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More Than Words? Computer-Aided Text Analysis in Organizational

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DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104622
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Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and

Organizational Behavior
More Than Words?

Computer-Aided Text Analysis
Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018.5:415-435. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
in Organizational Behavior and

Access provided by University of Central Florida on 01/30/18. For personal use only.
Psychology Research
Jeremy C. Short,1 Aaron F. McKenny,2
and Shane W. Reid3
1
Division of Entrepreneurship and Economic Development, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma 73019, USA; email: Jeremy.Short@ou.edu
2
Department of Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32803, USA;
email: Aaron.McKenny@ucf.edu
3
Division of Management & International Business, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma 73019, USA; email: sreid@ou.edu
Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018. Keywords

5:415–35
computer-aided text analysis, content analysis, language, organizational
The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior is online at behavior
orgpsych.annualreviews.org
Abstract
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-
032117-104622 Computer-aided text analysis (CATA) offers great promise for scholars who
Copyright c 2018 by Annual Reviews. aspire to capture the beliefs, cognitions, and emotions of individuals as re-
All rights reserved flected in their narratives and written texts. We review advancements in
the use of CATA in organizational studies and highlight the increased mo-
mentum towards incorporating rigor when using CATA. We review key
ANNUAL
REVIEWS Further CATA software and note the variance in possibilities of approaches when
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spectives that might further advance the use of this technique.
415
Words are the voice of the heart.

—Confucius
I was reading the dictionary. I thought it was a poem about everything.
—Stephen Wright
INTRODUCTION
Our opening quotes present two vastly different perspectives on the nature of words and their
usage. In the perspective of China’s greatest philosopher, words capture the essence of an indi-
vidual’s thoughts, feelings, and beliefs in a manner that potentially offers insights into one’s very
heart. In contrast, according to comedian Stephen Wright the presentation of words can seem
somewhat random and chaotic. Content analysis is a technique used by scholars in a variety of fields
to organize and make sense of the words, phrases, and language used by individuals in speeches,
organizational narratives, or other communication media. Content analysis captures cognitions,
emotions, and other types of meaning as reflected in the rhetoric presented in words or narrative
texts. Although the technique has the potential to capture the deep beliefs and thoughts of the
written and spoken word as suggested by Confucius, scholars must exercise care to ensure that the
way content analysis is conducted does not result in a cavalier attempt to derive meaning where it
does not exist, as exemplified by the quote of Stephen Wright.
The use of content analysis to study phenomena of interest has a rich history in the social
sciences and humanities dating back over a century (e.g., Berelson 1952, Holsti 1969, Lasswell
1948, Mathews 1910, Pool 1959). For example, early work on organizational leadership examined
how the use and frequency of certain themes associated with leadership clichés (e.g., teamwork,
hard work, cooperation) found in interview transcripts of managers and supervisors from produc-
tion organizations could inform how organizational context affects leadership orientation (Rossel
1970). Rossel (1970) found that the degree to which leaders were either more instrumental and
process oriented (e.g., “I have to maintain the discipline of the department, check to see that the
efficiency of the men is up,” pp. 311–12) or more expressive and relationship focused (e.g., “The
biggest thing about getting along with people is to ask them to do something rather than telling
them,” p. 312) depended on the type of work and level of employee commitment required in the
organization. Rossel’s (1970) work was typical of early content analysis approaches in organiza-
tional studies that emphasized the manual coding of open-ended interview transcripts and case
studies ( Jauch et al. 1980).
A decade ago, Duriau and colleagues (2007) chronicled how organizational studies published
from 1980 to 2005 used content analysis. They examined 98 studies in top management journals
that reflected diverse research streams, including organizational behavior, managerial and organi-
zational cognition, human resources, and business policy and strategy. They noted that the avail-
ability of rich data sources such as annual reports, proxy statements, and interview transcripts—
combined with the growing sophistication of analytical techniques—provided researchers the
opportunity to explore and test hypotheses in new contexts and gain valuable insights that were
difficult to attain with more traditional research methods (Duriau et al. 2007).
The advent of computer-aided text analysis (CATA) further expanded the applicability of
content analysis to organizational studies. Researchers could now quickly and efficiently code large
sets of data while reducing the cost and time required for manual coding (Duriau et al. 2007). Given
these benefits as well as the potential for perfect coding reliability provided by CATA, Duriau and
colleagues (2007) were surprised to find that only 24 studies in their sample utilized this technique.
They noted that the significant advantages provided by CATA outweighed the limitations and
416 Short · McKenny · Reid

that these pitfalls could be minimized with carefully implemented studies. They emphasized the
need for increased utilization of CATA techniques to further enhance future theory building and
hypotheses testing (Duriau et al. 2007). Given CATA’s untapped potential, it is not surprising that
methods scholars have also highlighted its promise to improve the measurement of organizational
phenomena (Aguinis & Vandenberg 2014).
ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW

We begin by briefly describing commonly used software packages often leveraged to conduct
CATA, noting their different approaches for extracting meaning from language. Next, we outline
how CATA has been utilized in management research, focusing on how it has evolved and been
leveraged by organizational scholars over time to explore psychological phenomena of interest.

Therefore, we highlight 144 empirical articles from top management journals that have incorpo-
rated elements of CATA over the past several decades. In particular, we focus on works relevant
to expanding knowledge in organizational behavior and organizational psychology. Finally, our
review highlights measurement issues for organizational constructs and cross-cultural contexts
where CATA measurement may open doors to difficult-to-capture phenomena. We end with a
call for the continued advancement of CATA research, suggesting that the refinement of different
techniques coupled with the discovery of new applications for CATA measurement may help us
better understand the power of words in organizational life.
For the purposes of this review, we searched for all articles that mention any connotation
of phrases relating to CATA (e.g., “computer-aided text,” “computerized content”) as well as
any mention of CATA software (e.g., “LIWC”, “NVivo”) from the following journals: Academy
of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of
International Business Studies, Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Organiza-
tion Science, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Organizational Research Methods,
Personnel Psychology, and Strategic Management Journal. All nonempirical articles (e.g., reviews) or
studies that did not use CATA as part of the main analysis (e.g., mentioning it as possible future
research) were removed, yielding a final total of 144 articles.
DEMYSTIFYING CATA: KEY APPROACHES AND SOFTWARE

PACKAGES
A number of commercially available software packages exist to aid scholars in fulfilling different
CATA research goals. In the most general of terms, two key approaches have been used by
scholars leveraging the power of CATA. One approach follows an inductive logic whereby scholars
either develop or utilize existing narratives (often in the form of semistructured interviews) and
then examine themes of scholarly interest. Such studies often proceed from qualitative research
traditions that look for rich explanations of broad themes that are embedded within organizational
texts. In contrast, other scholars have utilized a more deductive approach to CATA that generally
follows a more quantitative tradition. When leveraging this approach, scholars often develop
dictionaries associated with theoretical constructs and then use these dictionaries to measure the
salience of the construct in a sample of preexisting narratives.
An example of a study using CATA grounded in the qualitative approach is the work of de
Gama and colleagues (2012), who studied morality and ethics in the narratives of Canadian human
resources (HR) professionals. As part of an ongoing study examining themes of rhetoric and
reality in the HR field, they relied on two samples of HR professionals that produced a total of
40 semistructured interviews. Consequently, the data analyzed using CATA involved answers to
www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 417

broad questions developed by the scholars surrounding the nature of HR work. The researchers
then used CATA software as an aid to create detailed notes, keep track of and organize emerging
coding items, glean themes from the data in a systematic way, and/or posit relationships and
Bag-of-words:
an approach to CATA models using existing themes. Such studies generally proceed by noting general themes and often
where words or highlight specific quotes from the study subjects. For example, the scholars note the theme of moral
phrases are considered ambivalence surrounding the role of HR after examining the thoughts of one subject named Cindy
independent of their (de Gama et al. 2012, p. 104):
context in the text
Node: a category or You know, when I think about HR they have to wear two hats right? So if you are not in HR and you
construct of interest to
are not happy about something you can turn round and say you know, I am not happy about this as
the researcher into
an employee. But if you are in HR and you are not happy about something, you may not agree with
which text excerpts are

coded during the what it is, but you still have to go out there and support whatever decision is being made. We need to
content analysis sell that to people whether we like it or not. Whether you think it is fair or not. Where in marketing
process you don’t have to do that. They can turn around and say ‘‘you know what, I don’t agree with that, why
does it have to be.
Overall, this form of CATA is useful to aid the scholar in a qualitative approach by allowing
for the systematic coding and analysis of narratives with the aim of examining broad scholarly
questions in a largely inductive manner.
The work of Madera and colleagues (2009) illustrates the potential of a more quantitative
approach to CATA. As part of their study, they used social role theory to hypothesize that “men
are more likely than women to be described in agentic terms in letters of recommendation” (Madera
et al. 2009, p. 1592). They tested their assertion using a sample of 624 letters of recommendation
and 194 applications for 8 university faculty positions, and they created a measure of agentic
orientation by summing the cognitive mechanisms, motion, and achievement indices in the CATA
software package LIWC. Using a dictionary-based “bag-of-words” approach, they examined the
frequencies of words from this composite index (including words such as “earn,” “gain,” “do,”
“know,” “insight,” and “think”) and found that men were indeed described using more agentic
terms in recommendation letters than women. In sum, this approach is valuable when some
combination of dictionary terms can be used to extract meaning from existing data. Given the
ability to quantify the extent to which words from a dictionary may or may not be present in a text,
this approach is commonly used to aid in testing theoretically based (quantitative) hypotheses.
Table 1 provides a summary of commonly used software programs leveraged to conduct CATA
in organizational studies. We outline the most commonly used packages below.
ATLAS.ti and NVivo

ATLAS.ti (developed by Scientific Software Development GmbH) and NVivo (developed by QSR
International) are software tools designed to facilitate qualitative content analyses of large bodies
of textual, graphical, audio, and video data. Designed to allow users to easily organize, locate,
code, and annotate findings, both programs are commonly used to assist with manual coding,
allowing researchers to select passages in the texts and easily code them into a new or existing
node (Krippendorff 2013). Researchers can then organize these nodes into hierarchies, model
relationships among the nodes, and generate a variety of reports and visualizations based on the
coding of the manuscript.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of these programs is the coding flexibility they provide
during the initial phases of the analysis. Traditional grounded theory includes several phases
of coding to reduce large quantities of data into a small number of concepts that account for a

Table 1 Overview of commonly used commercial CATA software

ATLAS.ti NVivo DICTION LIWC
Primary Inductive; grounded theory, Inductive; grounded theory, Deductive; Deductive;
use thematic analysis thematic analysis dictionary-based dictionary-based
coding coding
Narrative Annual reports, media Annual reports, media Annual reports, media Annual reports, media
types articles, transcribed articles, transcribed articles, organizational articles, organizational
interviews interviews communications, communications,
online content, press online content, press
releases, shareholder releases, shareholder
letters, transcripts (e.g., letters, transcripts (e.g.,
speech, call logs) speech, call logs)

Supported Audio (.au, .mp3, .snd), Audio (.au, .m4a, .mp3, PDF, text (.doc, .docx, PDF, text (.doc, .docx,
file types images (.bmp, .jpg, .tif ), .snd, .wav, .wma), images .html, .rtf, .txt) .rtf, .txt), spreadsheet
PDF, text (.doc, .docx, .rtf, (.bmp, .jpg, .tif ), mobile (.csv, .xls)
.txt), video (.mov, .mpg, (.3gp), PDF, spreadsheet
.qt) (.xls), text (.doc, .docx, .rtf,
.txt), video (.avi, .mov,
.mpe, .mpeg, .mpg, .mts,
.qt, .wmv)
Key Supports open coding, Supports open coding, Quickly computes word Quickly computes word
features autocoding, and notations autocoding, and notations counts and frequencies counts and frequencies
Visualizes relationships and Visualizes relationships and Includes 35 preloaded Includes preloaded
networks between codes networks between codes dictionaries to capture dictionaries aimed at
and groups of codes and groups of codes aspects of word choice capturing dimensions
Links codes across file types Allows for simultaneous use and tone of grammar
and data sources and sharing of data among Offers Power Analysis Includes over 50
Captures text segments or research team members mode to analyze validated dictionaries
words without predefined Imports data from social quickly large quantities related to various
code media sites (e.g., Facebook, of data (>1,000 psychological processes
Supports Google Earth and Twitter) documents) Supports multiple
GEO documents Supports multiple languages Creates or loads custom languages
Imports data from social Creates hyperlinks within dictionaries Creates or loads custom
media sites (e.g., Facebook, and across documents Includes database of dictionaries
Twitter) Calculates interrater 50,000 previously
Creates hyperlinks within reliabilities analyzed texts for
and across documents comparison of findings
Exports to multiple
programs (Excel, PDF,
SPSS, Word)
particular phenomenon of interest within the entire body of data (Charmaz 2014). Both ATLAS.ti
and NVivo allow for the coding of segments of text, enabling users to note the importance of the
content and associate it with phenomena of interest to the study. This allows researchers to better
understand the context of the individual data before considering what major themes or trends span
across an entire project (Maietta 2009). Projects start with an open inventory of text, allowing
for the coding of data based on key themes and trends that emerge organically rather than being
driven by preconceptions of how the data should be coded (Friese 2014). Such functionality allows
researchers to efficiently manage the relationships relevant to the construct or phenomenon of
interest that develop from the data for a more robust and in-depth theoretical analysis.

Although ATLAS.ti and NVivo are typically associated with assistance in manual coding, both
offer several features that can also be used to replicate dictionary-based CATA. For instance,
words associated with the dictionary can be entered into search queries, the results of which can
Dictionary-based
coding: an approach be saved to a code or node associated with the construct of interest. Researchers can then use
to CATA where reporting features to extract the total number of references to each construct associated with each
occurrence of specific text. Researchers using such functionality to conduct dictionary-based analyses should carefully
words from an existing examine the list of stop words used in their projects. Stop words are used in content analysis to
list indicates the
identify a list of the most commonly used words in the language that do not signal meaning and
salience of a construct
thus should not be considered as part of the analysis (Manning & Schütze 1999). Because ATLAS.ti
and NVivo ignore these words, if any of the words appear in the dictionary, whether individually
or as part of phrases, they will not be considered part of the query and may result in false positives
or false negatives. For example, scholars examining an individual’s temporal orientation might
be interested in the frequency of words such as “during” and “before”; however, these words are
included in NVivo’s default stop words list and therefore would not be identified by the query
and would result in a false negative. By contrast, a scholar looking at individuals’ preoccupation
with failure might identify “let down” as a salient phrase to examine. However, because NVivo
includes “down” as a stop word, the query would return all occurrences of the word “let” as being
indicative of this preoccupation, leading to false positives.
Beyond replication of dictionary-based coding functionality, there are other features provided
by both programs that may assist researchers relying on CATA. In particular, the qualitative
orientation of both programs may help to make up for one of the salient weaknesses of CATA: the
threat of false positives, whereby a word thought to be associated with the construct is regularly
used out of context in a sample of texts. ATLAS.ti and NVivo can help researchers to assess and
address this concern in several ways. For instance, embedded manual coding support enables the
manual coding of a subsample of texts in a faster and easier way than paper-and-pencil methods.
By being able to conduct a parallel manual examination of the computer-assisted analysis and to
report on the coded words, researchers can identify the extent to which words are used out of
context and adjust the dictionary accordingly (e.g., McKenny et al. 2016).
LIWC
Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (by Pennebaker Conglomerates) was originally developed by
psychologists James Pennebaker and Martha Francis in 1991 to facilitate the systematic exami-
nation of essays written by people who had experienced emotional upheavals (Neuendorf 2017,
Tausczik & Pennebaker 2010). This dictionary-based CATA tool has been expanded to currently
include almost 90 dictionaries that can be used to process texts in several languages, including
English, German, Spanish, and Chinese (Pennebaker et al. 2015).
LIWC contains a number of dictionaries that describe dimensions of a text’s grammar, such
as the number of pronouns, articles, and common adjectives (Pennebaker et al. 2015). These dic-
tionaries have yielded important insight into the psychological aspects of the text’s author: For
instance, frequent use of first-person singular pronouns has been linked to neuroticism (Pen-
nebaker et al. 2003). However, the psychological origins of LIWC are revealed by the over 50
internal dictionaries concerning psychological processes (Pennebaker et al. 2015). The psycholog-
ical process dictionaries range from affective process dictionaries such as those examining positive
and negative emotions that have been heavily used in the organizational psychology and orga-
nizational behavior literatures (e.g., Bono & Ilies 2006, Brett et al. 2007, Friedman et al. 2004),
to promising but underutilized psychological drive dictionaries examining needs for affiliation,
achievement, and power (e.g., Chen & Latham 2014, Shantz & Latham 2009).

The 2015 edition of LIWC introduced several calculated variables that are derived from the
values of other dictionaries rather than reflecting standalone dictionaries: analytical thinking, clout,
authenticity, and emotional tone (Pennebaker et al. 2015). Unfortunately, because the calculation
of these variables is proprietary to the LIWC software, they are not transparent to researchers
(Pennebaker et al. 2015). Nevertheless, if these measures prove valid in organizational settings, they
may facilitate new insights into several valuable areas of organizational psychology and behavior
research. For instance, research on trust in organizations might examine the authenticity measure,
which was developed based on research in LIWC exploring the role of deception in texts (e.g.,
Newman et al. 2003). Similarly, research on emotions in organizations might use the emotional
tone measure to identify how attitude changes following affective events in the workplace (e.g.,
Cohn et al. 2004).
DICTION
Originally developed to examine political speech, the DICTION software (created by Roderick
P. Hart and developed by Digitex, Inc.) analyzes aspects of both word choice and verbal tone
(Hart 1984). In regard to word choice, the DICTION software package contains 31 predefined
dictionaries. These dictionaries are then used to create five master variables about which the
software’s creator, Hart (2001, p. 45), argues: ‘‘If only five questions could be asked of a given
passage, these five would provide the most robust understanding.’’
The “certainty” master variable is calculated on the basis of a formula that sums dictionaries
representing tenacity, leveling, collective, and insistence and then subtracts words represent-
ing numerical terms, ambivalence, self-reference, and variety. The logic of this approach is to
create a measure indicating resoluteness and confidence. The “optimism” master variable is in-
spired by Barber’s (1992) study of optimism in the context of understanding presidential char-
acter. This work examines language that indicates endorsement and is calculated by summing
dictionaries indicating praise, satisfaction, and inspiration and subtracting dictionaries indicat-
ing blame, hardship, and denial. The “activity” master variable is based on the measurement
of meaning (Osgood et al. 1957), and it examines language featuring movement of ideas and
the avoidance of inertia. This variable combines dictionaries with words suggesting aggression,
accomplishment, communication, and motion while subtracting words associated with cogni-
tive terms, passivity, and embellishment. The “realism” master variable looks at language with
the goal of tapping into Dewey’s (1931) work on pragmatism. This variable examines language
describing tangible, immediate, and recognizable matters by summing dictionaries indicating
familiarity, spatial awareness, temporal awareness, present concerns, human interest, and con-
creteness while subtracting dictionaries indicating past concerns and complexity. The “common-
ality” master variable, inspired by communitarian concepts found in the work of Etzioni (1993),
examines language indicating agreed-on group values. It sums dictionaries reflecting central-
ity, cooperation, and rapport while subtracting dictionaries reflecting diversity, exclusion, and
liberation.
In regard to verbal tone, DICTION also includes a series of metrics known as calculated
variables. These variables (some of which are used to create master variables) reflect patterns
found in a particular text rather than counts of words from a particular dictionary. For example,
the “insistence” variable is a function of how often words are repeated in a given text. DICTION
also examines word “variety” by dividing the number of words in a text by total words. Finally,
DICTION measures word “complexity” by examining the average number of characters per word
in a given text.

Other Software Programs

CAT Scanner (designed by Aaron F. McKenny and Jeremy C. Short) is a free CATA tool that has
emerged in the management literature to facilitate several processes surrounding CATA. First,
CAT Scanner helps remove special characters from text files to facilitate CATA analysis. Special
characters frequently occur when the optical character recognition technology has imperfectly
recognized characters in a text drawn from images or PDF. For instance, the word “innovative”
might be read as “innovative↑.” Whereas the similarity of these words is likely clear to a human
coder, many CATA packages may default to identifying these as distinct words. As a result, CATA
analyses looking for the word “innovative” would not count this word as being relevant to the
analysis, leading to a false negative observation. CAT Scanner removes many of these characters
from the text file, resulting in cleaner texts and analyses. Second, CAT Scanner facilitates CATA
dictionary creation through its inductive word list generation function. Short and colleagues
(2010) highlight the importance of considering words drawn from the researcher’s sample of texts
to ensure the content validity of new dictionaries. CAT Scanner facilitates this by generating a
list of all words used three or more times within a text in the sample. Finally, CAT Scanner can
conduct dictionary-based CATA analyses. For instance, McKenny and colleagues (2016) leverage
previously created dictionaries and use CAT Scanner to measure organizational ambidexterity,
entrepreneurial orientation, and market orientation in their study of measurement error in CATA
research.
Owing to the considerable customizability of the analyses, emerging CATA techniques us-
ing machine learning and natural language programming often require familiarity with computer
programming (e.g., R, Python, Java). Nevertheless, tutorials and sample code are increasingly
available to organizational researchers using these techniques. For example, Kobayashi and col-
leagues (2017b) outline a number of text mining techniques and demonstrate how topic modeling
can be applied to job analysis, providing their R code as a supplement. Similarly, Kobayashi and
colleagues (2017a) outline the process of text classification in R, again demonstrating the procedure
using human resources data and making the code available to readers.
RESEARCH TRENDS AND THEMES

Perhaps the key advantage of CATA, and its primary distinction from other analysis techniques,
is its ability to nimbly handle and efficiently analyze large quantities of qualitative and textual data
through any of the available CATA-specific software packages (Short & Palmer 2008). Use of
such programs provides scholars with a stable coding scheme, explicit coding rules that provide
comparable results, and perfect reliability that allows them to focus more on validity, interpre-
tation, and explanation (Bligh et al. 2004, Morris 1994). Through CATA, scholars can leverage
new sets of data and further explore phenomena of interest in contexts previously thought to be
unavailable through traditional methods such as surveys (Bardi et al. 2008). Given these benefits, it
is not surprising that CATA has grown in popularity in management research over the last several
decades.
We present an overview of key research themes and trends emerging from studies that utilize
CATA for all or part of their analysis. Table 2 notes journals that have published research using
CATA. Table 3 presents the different text types used within each study, and Table 4 provides a
breakdown of the different software programs used by each study.
Although CATA has been used by a number of scholars across multiple disciplines within the
management field (e.g., organizational behavior, strategic management, entrepreneurship), we
specifically focus on research relating to organizational behavior and psychology.

Table 2 Studies utilizing CATA in top organizational research journals

Journal Number of studies
Academy of Management Journal 46
Journal of Organizational Behavior 18
Organization Science 17
Strategic Management Journal 13
Journal of Applied Psychology 12
Journal of Management 12
Administrative Science Quarterly 9
Journal of International Business Studies 8
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 6

Organizational Research Methods 3
Personnel Psychology 0
Table 3 Example narratives used in CATA studies

Sample type Number of studies Percentage of studies
Transcribed interviews 47 33%
Multiple narratives 27 19%
Media articles 18 13%
Annual reports 12 8%
Shareholder letters 10 7%
Experiment transcripts 7 5%
Organizational narratives 7 5%
Questionnaires 4 3%
Field observations 3 2%
Online content 3 2%
Transcripts (speeches, call logs) 3 2%
Other 3 2%
Table 4 Commercial CATA software use

Software package Number of studies Percentage of studies
Nvivo 51 35%
LIWC 30 21%
ATLAS.ti 27 19%
Other 13 9%
DICTION 10 7%
General Inquirer 5 3%
MonoConc Pro 5 3%
VBPro 3 2%

Individual Cognition and Behavior

CATA has been used to manage and analyze large sets of qualitative data (e.g., transcribed inter-
views) that have allowed scholars using a grounded theory approach to explore emerging themes
and answer questions surrounding the behaviors and motivations of individuals, such as creativity
(Sonenshein 2014), intentions to leave (Felps et al. 2009), modesty (Ridge & Ingram 2014), cog-
nitive processing and decision making (Basu & Savani 2017), impression management (Wilhelmy
et al. 2016), work stress (Barley et al. 2011), work-life balance (Kreiner et al. 2006, 2009), cultural
differences (Caprar 2011, Cerdin et al. 2014, Fisher & Hutchings 2013, Kellogg et al. 2006), and
reactions to different outcomes (Savani & King 2015).
Scholars have also applied validated CATA word lists to other forms of narrative text to further
explore individual behaviors and cognitions. Barclay & Skarlicki (2009) measured various emo-
tional and cognitive references in the writing samples of participants to an experiment to show
how expressive writing interventions can mitigate perceptions of workplace injustice. Writing
samples from experiment participants were also used to study the effect of motivational images
on goal setting by measuring the number of achievement-related words used in the sample (Chen
& Latham 2014, Shantz & Latham 2009). Savani & King (2015) counted the use of causal words
(e.g., “because,” “effect,” “hence”), positive words, and negative words to find that individuals
who viewed prior actions as events rather than choices were less likely to be concerned about the
outcome of a future decision.
Leader Behaviors
Scholars have also leveraged CATA to make substantial contributions to the study of leader
characteristics and manager behaviors. Scholars have studied how managers relate to employees
(Abrahamson & Eisenman 2008), how managers approach organizational downsizing (Palmer
et al. 1997), how supervisors influence employee voice (Detert & Treviño 2010), how manager
dispositions influence innovation (Heyden et al. 2015), and why some managers are abusive (Liang
et al. 2016).
Due to the growing availability of different leader narratives, scholars have been able to apply
CATA word lists to large sets of data to glean further insights into leader cognition and behavior.
For example, Fanelli and colleagues (2009) used newly validated word lists to find that projec-
tions of charismatic visions in a CEO’s annual letter to shareholders tended to inspire increased
confidence in external audiences. Using a new word list measuring a CEO’s commitment to the
status quo, shareholder letters were also used to find that high levels of commitment to the status
quo were detrimental to future performance (McClelland et al. 2010). Shareholder letters were
also analyzed using a variety of word lists related to CEO attention and focus to determine how a
CEO’s level and area of focus influence overall performance (Gamache et al. 2015, Surroca et al.
2016). Speech and conference call transcripts were analyzed using word counts and DICTION’s
praise and self-reference dictionaries to measure levels of modesty in top management (Ridge &
Ingram 2014). Presidential speeches were analyzed to see how elements of a leader’s rhetoric (e.g.,
optimism, faith, aggression, ambivalence) change in a post-crisis environment (Bligh et al. 2004).
Team Cognition and Performance

Studies looking at team-level effects and behaviors have also used CATA. Scholars applied new
word lists for teamwork metaphors to employee interviews to better understand patterns of ex-
pectations about team roles, scope, membership, and objectives within different cultural contexts
(Gibson & Zellmer-Bruhn 2001). Supervisor reports of work teams were analyzed using lists of

terms related to cultures (people and competition oriented), strategies (stability, growth, and cus-
tomer oriented), and human resource practices (diversity and training oriented) to understand
the moderating effects of these work group contexts on the relationship between group diversity
and performance outcomes ( Jehn & Bezrukova 2004). Bezrukova and colleagues (2012) applied a
custom list of words relating to the presence of a results-oriented culture to team member ques-
tionnaire answers to measure the impact of group fault lines on team performance. Other studies
used text from annual reports to understand how global integrations influenced team learning
capabilities (Zellmer-Bruhn & Gibson 2006), how language barriers between multilingual vir-
tual teams affected inner-team interactions (Tenzer & Pudelko 2016), and how language barriers
influenced trust formation in multinational teams (Tenzer et al. 2014).
Impact of Tone
One of the key benefits of CATA is its ability to probe text at a deep contextual level to measure
underlying themes and patterns (Bligh et al. 2004, Kabanoff 1996). This has been particularly
useful for scholars seeking to further understand how the tone that people use to communicate
with one another or organizations use to communicate with external audiences shapes behaviors
and perceptions. Scholars have applied a number of validated tone dictionaries (e.g., positive,
optimism) to organizational narratives to gain further insights into specific actions and behaviors.
For example, several studies used various tone dictionaries to explore how media coverage can
affect organizational perceptions (Bednar 2012, Shen et al. 2014, Zavyalova et al. 2012), how highly
negative reviews of a company’s product can penalize its other products (Barlow et al. 2016), and
how the way organizations frame controversial actions can affect subsequent stock performance
(Rhee & Fiss 2014).
Scholars found the way tone influenced the outcomes of interpersonal interactions to be of
particular interest. Online disputes between eBay buyers and sellers were found to be more likely
resolved through positive, affirming language than through negative, angry commands (Brett et al.
2007, Friedman et al. 2004). Similarly, analysis of customer service events found that employees
are more likely to self-regulate and provide quality customer service when the customer uses a
positive tone (Walker et al. 2017). Another customer service study looking at the negative affective
tone of interactions between shoppers and store employees found that obese shoppers were more
likely to experience interpersonal discrimination, reducing the likelihood of a completed sale
transaction (King et al. 2006). Positive emotional displays were found to decrease negotiation
length and improve negotiation outcomes between parties with similar personality traits (Wilson
et al. 2016). Finally, the same tone and tenor used in negotiations produced different outcomes
in the United States and Egypt, providing valuable insights into how cultural differences affect
negotiation agreements (Gelfand et al. 2015).
THE FUTURE OF CATA IN ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Duriau and colleagues (2007) were surprised by the dearth of research using CATA. Since that
time, organizational psychology and organizational behavior research using CATA has increased
considerably. Constructs that were traditionally measured using survey and observational methods
can now be measured by examining different aspects of language use. Methodological advance-
ments paralleling developments in other research techniques (e.g., survey research) have also been
explored in relation to CATA. For example, Short and colleagues (2010) identify how to max-
imize content, external, discriminant, and predictive validity when developing CATA measures.

Table 5 Future research opportunities using CATA

Construct Text Research question
Gratitude (Fehr et al. 2017) Transcripts of team Do expressions of gratitude influence the team commitment among
meetings third-party observers?
Psychological empowerment Open-ended survey How does the quality of leader-member exchange relationships
(Spreitzer 1995) responses regarding the influence the relationship between psychological empowerment and
respondent’s job organizational citizenship behaviors?
Workplace ostracism (Ferris Critical incident Does workplace ostracism influence preferences for communal sharing
et al. 2008) technique texts and generalized versus balanced exchange relationships?
Training satisfaction and Training evaluation Do perceptions of satisfaction and utility influence the trainees’ ability
utility (Alliger et al. 1997) texts to transfer training content into on-the-job use?
Entrepreneurial orientation Résumés and cover Companies think they want entrepreneurial employees, but do they
(Lumpkin & Dess 1996) letters actually make selection decisions based on these characteristics?
Similarly, McKenny and colleagues (2016) identify how to assess measurement error when using
CATA measures and demonstrate techniques for improving reliability. Despite such advance-
ments, considerable opportunities for leveraging CATA to contribute to key research streams in
our field remain. A few such opportunities are presented in Table 5 and Figure 1.
Research Opportunities
Paralleling the positive turn in psychology, research on positive constructs in organizational be-
havior research has gained considerable momentum (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan 2017). Psy-
chological capital—one of the key constructs in positive organizational behavior research—has
already been operationalized using CATA dictionaries (i.e., McKenny et al. 2013). However,
several constructs in positive organizational scholarship might benefit from measurement in or-
ganizational texts. For instance, research examining the role of gratitude in organizations has
offered valuable insights into the role of positive interactions in the workplace (e.g., Ahrens 2016,
Fehr et al. 2017, Grant & Wrzesniewski 2010). Because gratitude is often reflected in the use of
words such as “thanks,” “appreciate,” and “grateful,” measuring gratitude using CATA may be
a particularly valuable opportunity. For instance, future research might examine how observed
gratitude displays influence the team commitment of both participants to the gratitude exchange
and third-party team members. Here, researchers could use CATA to analyze the frequency of
language associated with gratitude in transcripts of team meetings to examine whether the use of
this language produces within- or between-team effects on team commitment.
Positive organizational scholarship has also been interested in the extent to which employees
of an organization feel empowered in their role (Dutton & Glynn 2008, Feldman & Khademian
2003). Psychological empowerment is defined as “increased intrinsic task motivation manifested
in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individual’s orientation to his or her work role: meaning,
competence. . . , self-determination, and impact” (Spreitzer 1995, p. 1443). CATA has a rich his-
tory of providing insights regarding the cognitions of the authors of texts (Pennebaker et al. 2003).
Because psychological empowerment centers on four cognitive processes, CATA may yield valu-
able insights regarding the conveyed psychological empowerment of individuals at work as well.
For example, when talking about their job, individuals might use words such as “able” or “easy”
to convey that they believe they are able to perform their job well, in line with the competence
dimension. Similarly, they might use words like “autonomy” or “leeway” to convey perceived
self-determination. By using CATA with interview transcripts or survey responses of individuals

a b
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50
40 Disapproval
30
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3
Ap 93
Sep 94
4
5
5
Ma 995
996
6
Au 997
Jan 97
8
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Sep 99
9
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200
200
200
19
19
9
19
9
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Jan
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Figure 1
Potential leadership studies using CATA. (a) Photograph of President Donald Trump. An examination of
leadership rhetoric in presidential tweets could be used to examine potential correlations between
psychological capital or charismatic language use and stock market reactions. Panel a courtesy of the White
House, licensed under public domain (https://whitehouse.gov). (b) Photo of the first presidential debate in
1960. Presidential debates offer a valuable context in which to examine competitions for leadership. Future
research examining presidential debate transcripts could explore how language typically associated with
deception versus authenticity influences follower evaluations. Panel b courtesy of the Associated Press,
licensed under public domain (https://commons.wikimedia.org). (c) Former President Bill Clinton’s
approval ratings during his presidency, showing the average of multiple surveys each month. Approval
ratings of presidents can be paired with speech transcripts to explore how the tone leaders use to
communicate is influenced by the current perceptions of the followers. Panel c courtesy of the Roper Center,
licensed under a GNU free documentation license (https://commons.wikimedia.org). (d ) Washington
State football coach Mike Leach during a 2012 season game. Scholars could examine burnout language used
by head coaches in press conferences to study its impact on game attendance, team performance, and athlete
turnover and retention rates. Panel d courtesy of Washington State University Marketing, licensed under
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported (https://commons.wikimedia.org).

talking about their jobs, future research might test whether the quality of leader-member ex-
change relationships may moderate the psychological empowerment—organizational citizenship
behavior relationship.
Complementing the growing emphasis on positive organizational scholarship, understanding
the antecedents and consequences of counterproductive work behaviors remains an important
stream of organizational psychology and organizational behavior research (Bennett & Robinson
2000, Marcus et al. 2016). One important stream of research in this area is workplace ostracism
(Ferris et al. 2008, Robinson et al. 2013). Workplace ostracism occurs when individuals are ex-
cluded from social interactions with other organizational members and is associated with negative
personal and interpersonal outcomes (Ferris et al. 2008). Using a text-generating method such
as the critical incident technique (i.e., Flanagan 1954), researchers might focus on words such as
“excluded” or “clique” to capture the extent of workplace ostracism in the experiences of respon-
dents. In this way, future research might use CATA to test how ostracism in the workplace might
influence the exchange preferences of the individuals involved over time. For instance, individuals
who are engaged in, or targets of, ostracism may shift from preferences for communal sharing
and generalized reciprocity to preferences for individual entitlements and balanced reciprocity as
relational ties are broken.
One area of organizational psychology research that may benefit considerably from the appli-
cation of CATA is HR. Many HR processes customarily involve the creation of texts. For instance,
employee training frequently culminates in the solicitation of training evaluations/feedback from
which trainers can assess the success of their sessions and make changes where necessary. Existing
dictionaries, such as the positive and negative emotion dictionaries in LIWC, may be valuable
for examining the affective response of trainees to their training (e.g., Pennebaker et al. 2015).
However, training evaluation research indicates that there are several salient dimensions to train-
ing feedback that have not been measured using CATA, including satisfaction and utility (Alliger
et al. 1997). A satisfaction dictionary might look for words like “wonderful” and “entertaining”
to capture the extent to which trainees felt they enjoyed the session. A utility dictionary might
look for words like “useful” or “applicable” to identify whether the trainees believe that the course
provided them with knowledge they find valuable and useful. These dictionaries could be of great
use to researchers and practitioners. Researchers could use the satisfaction and utility dictionaries
to identify whether trainees’ perceptions of satisfaction and utility influence their ability to transfer
training content to the execution of their jobs after the training has completed. In practice, the
application of CATA to training feedback may help quickly assess and summarize the results of
large-scale training efforts, enabling trainers to make timely changes without first having to read
each piece of textual feedback.
Texts are routinely used in the attraction and selection processes of HR as well. For instance,
résumé screening is an institutionalized process in applicant selection (e.g., Gatewood & Feild
2001). A considerable literature has developed examining the role of different résumé characteris-
tics on rater judgments of the candidate (e.g., Cole et al. 2007, Thoms et al. 1999). However, despite
the importance of the résumé text in the selection process, little research has examined the role of
language characteristics in résumé screening. Employers seem to be increasingly looking for can-
didates who are “entrepreneurial,” “autonomous,” and “self-starters”; however, entrepreneurial
characteristics may also dissuade employers from selecting some candidates because individuals
with these characteristics may be more likely to leave when new opportunities arise. By adapting
the existing entrepreneurial orientation dictionaries to the HR attraction/selection context (e.g.,
McKenny et al. 2016), future research might examine whether candidates that communicate these
desired characteristics in their application materials are more likely to be selected for an interview
or hired.

Methodological Opportunities
There are also several areas where organizational psychology and organizational behavior scholars
might advance the CATA method itself. Most of the studies we reviewed use CATA to measure
only one variable (e.g., Shantz & Latham 2009, Wilson et al. 2016). However, as dictionaries
emerge for more constructs and CATA becomes more common in this literature, researchers are
likely to use CATA to measure multiple constructs in a study. For instance, a study looking at
positive affect and need for achievement could measure both using CATA dictionaries. Although
generally this should not pose a problem, if two or more of the dictionaries incorporate the same
words they may impair the validity of the statistical conclusions. To the extent that the shared
words reflect the theoretical overlap of the constructs’ definitions, the systematic covariance from
the overlapping dictionaries is valid (e.g., McKenny et al. 2013). However, if there is no theoretical
rationale for the overlap between the dictionaries, the systematic covariance from shared words is
inappropriate and dimensionality becomes suspect. For example, the word “defeated” is likely to
appear in both a burnout and a competitive intensity dictionary due to the different meanings of
the word, but these constructs are not closely linked. Future research might explore how to handle
overlapping dictionaries in which one word might reflect multiple constructs but the constructs
do not have theoretically similar definitions.
CATA faces a second issue regarding the use of multiple word lists in one study. Research using
CATA often operationalizes constructs by creating unipolar word lists whereby the presence
of words from the dictionary reflects a greater salience of the construct (e.g., Zachary et al.
2010). However, some constructs have two theoretically distinct poles, prompting the creation
of two dictionaries to capture each pole (e.g., positive and negative affect, Pennebaker et al.
2015; exploration and exploitation, Uotila et al. 2009). Further, there may be words that are
commonly used that should count against even unipolar measurements. For example, whereas
a job satisfaction dictionary might include words such as “enjoy” or “pleasurable,” the presence
of words such as “uninterested” or “boring” might be a valuable counterweight to the positive
words. Unfortunately, there is little guidance regarding when two countervailing word lists should
be created and whether or how the data generated by these word lists should be combined. Future
research might draw from and extend best practices in scale development to assess when combining
multiple word lists may yield more valid measurements of organizational constructs.
Another common concern in CATA research is that the lengths of texts used in the analysis may
vary significantly. If unaddressed, this variance would result in longer texts generally having higher
CATA scores than shorter texts. Although there may be reasons to analyze CATA data using raw
measurements, researchers often control for the length of the document by dividing each CATA
variable by the total number of words (e.g., Baur et al. 2016). However, research in information
retrieval has suggested that merely standardizing for document length by putting observations on
a per-word basis may not be enough. Using raw or per-word scores, for example, the presence of
10 words in a narrative associated with job empowerment would suggest that the author feels 10
times more empowered than an individual who only used one word. However, this is unlikely to be
the case. Accordingly, natural language processing research has introduced several term frequency
transformations that maintain the positive relationship between word usage and construct salience
but relax the assumption that this is a linear relationship (Manning & Schütze 1999). For instance,
a common term frequency weighting is log normalization, whereby observations are calculated as
log(observation)+1 for all observations in which at least one word is found. Using this technique,
an increase from one word to 10 words is characterized as a 100% increase rather than a 900%
increase in the salience of the construct being measured. Future research might examine how this
and other recent advancements in linguistic measurement might be applied to CATA research to
improve the validity of measures.

One of the assumptions of many dictionary-based CATA tools is that all the words in the dic-
tionary contribute equally to the measurement of the overall construct. For instance, the presence
of the words “like” and “love” in a text would each increment the positive affect score for that
text by one. However, a manual coder of these two words is likely to rate “love” as being stronger
in positive affect than “like.” Accordingly, the equal weighting of words in a CATA dictionary
may be inconsistent with the words’ contribution to the salience of the construct being measured.
Future research might guide dictionary development and refinement by showing how adding
weightings to the words based on their salience to the construct might provide more accurate
measurements.
To overcome the context-sensitive nature of dictionary-based CATA, many scholars perform
a manual coding of a subsample of texts (e.g., McKenny et al. 2016, Neuendorf 2017). Specifically,
manual content analysis provides researchers with a point of comparison for their CATA findings,
enabling them to determine the extent to which the context in which words are used is influencing
their data. Despite the importance of this reliability check, the number of texts to include in this
manually coded subsample remains unclear. For manual content analyses using nominal coding
classifications, Lacy & Riffe (1996) provide formulas to identify the appropriate subsample size.
However, this guidance is not readily transferrable to CATA research because CATA produces
continuous rather than nominal data. Future research could extend Lacy & Riffe’s (1996) guidance
to provide formulas for subsampling reliability specific to researchers using CATA.
Whereas dictionary-based CATA methods remain the most commonly used computerized
content analysis technique, advances in computational linguistics and information retrieval are
bringing forward new CATA techniques that offer new options for organizational psychology
and organizational behavior researchers (e.g., Campion et al. 2016; Kobayashi et al. 2017a,b). For
example, latent semantic analysis/indexing (Deerwester et al. 1990) is a technique for investigating
the connections among a sample of texts by extracting concepts or themes from the documents
based on the words they contain. These themes are represented as a set of words and loadings
thought to be associated with the theme. For example, latent semantic analysis might identify a
theme with the words “excited,” “happy,” and “pleased” associated with it. This would indicate
that these words tend to co-occur in a subset of the texts, and the researcher might report that
documents described by this theme concern the respondent’s positive affect toward an event. Other
topic modeling approaches include probabilistic latent semantic analysis (Hofmann 2001) and
latent Dirichlet allocation (Blei et al. 2003), both of which offer different methods for uncovering
the latent themes in a body of texts. A final cutting-edge area of CATA is natural language
processing—enabled sentiment analysis (e.g., Pang & Lee 2008, Socher et al. 2013). Using this
technique, the computer considers the context in which sentiment words contribute to a phrase
when measuring sentiment, for example by distinguishing between “the presentation was not very
interesting” and “the presentation was extremely interesting.”
CONCLUSION
Jeff Pfeffer once observed that “in the field of organizational behavior, there is frequently very
little that is either organizational or behavioral” (Pfeffer 1981, p. 415). The advent of CATA allows
scholars to draw meaning from organizationally produced documents that potentially contain the
thoughts, emotions, opinions, or other aspects of work life that are impossible to capture naturally
using other research techniques. Although advancements in the use of CATA have been significant,
there continues to be great potential for scholars to continue refining such techniques and applying
these methods to other questions of interest to organizational behavior and psychology. We hope
our work will help guide the way as this technique continues to grow and flourish.

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We greatly appreciate the thoughtful comments of the participants in the content analysis seminar
MAN 7916-0001 Seminar in Mgmt Research at the University of Central Florida, academic term
Spring 2017, in the preparation of this article.
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Annual Review
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Psychology and
Organizational
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Volume 5, 2018
Contents
A Dynamic, Inclusive, and Affective Evolutionary View

of Organizational Behavior
Terence R. Mitchell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Advances in the Treatment of Context in Organizational Research
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Diversity and Inequality in Management Teams: A Review
and Integration of Research on Vertical and Horizontal
Member Differences
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Person–Environment Fit: A Review of Its Basic Tenets
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Conservation of Resources in the Organizational Context:
The Reality of Resources and Their Consequences
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and Mina Westman p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 103
Protean Careers at Work: Self-Direction and Values Orientation
in Psychological Success
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The Legal Context of the Management of Human Resources
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Status Dynamics
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Transfer of Training: The Known and the Unknown
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OP05_TOC ARI 21 December 2017 19:11
Women and Leadership in the United States: Are We Closing

the Gender Gap?
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Physiological Measurement in the Organizational Sciences: A Review
and Recommendations for Future Use
Daniel C. Ganster, Tori L. Crain, and Rebecca M. Brossoit p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 267
Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Recent Trends
and Developments
Dennis W. Organ p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 295
Cross-Cultural Interaction: What We Know and What We Need

to Know
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Job Insecurity and the Changing Workplace: Recent Developments
and the Future Trends in Job Insecurity Research
Cynthia Lee, Guo-Hua Huang, and Susan J. Ashford p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 335
A Structural-Emergence Model of Diversity in Teams
Aparna Joshi and Brett H. Neely p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 361
The Dark Triad and Workplace Behavior
James M. LeBreton, Levi K. Shiverdecker, and Elizabeth M. Grimaldi p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 387
More Than Words? Computer-Aided Text Analysis in Organizational
Behavior and Psychology Research
Jeremy C. Short, Aaron F. McKenny, and Shane W. Reid p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 415
Emotional Dynamics in Conflict and Negotiation: Individual, Dyadic,
and Group Processes
Gerben A. van Kleef and Stéphane Côté p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 437
Errata
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior articles may be found at http://www.annualreviews.org/errata/
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More Than Words? Computer-Aided Text Analysis in Organizational

Jeremy C. Short Aaron Mckenny

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and

More Than Words?

in Organizational Behavior and

Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2018. Keywords

Words are the voice of the heart.

416 Short · McKenny · Reid

ORGANIZATION AND OVERVIEW

leveraged by organizational scholars over time to explore psychological phenomena of interest.

DEMYSTIFYING CATA: KEY APPROACHES AND SOFTWARE

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 417

which text excerpts are

ATLAS.ti and NVivo

418 Short · McKenny · Reid

Table 1 Overview of commonly used commercial CATA software

speech, call logs) speech, call logs)

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 419

420 Short · McKenny · Reid

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 421

Other Software Programs

RESEARCH TRENDS AND THEMES

422 Short · McKenny · Reid

Table 2 Studies utilizing CATA in top organizational research journals

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 6

Table 3 Example narratives used in CATA studies

Table 4 Commercial CATA software use

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 423

Individual Cognition and Behavior

Team Cognition and Performance

424 Short · McKenny · Reid

THE FUTURE OF CATA IN ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 425

Table 5 Future research opportunities using CATA

426 Short · McKenny · Reid

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 427

428 Short · McKenny · Reid

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 429

430 Short · McKenny · Reid

Adm. Sci. Q. 53:719–44

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 431

Charmaz K. 2014. Constructing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

employee voice. Organ. Sci. 21:249–70

432 Short · McKenny · Reid

tional researchers. Organ. Res. Methods. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428117719322

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 433

cations. J. Manag. 43:1283–306

434 Short · McKenny · Reid

www.annualreviews.org • CATA in OB and Psychology 435

A Dynamic, Inclusive, and Affective Evolutionary View

Women and Leadership in the United States: Are We Closing

Cross-Cultural Interaction: What We Know and What We Need

Nancy J. Adler and Zeynep Aycan p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 307

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