific testing and disposed of if they fail the test, but this
process is generally ignored. In addition to experimentally test-
ing such a claim that appears to be pseudoscience, here are
some questions that you should consider when you suspect
something is pseudoscience:
1. What is the background and scientific experience of the
person promoting the claim?
2. How many articles have been published by the person in
peer-reviewed scientific journals?
3. Has the person given invited scientific talks at universities
and national professional organization meetings?
4. Has the claim been researched and published by the person
in a peer-reviewed scientific journal and have other
scientists independently validated the claim?
5. Does the person have something to gain by making
the claim?
LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE
By definition, science is a way of thinking and seeking informa-
tion to solve problems. Therefore, scientific methods can be
applied only to questions that have a factual basis. Questions
concerning morals, value judgments, social issues, and attitudes
cannot be answered using the scientific methods. What makes a
painting great? What is the best type of music? Which wine is
best? What color should I paint my car? These questions are
related to values, beliefs, and tastes; therefore, scientific meth-
ods cannot be used to answer them.
CONCEPTS APPLIED
Seekers of Pseudoscience
See what you can find out about some recent claims that
might not stand up to direct scientific testing. Look into the
scientific testing—or lack of testing—behind claims made
in relation to cold fusion, cloning human beings, a dowser
carrying a forked stick to find water, psychics hired by po-
lice departments, Bigfoot, the Bermuda Triangle, and oth-
ers you might wish to investigate. One source to consider
is http://web.randi.org/encyclopedia-of-claims.html.
 People Behind the Science
F lorence Bascom, a U.S. geologist, was an expert in the
study of rocks and minerals and founded the geology
department at Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. This de-
partment was responsible for training the foremost
women geologists of the early twentieth century.
Bascom’s interest in geology had been sparked by a
driving tour she took with her father and his friend
­Edward Orton, a geology professor at Ohio State University.
It was an exciting time for geologists with new areas
opening up all the time. Bascom was also inspired by her
teachers at Wisconsin and Johns Hopkins, who were ex-
perts in the new fields of metamorphism and crystallog-
raphy. Bascom’s Ph.D. thesis was a study of rocks that Source: USGS Photo Library woman vice president. She was associate editor
had previously been thought to be sediments but which
she proved to be metamorphosed lava flows.
While studying for her doctorate, Bascom became a popular
teacher, passing on her enthusiasm and rigor to her students. She
taught at the Hampton Institute for Negroes and American Indians
and at Rockford College before becoming an instructor and associ-
ate professor of geology at Ohio State University from 1892 to 1895. published her research on Piedmont geomorphology. Geologists in
Moving to Bryn Mawr College, where geology was considered sub-
ordinate to the other sciences, she spent two years teaching in a
storeroom while building a considerable collection of fossils, rocks,
and minerals. While at Bryn Mawr, she took great pride in passing
on her knowledge and training to a generation of women who would
Science is also limited by the ability of people to pry un-
derstanding from the natural world. People are fallible and do
not always come to the right conclusions, because information
is lacking or misinterpreted, but science is self-correcting. As
new information is gathered, old incorrect ways of thinking
must be changed or discarded. For example, at one time, people
were sure that the Sun went around Earth. They observed that
the Sun rose in the east and traveled across the sky to set in the
west. Since they could not feel Earth moving, it seemed per-
fectly logical that the Sun traveled around Earth. Once they un-
derstood that Earth rotated on its axis, people began to
understand that the rising and setting of the Sun could be ex-
plained in other ways. A completely new concept of the rela-
tionship between the Sun and Earth developed.
Although this kind of study seems rather primitive to
us today, this change in thinking about the Sun and Earth
SUMMARY
Science is a search for order in our surroundings. People have concepts,
or mental images, about material objects and intangible events in their
surroundings. Concepts are used for thinking and communicating. Con-
cepts are based on properties, or attributes that describe a thing or event.
Every property implies a referent that describes the property. Referents
are not always explicit, and most communications require assumptions.
Measurement is a process that uses a well-defined and agreed-
upon referent to describe a standard unit. The unit is compared to the
property being defined by an operation that determines the value of the
Florence Bascom (1862–1945)
become successful. At Bryn Mawr, she rose rapidly, becom-
ing reader (1898), associate professor (1903), professor
(1906), and finally professor emerita from 1928 until her
death in 1945 in Northampton, Massachusetts.
Bascom became, in 1896, the first woman to work
as a geologist on the U.S. Geological Survey, spending
her summers mapping formations in Pennsylvania,
Maryland, and New Jersey and her winters analyzing
slides. Her results were published in Geographical
­Society of America bulletins. In 1924, she became the
first woman to be elected a fellow of the Geographical
Society and went on, in 1930, to become the first
of the American Geologist (1896–1905) and
achieved a four-star place in the first edition of American Men and
Women of Science (1906), a sign of how highly regarded she was in
her field.
Bascom was the author of over forty research papers. She was an
expert on the crystalline rocks of the Appalachian Piedmont, and she
the Piedmont area still value her contributions, and she is still a pow-
erful model for women seeking status in the field of geology today.
Source: Modified from the Hutchinson Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Abington,
UK: Helicon, 2011.
was a very important step in understanding the universe
and how the various parts are related to one another. This
background information was built upon by many genera-
tions of astronomers and space scientists, and finally led to
space exploration.
People also need to understand that science cannot an-
swer all the problems of our time. Although science is a pow-
erful tool, there are many questions it cannot answer and many
problems it cannot solve. The behavior and desires of people
generate most of the problems societies face. Famine, drug
abuse, and pollution are human-caused and must be resolved
by humans. Science may provide some tools for social plan-
ners, politicians, and ethical thinkers, but science does not
have, nor does it attempt to provide, all the answers to the
problems of the human race. Science is merely one of the
tools at our disposal.
unit by counting. Measurements are always reported with a number, or
value, and a name for the unit.
The two major systems of standard units are the English system
and the metric system. The English system uses standard units that
were originally based on human body parts, and the metric system uses
standard units based on referents found in nature. The metric system
also uses a system of prefixes to express larger or smaller amounts of
units. The metric standard units for length, mass, and time are the me-
ter, kilogram, and second.
CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 21
 Measurement information used to describe something is called
data. One way to extract meanings and generalizations from data is to
use a ratio, a simplified relationship between two numbers. Density is
a ratio of mass to volume, or ρ = m/V.
Symbols are used to represent quantities, or measured properties.
Symbols are used in equations, which are shorthand statements that
describe a relationship where the quantities (both number values and
units) are identical on both sides of the equal sign. Equations are used
to (1) describe a property, (2) define a concept, or (3) describe how
quantities change together.
Quantities that can have different values at different times are
called variables. Variables that increase or decrease together in the
same ratio are said to be in direct proportion. If one variable increases
while the other decreases in the same ratio, the variables are in inverse
proportion. Proportionality statements are not necessarily equations. A
proportionality constant can be used to make such a statement into an
equation. Proportionality constants might have numerical value only,
without units, or they might have both value and units.
Modern science began about three hundred years ago during the
time of Galileo and Newton. Since that time, scientific investigation
has been used to provide experimental evidence about nature. The in-
vestigations provide accurate, specific, and reliable data that are used to
develop and test explanations. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation
KEY TERMS
controlled experiment (p. 14) hypothesis (p. 13)
data (p. 8) measurement (p. 4)
density (p. 9) model (p. 15)
equation (p. 11) properties (p. 3)
CONCEPT QUESTIONS
1. What is a concept?
2. What are two components of a measurement statement? What
does each component tell you?
3. Other than familiarity, what are the advantages of the English
system of measurement?
4. Define the metric standard units for length, mass, and time.
5. Does the density of a liquid change with the shape of a
container? Explain.
6. Does a flattened pancake of clay have the same density as the
same clay rolled into a ball? Explain.
7. Compare and contrast a scientific hypothesis and a scientific law.
8. What is a model? How are models used?
9. Are all theories always completely accepted or completely
rejected? Explain.
10. What is pseudoscience and how can you always recognize it?
11. Select a statement that you feel might represent pseudoscience.
Write an essay supporting and refuting your selection, noting
facts that support one position or the other.
22 CHAPTER 1 What Is Science?
that is accepted or rejected from experimental data. An accepted
hypothesis may result in a scientific law, an explanation concerned
with important phenomena. Laws are sometimes identified with the
name of a scientist and can be expressed verbally, with an equation, or
with a graph.
A model is used to help understand something that cannot be ob-
served directly, explaining the unknown in terms of things already
understood. Physical models, mental models, and equations are all
examples of models that explain how nature behaves. A theory is a
broad, detailed explanation that guides development and interpreta-
tions of experiments in a field of study.
Science and nonscience can be distinguished by the kinds of laws
and rules that are constructed to unify the body of knowledge. Science
involves the continuous testing of rules and principles by the collection
of new facts. If the rules are not testable, or if no rules are used, it is not
science. Pseudoscience uses scientific appearances to mislead.
Summary of Equations
mass
1.1 density =
volume
m
ρ=
V
pseudoscience (p. 20) standard unit (p. 5)
quantities (p. 11) theory (p. 17)
referent (p. 4) unit (p. 4)
scientific law (p. 15) variables (p. 11)
12. Evaluate the statement that science cannot solve human-
produced problems such as pollution. What does it mean to say
pollution is caused by humans and can only be solved by
humans? Provide evidence that supports your position.
13. Make an experimental evaluation of what happens to the density
of a substance at larger and larger volumes.
14. If your wage were dependent on your work-time squared, how
would it affect your pay if you double your hours?
15. Merriam-Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary defines science,
in part, as “knowledge or a system of knowledge covering
general truths or the operation of general laws especially as
obtained and tested through scientific method.” How would you
define science?
16. Are there any ways in which scientific methods differ from
common-sense methods of reasoning?
17. The United States is the only country in the world that does not
use the metric system of measurement. With this understanding,
make a list of advantages and disadvantages for adopting the
metric system in the United States.
SELF-GUIDED LABS
Paper Helicopters
Construct paper helicopters and study the effects that various variables
have on their flight. After considering the size you wish to test, copy
the pattern shown in figure 1.15A on a sheet of notebook paper. Note
that solid lines are to be cut and dashed lines are to be folded. Make
three scissor cuts on the solid lines. Fold A toward you and B away
A B A B
from you to form the wings. Then fold C and D inward to overlap,
forming the body. Finally, fold up the bottom on the dashed line and
hold it together with a paper clip. Your finished product should look
like the helicopter in figure 1.15B. Try a preliminary flight test by
standing on a chair or stairs and dropping your helicopter.
Decide what variables you would like to study to find out how
C D
they influence the total flight time. Consider how you will hold every-
thing else constant while changing one variable at a time. You can
change the wing area by making new helicopters with more or less area
in the A and B flaps. You can change the weight by adding more paper
A B
clips. Study these and other variables to find out who can design a
helicopter that will remain in the air the longest. Who can design a FIGURE 1.15 Pattern for a paper helicopter.
helicopter that is most accurate in hitting a target?

PARALLEL EXERCISES
The exercises in groups A and B cover the same concepts. Solutions to group A exercises are provided in appendix G.

Group A Group B
Note: You will need to refer to table 1.3 to complete some of the Note: You will need to refer to table 1.3 to complete some of the
following exercises. following exercises.
1. What is your height in meters? In centimeters? 1. What is your mass in kilograms? In grams?
2. What is the mass density of mercury if 20.0 cm3 has a mass 2. What is the mass density of iron if 5.0 cm3 has a mass of 39.5 g?
of 272 g? 3. What is the mass of a 10.0 cm3 cube of copper?
3. What is the mass of a 10.0 cm3 cube of lead? 4. If ice has a mass density of 0.92 g/cm3, what is the volume of
4. What is the volume of a rock with a mass density of 3.00 g/cm3 5,000 g of ice?
and a mass of 600 g? 5. If you have 51.5 g of a 50.0 cm3 volume of one of the substances
5. If you have 34.0 g of a 50.0 cm3 volume of one of the substances listed in table 1.3, which one is it?
listed in table 1.3, which one is it? 6. What is the mass of gasoline (ρ = 0.680 g/cm3) in a 94.6 L
6. What is the mass of water in a 40 L aquarium? gasoline tank?
7. A 2.1 kg pile of aluminum cans is melted, then cooled into a 7. What is the volume of a 2.00 kg pile of iron cans that are melted,
solid cube. What is the volume of the cube? then cooled into a solid cube?
8. A cubic box contains 1,000 g of water. What is the length of one 8. A cubic tank holds 1,000.0 kg of water. What are the dimensions
side of the box in meters? Explain your reasoning. of the tank in meters? Explain your reasoning.
9. A loaf of bread (volume 3,000 cm3) with a density of 0.2 g/cm3 is 9. A hot dog bun (volume 240 cm3) with a density of 0.15 g/cm3 is
crushed in the bottom of a grocery bag into a volume of 1,500 cm3. crushed in a picnic cooler into a volume of 195 cm3. What is the
What is the density of the mashed bread? new density of the bun?
10. According to table 1.3, what volume of copper would be needed 10. According to table 1.3, what volume of iron would be needed
to balance a 1.00 cm3 sample of lead on a two-pan laboratory to balance a 1.00 cm3 sample of lead on a two-pan laboratory
balance? balance?

CHAPTER 1 What Is Science? 23

 2 Motion

CORE CONCEPT
A net force is required for any change in a state of motion.

OUTLINE
2.1 Describing Motion
2.2 Measuring Motion
Speed Inertia is the tendency
Velocity of an object to remain
Acceleration in unchanging motion
2.3 Forces when the net force is
2.4 Horizontal Motion on Land
zero.
The force of gravity A Closer Look: A Bicycle Racer’s Edge Pg. 31
uniformly accelerates 2.5 Falling Objects
falling objects. 2.6 Compound Motion
Pg. 34 Vertical Projectiles
Every object retains its
Horizontal Projectiles
2.7 Three Laws of Motion state of rest or
Newton’s First Law of Motion straight-line motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion unless acted upon by
Which forces on Weight and Mass an unbalanced force.
different-sized Newton’s Third Law of Motion Pg. 37
balloons enable you 2.8 Momentum
to predict if they are Conservation of Momentum
going to move up, All objects in the Impulse
down, or drift across universe are attracted 2.9 Forces and Circular Motion
to all other objects in 2.10 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
the land? This chapter Earth Satellites
the universe.
is about relationships Pg. 46
between force and A Closer Look: Gravity Problems
Weightlessness
mass, and how these
influence an object’s People Behind the Science: Isaac Newton
motion.
©Pakawat
Thongcharoen/
Getty Images RF
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 ⁵And the greater house he cieled with fir ¹ tree,
which he overlaid with fine gold, and wrought
thereon palm trees and chains.
¹ Or, cypress.

5. the greater house] i.e. the holy place. It was forty cubits long (1
Kings vi. 17), whereas the shrine was twenty (1 Kings vi. 16, 20).

he cieled] i.e. lined or boarded. The same Hebrew word is

translated overlaid in this same verse.

wrought thereon] perhaps in the form of reliefs.

palm trees and chains] The “chains” perhaps connected one

palm tree with another. In 1 Kings vi. 29, “cherubim and palm trees
and open flowers.”

⁶And he garnished the house with precious

stones for beauty: and the gold was gold of
Parvaim.
6. precious stones] Not mentioned in the parallel account, but
according to 1 Kings v. 17 costly stones (the same expression in
Hebrew) were used for the foundations of the house, their costliness
being due presumably to their immense size. Here, however, the
phrase “for beauty” suggests that the Chronicler is thinking of rare
and precious stones to be set in the walls—an exaggeration not out
of keeping with the references to “pure gold” in verses 4, 7, etc.

Parvaim] Apparently the name of a place, but nothing certain is

known about it.

⁷He overlaid also the house, the beams, the

thresholds, and the walls thereof, and the
 doors thereof, with gold; and graved cherubim
on the walls.
7. cherubim] The cherubim (plural of cherub) were the Hebrew
adaptation of the winged bulls which are so striking a figure in
Babylonian and Assyrian art. Nothing, however, can be ascertained
as to the exact form in which they were depicted in the Temple. In
the Old Testament they appear as guardians of sacred things
(Genesis iii. 24; Ezekiel xxviii.) and as sustainers of the Deity (e.g.
Psalms lxxx. 1 “Thou that sittest upon the cherubim”; compare
Psalms xviii. 10). The figures were therefore emblematic of the
presence of Jehovah.

The graving of the cherubim was not felt to be a breach of the

Second Commandment, for they were not put up to “bow down to” or
to “serve.”

8, 9 (compare 1 Kings vi. 16‒20).

The Holy of Holies.

⁸And he made the most holy house; the length

thereof, according to the breadth of the house,
was twenty cubits, and the breadth thereof
twenty cubits: and he overlaid it with fine gold,
amounting to six hundred talents. ⁹And the
weight of the nails was fifty shekels of gold.
And he overlaid the upper chambers with gold.
8. the most holy house] Called the oracle in 1 Kings vi. 16, 19,
etc., Hebrew dĕbīr, which means rather the hinder part. The Lord
“dwells” in the inmost recess of the house.

amounting to six hundred talents] This detail is not found

elsewhere. The weight of gold would be over 64,000 lbs., or, on a
less probable reckoning, 27,000 lbs.; incredible quantities in either
case, but in keeping with the vast amounts stated in 1 Chronicles
xxix. 4.

10‒13 (compare 1 Kings vi. 23‒28).

The Cherubim.

¹⁰And in the most holy house he made two

cherubim of image work; and they overlaid
them with gold. ¹¹And the wings of the
cherubim were twenty cubits long: the wing of
the one cherub was five cubits, reaching to the
wall of the house; and the other wing was
likewise five cubits, reaching to the wing of the
other cherub. ¹²And the wing of the other
cherub was five cubits, reaching to the wall of
the house: and the other wing was five cubits
also, joining to the wing of the other cherub.
10. of image work; and they overlaid] The phrase “of image work”
is meaningless. Following the LXX. ἔρηον ἐκ ξύλων καὶ ἐχρύσωσεν,
render woodwork, and he overlaid.

¹³The wings of these cherubim spread

themselves forth twenty cubits: and they stood
on their feet, and their faces were toward the
house ¹.
¹ Or, inward.

13. twenty cubits] Extending across the width of the whole house.
 on their feet] Not “couchant” nor “rampant” but standing, as the
winged bulls of Assyria stand.

toward the house] as though to protect the Holiest Place from

violation by anyone advancing through the house.

14 (compare Exodus xxvi. 31, 32).

The Veil.

¹⁴And he made the veil of blue, and purple,

and crimson, and fine linen, and wrought
cherubim thereon.
No veil for Solomon’s Temple is mentioned in 1 Kings, but (1
Kings vi. 31, 32) doors of olive wood with cherubim carved upon
them stood at the entrance of the Holy of Holies. The description of
the veil seems to have been borrowed by the Chronicler from the
account of the tabernacle given in Exodus.

15‒17 (compare 1 Kings vii. 15‒22).

The Pillars Jachin and Boaz.

¹⁵Also he made before the house two pillars of

thirty and five cubits high, and the chapiter
that was on the top of each of them was five
cubits.
15. before the house two pillars] Compare 1 Kings vii. 21, he set
up the pillars at the porch of the temple, and Jeremiah lii. 17
(translate, the pillars ... that belonged to the house). These pillars
were immediately in front of the porch, but (it seems) detached from
it. They were cast in brass (iv. 11‒17), were hollow (Jeremiah lii. 21),
and were crowned with “chapiters” (capitals) in shape like bowls (1
Kings vii. 41). A pair of lofty frontal pillars, detached from the main
building, was a not uncommon feature of temples in Western Asia
and Egypt—e.g. at the Temple of Hercules (Melkart) at Tyre
(Herodotus II. 44), the Temple of Paphos in Cyprus (see W. R.
Smith, Religion of the Semites², p. 488), at Karnak in Egypt
(compare Perrot and Chipiez, Egyptian Art, II. 170). In Solomon’s
Temple these twin columns may have been conventional imitations
of the prevailing type of temple building, but it is rather to be
supposed that there also they were considered to be symbolic of the
presence of God, and were developments of the ancient stone pillars
(maṣṣeboth) which were a constant feature at Semitic shrines and
had originally been regarded as the abode of the Deity.

thirty and five cubits high] 35 is also given in the LXX. of

Jeremiah lii. 21; but is almost certainly an error. Read eighteen, as in
1 Kings vii. 15; Jeremiah lii. 21 (Hebrew).

¹⁶And he made chains in the oracle, and put

them on the tops of the pillars; and he made
an hundred pomegranates, and put them on
the chains.
16. he made chains in the oracle] The words, in the oracle,
though found in LXX., are a gloss introduced from 1 Kings vi. 21
(chains ... before the oracle), or, more probably, a corruption of a
word meaning “like a necklace.” The Chronicler is here speaking of
the outside of the Temple, having already described the “oracle,” i.e.
the Holy of Holies, in verses 8‒14. The Hebrew word dĕbīr was
translated “oracle” because it was supposed to be derived from a
word meaning “to speak.” It means, however, simply “the hindermost
part” of the house (compare iv. 20, v. 7, 9).

¹⁷And he set up the pillars before the temple,

one on the right hand, and the other on the
left; and called the name of that on the right
hand Jachin ¹, and the name of that on the left
Boaz ².
 ¹ That is, He shall establish.

² That is, perhaps, In it is strength.

17. Jachin ... Boaz] Margin translates the two words; Jachin “He
shall establish,” Boaz perhaps “In it is strength.” LXX. gives
Κατόρθωσις “setting up”) and Ἰσχύς (“strength”). The meaning of Boaz
is uncertain. It may be only a pious correction of an original Baal.
(For the avoidance of the word Baal, see the notes on xvii. 3, 1
Chronicles viii. 33; and for further comments on “Jachin” and “Boaz”
see Encyclopedia Biblia II. 2. 304, and Barnes in Journal of
Theological Studies, v. 447 ff.)
 Chapter IV.
1.
The Altar of Brass.

¹Moreover he made an altar of brass, twenty

cubits the length thereof, and twenty cubits the
breadth thereof, and ten cubits the height
thereof.
1. an altar of brass, twenty cubits] The brasen altar is referred to
in 1 Kings viii. 64; 2 Kings xvi. 14 ff., but it is (strangely) not
mentioned among the furnishings of the Temple described in the
present text of 1 Kings vii. It is impossible therefore to say whether
the Chronicler derives the measurements he here gives from a text
of Kings which did contain a description of the brasen altar, or from
the altar of the Temple of his own period. The latter is more probable.
Some scholars consider it possible that at first Solomon’s Temple
contained no artificial altar, the sacrifices being offered on the great
natural rock which is now covered by the famous building popularly
known as the Mosque of Omar (properly “The Dome of the Rock”).

The great altar was probably a flat oblong expanse, the highest of
a series of terraces, of which the base measurement is given by the
Chronicler—compare the description of Ezekiel’s altar (Ezekiel xliii.
13 ff.).

2‒5 (= 1 Kings vii. 23‒26).

The Molten Sea.
 ²Also he made the molten sea of ten cubits
from brim to brim, round in compass, and the
height thereof was five cubits; and a line of
thirty cubits compassed it round about.
2. he made the molten sea] Render, he made the sea of molten
metal. The “sea” or great laver was a well-known feature in temples
(compare Revelation iv. 6), and, originally at least, is likely to have
had religious significance, as a symbol of Jehovah’s power over the
seas and the rain, or over the primeval Deep upon which His might
was exercised in the creation of the world (Genesis i.; Psalms xxiv.
2). For the Chronicler’s view of its purpose, see verse 6.

ten cubits from brim to brim ... and a line of thirty cubits
compassed it] The mathematical inaccuracy in the measurements
here given—10 in diameter, 30 in circumference—has often been
pointed out. But the literal Hebrew is “ten with the cubit ... and thirty
with the cubit,” and F. C. Burkitt in a communication to the
Cambridge Review for May 13, 1914 offers an interesting vindication
of the phrase. He writes “... What the verse says about the
circumference of the ‘sea’ is that they stretched a string round it, and
when they laid the string out flat they had to go thirty times with the
cubit, i.e. a man had to put his elbow down thirty times before he got
to the end.” [The distance from the point of the elbow to the tip of the
longest finger is 1 cubit.] “No doubt the last time he put his elbow
down the string came short: in other words, the ‘sea’ was nine-and-
a-bittock across and twenty-nine-and-a-bittock round. As a matter of
fact, if a circle be 9 ft. 6 in. across, it is just over 29 ft. 10 in. round.
Such a circle I think would be described in Hebrew as ‘ten with the
foot-rule’ across and ‘thirty with the foot-rule’ in circumference.”

a line of thirty cubits compassed it] i.e. it was thirty cubits in

circumference.

³And under it was the similitude of oxen ¹,

which did compass it round about, for ten
 cubits ², compassing the sea round about. The
oxen ¹ were in two rows, cast when it was cast.
¹ In 1 Kings vii. 24, knops. ² Or, ten in a cubit.

3. under it was the similitude of oxen] This reading has the

support of the LXX., but can hardly be correct. Read (compare 1
Kings vii. 24), under it there were knops, “knops” being embossed
ornaments, imitating probably the fruit or the flowers of the gourd.

for ten cubits] Obviously an error, for the “knops” encircle the sea,
and its circumference was thirty not ten cubits. The rendering of the
margin “ten in a cubit” gives good sense, but is not a fair translation.
Whatever the mistake in the Hebrew may be, it appears in 1 Kings
vii. 24 also.

The oxen were in two rows, cast when it was cast] Correct the
reading as before and render, The knops were in two rows, cast
when it was cast. It is mentioned as a triumph of the founder’s art
that the laver was cast complete, with its ornaments, from the first.

⁴It stood upon twelve oxen, three looking

toward the north, and three looking toward the
west, and three looking toward the south, and
three looking toward the east: and the sea
was set upon them above, and all their hinder
parts were inward.
4. three ... and three ... and three ... and three] Thus the base
stood “foursquare,” satisfying the Hebrew idea of completeness;
compare Revelation xxi. 12‒16.

⁵And it was an handbreadth thick; and the

brim thereof was wrought like the brim of a
 cup, like the flower of a lily: it received and
held three thousand baths.
5. three thousand baths] In 1 Kings vii. 26, two thousand baths.
Whether the textual corruption is to be attributed to 1 Kings or to
Chronicles cannot be determined, and further even two thousand
baths is an amount exceeding the capacity of a vessel with the
measurements given for the sea above. The bath was a measure for
liquids equal to about 8¼ gallons.

6 (compare verse 14 and 1 Kings vii. 38, 39).

The Lavers.

⁶He made also ten lavers, and put five on the

right hand, and five on the left, to wash in
them; such things as belonged to the burnt
offering they washed in them: but the sea was
for the priests to wash in.
6. the sea was for the priests to wash in] See, however, the note
on verse 2 above regarding its probable significance in early times.
For this, the Chronicler’s view of its purpose (as also that of the
lavers), compare Exodus xxx. 18‒21. The sea in particular would be
singularly awkward as a vessel for cleansing purposes, unless all
that is meant is that it was used as the receptacle from which water
for purification was drawn.

7 (= 1 Kings vii. 49).

The Golden Candlesticks.

⁷And he made the ten candlesticks of gold

according to the ordinance concerning them;
and he set them in the temple, five on the right
hand, and five on the left.
 7. ten candlesticks] Rather, the ten lamp-stands. Allusion to ten
lamp-stands or candlesticks is found elsewhere only in 1 Kings vii.
49, a late passage. In view of the frequent references to one
candlestick with seven lamps (compare Zechariah iv.; Exodus xxv.
31 ff.), the question arises whether the ten ever had historical reality,
or were simply a fiction of tradition. The reference to candlesticks of
gold and of silver in 1 Chronicles xxviii. 15 does not help us, for it
depends on the same evidence, sound or unsound, which the
Chronicler had for the present passage. Some scholars feel that
there must be some ground for the statement; but no positive
conclusion is yet possible.

according to the ordinance] Compare Exodus xxv. 31‒37, xl. 4.

in the temple] In 1 Kings vii. 49 more precisely, before the oracle,

i.e. before the Holy of Holies.

8.
The Tables and Basons.

⁸He made also ten tables, and placed them in

the temple, five on the right side, and five on
the left. And he made an hundred basons of
gold.
8. ten tables] In verse 19 “the tables (plural) whereon was the
shewbread” are mentioned (compare 1 Chronicles xxviii. 16), but the
parallel passage (1 Kings vii. 48) has “the table” (singular), and
elsewhere both in Chronicles and in the rest of the Old Testament
one table only is assigned to the shewbread (2 Chronicles xiii. 11,
xxix. 18). Probably therefore the ten tables here mentioned were not
for the shewbread, although the Chronicler may have thought so.
The same uncertainty attaches to this tradition of ten tables as to
that of the ten candlesticks (see previous note); and it is held by
some that these tables were for the support of the candlesticks.
 basons] These were used for dashing the blood of the sacrifices
against the altar.

9, 10.
The Two Courts.

⁹Furthermore he made the court of the priests,

and the great court, and doors for the court,
and overlaid the doors of them with brass.
9. the court of the priests, and the great court] The phrases
reflect the conditions of the second Temple with which the Chronicler
was familiar, when the inner court was confined to the use of the
priests, the outer one being for the people. Solomon’s Temple,
strictly speaking, had only one court, for in “the other court” stood
Solomon’s house (1 Kings vii. 8). This “other court” seems to be
called the “middle court” (2 Kings xx. 4, margin), and the “upper
court” (Jeremiah xxxvi. 10). The “great court” (1 Kings vii. 12) was
perhaps a third court containing not only the king’s house, but all the
royal buildings as well. The Hebrew word for “court” in all the above
passages is ḥāṣēr, but here the “court (ḥāṣēr) of the priests” is
distinguished from a court called the “great court” (Hebrew “great
‘azārāh”). Perhaps the Chronicler wishes to make the same
distinction when he says that Solomon’s great prayer was offered (vi.
13) in “the court” (Hebrew ’azārāh). Compare xx. 5 (note).

¹⁰And he set the sea on the right side of the

house eastward, toward the south.
10. the sea] See verses 2‒5. Its position is stated in accordance
with 1 Kings vii. 39.

11‒18 (= 1 Kings vii. 40‒47).

The Works of Huram.
 This section is taken from the parallel passage of 1 Kings. The
variations are few.

¹¹And Huram made the pots, and the shovels,

and the basons. So Huram made an end of
doing the work that he wrought for king
Solomon in the house of God:
11. Huram] For the form of the name see note on ii. 3.

¹²the two pillars, and the bowls, and the two

chapiters which were on the top of the pillars;
and the two networks to cover the two bowls
of the chapiters that were on the top of the
pillars; ¹³and the four hundred pomegranates
for the two networks; two rows of
pomegranates for each network, to cover the
two bowls of the chapiters that were upon ¹ the
pillars.
¹ Hebrew upon the face of the pillars.

12. two pillars] See iii. 15‒17.

the bowls] i.e. the bowl-shaped part of the capital of a pillar.

the chapiters] In modern English “capitals.”

¹⁴He made also the bases, and the lavers

made he upon the bases; ¹⁵one sea, and the
twelve oxen under it.
 14. He made also the bases, and the lavers made he upon the
bases] A simple correction of the Hebrew text gives, And the ten
bases and the ten lavers on the bases, as in 1 Kings vii. 43.

¹⁶The pots also, and the shovels, and the

fleshhooks, and all the vessels thereof, did
Huram his father make for king Solomon for
the house of the Lord of bright brass.
16. the fleshhooks] Hebrew mizlāgōth. In verse 11 and 1 Kings
vii. 45 (the parallel passages) the basons (Hebrew mizrāḳōth).

Huram his father] See note on ii. 13.

¹⁷In the plain of Jordan did the king cast them,

in the clay ground between Succoth and
Zeredah.
17. in the clay ground] G. A. Smith (Historical Geography, p. 488)
speaks of traces of old brick-fields found by Sir C. Warren in the
Jordan valley. It is possible, however, that the Hebrew is defective
and that the true reading is at the ford of Adamah, but on the whole
it is best to keep the reading in the text (see Barnes on 1 Kings vii.
46).

Succoth] Succoth is probably Tell Deir ‘Alla, east of Jordan, about

one mile north of the Jabbok.

Zeredah] (1 Kings xi. 26); but in 1 Kings vii. 46 (Revised Version)

Zarethan (compare Joshua iii. 6, Revised Version). Its site is not
known, beyond the obvious inference that it was near the Jordan and
not very far from Succoth. Joshua iii. 16 states that it was near Adam
(the modern el Damieh).
 ¹⁸Thus Solomon made all these vessels in
great abundance: for the weight of the brass
could not be found out ¹.
¹ Or, was not searched out.

18. Thus Solomon made all these vessels in great abundance] In

1 Kings vii. 47, And Solomon left all the vessels unweighed, because
they were exceeding many.

19‒V. 1 (= 1 Kings vii. 48‒51).

The Vessels of Gold.

The Completion of the Work.

¹⁹And Solomon made all the vessels that were

in the house of God, the golden altar also, and
the tables whereon was the shewbread;
19. the golden altar] This was the altar of incense (compare 1
Maccabees i. 21 ff.), which according to Exodus xxx. 1 ff. stood
within the tabernacle and was made of acacia wood (compare
however, Exodus xxxix. 38). Both passages in Exodus are of late,
post-exilic, date, and as no mention of this altar is made by Ezekiel,
it was probably a feature not of the first but of the second Temple.

the tables whereon was the shewbread] In 1 Kings vii. 48

(parallel passage), the table (singular); a reading probably to be
accepted here also; compare note on verse 8.

²⁰and the candlesticks with their lamps, that

they should burn according to the ordinance
before the oracle, of pure gold;
 20. the oracle] See note on iii. 16.

²¹and the flowers, and the lamps, and the

tongs, of gold, and that perfect gold;
21. the flowers] These were ornaments on the golden
candlesticks; compare Exodus xxxvii. 19.

²²and the snuffers, and the basons, and the

spoons, and the firepans, of pure gold: and as
for the entry of the house, the inner doors
thereof for the most holy place, and the doors
of the house, to wit, of the temple, were of
gold.
22. the firepans] in which fire was carried to and from the altar.

the doors of the house, to wit, of the temple] The “[greater]

house” or “temple” is here distinguished from the “most holy place”
or “shrine.” Compare iii. 5, 8.

were of gold] According to the more probable reading of 1 Kings

vii. 50 the hinges were of gold; the doors themselves were of olive
wood overlaid with gold (1 Kings vi. 31, 32).

¹Thus all the work that Solomon wrought for

the house of the Lord was finished. And
Solomon brought in the things that David his
father had dedicated; even the silver, and the
gold, and all the vessels, and put them in the
treasuries of the house of God.
 Chapter V. 1. all the vessels] the word may be taken to include
weapons, spoils of war, compare 2 Samuel viii. 7 ff.; 1 Chronicles
xviii. 11.

V. 2‒VIII. 10.
The Dedication of the Temple.

Chapter V.
2‒10 (= 1 Kings viii. 1‒9).
The Ark brought into the Sanctuary.

This section is taken almost verbatim from 1 Kings.

²Then Solomon assembled the elders of

Israel, and all the heads of the tribes, the
princes of the fathers’ houses of the children
of Israel, unto Jerusalem, to bring up the ark
of the covenant of the Lord out of the city of
David, which is Zion.
2. Then Solomon assembled] The same verb in the Hebrew as in
1 Chronicles xv. 3 (see note there) and in 1 Chronicles xxviii. 1.

the city of David] See 1 Chronicles xi. 5, note on the strong hold
of Zion.
 ³And all the men of Israel assembled
themselves unto the king at the feast, which
was in the seventh month.
3. the feast] i.e. the Feast of Tabernacles, i.e. after the fruit
harvest.

in the seventh month] In 1 Kings the name of the month is given

as Ethanim, but this word was perhaps obsolete when the Chronicler
wrote; at any rate we know that in post-biblical times the seventh
month was regularly called Tisri.

⁴And all the elders of Israel came, and the

Levites took up the ark.
4. the Levites took up the ark] According to 1 Kings the priests
performed this duty. In the days of David and Solomon all Levites
were possible priests, Levi being the name of the priestly clan and
not of a lower order of priests. At a later period the Levites were
regarded as a class subordinate to the priests, having duties distinct
from those of the priests—e.g. the task of bearing the tabernacle and
all its furniture (see Numbers i. 50, etc.). The Chronicler believing
that this distinction had been in force from the time of Moses
onwards “corrects” the text of Kings by changing “priests” into
“Levites”: compare 1 Chronicles xv. 2, 12, 13. See the special note
on 1 Chronicles vi., pp. 51 f.

⁵And they brought up the ark, and the tent of

meeting, and all the holy vessels that were in
the Tent; these did the priests the Levites
bring up. ⁶And king Solomon and all the
congregation of Israel, that were assembled
unto him, were before the ark, sacrificing
 sheep and oxen, that could not be told nor
numbered for multitude.
5. the tent of meeting] i.e. the Mosaic tabernacle, which the
Chronicler believed to have been in existence in the time of David
and Solomon, and to have been at Gibeon (i. 3 f.). The parallel
statement in Kings comes not from the early sources but from the
hand of a late reviser.

the priests the Levites] here the older phrase, which does not
indicate a distinction between Priests and Levites, has been allowed
to stand, perhaps “because certain utensils might well have been
borne by the priests” (so Curtis), or possibly through slight
carelessness on the Chronicler’s part. The parallel in Kings has “the
priests and the Levites.”

⁷And the priests brought in the ark of the

covenant of the Lord unto its place, into the
oracle of the house, to the most holy place,
even under the wings of the cherubim. ⁸For
the cherubim spread forth their wings over the
place of the ark, and the cherubim covered the
ark and the staves thereof above.
7. the priests brought in the ark] Only the priests might lawfully
place the Ark within the Holy of Holies (compare Numbers iv. 5 ff.).
The Chronicler therefore had no cause for changing priests into
Levites here.

into the oracle] See iii. 16, note.

⁹And the staves ¹ were so long that the ends of

the staves were seen from the ark before the
 oracle; but they were not seen without: and
there it is, unto this day.
¹ Or, they drew out the staves, so that &c.

9. from the ark] Read (with LXX. and 1 Kings viii. 8) from the
holy place. One standing in the Holy Place and looking towards the
Holy of Holies could see the heads of the staves.

and there it is, unto this day] These words are taken over with the
loss of one letter (which here makes the difference between singular
and plural) from 1 Kings viii. 8, but they are out of place in
Chronicles, for when the Chronicler wrote the Ark had long ago
disappeared. The vessels which were brought back from the
Babylonian captivity are specified in Ezra i. 9, 10, but the Ark of the
covenant is not reckoned among them.

¹⁰There was nothing in the ark save the two

tables which Moses put there at Horeb, when ¹
the Lord made a covenant with the children
of Israel, when they came out of Egypt.
¹ Or, where.

10. which Moses put there] Exodus xl. 20.

at Horeb] Deuteronomy v. 2.

11‒14 (= 1 Kings viii. 10, 11).

The Descent of the Glory of the Lord.

¹¹And it came to pass, when the priests were

come out of the holy place, (for all the priests