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INTRODUCTION TO
- I
Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

INTRODUCTION TO

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Introduction to Food Science & © 2017, 2003 Cengage Learning
Food Systems, Second Edition
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Printed in the United States of America

Print umber: 0 l Print Year: 2016
:J
.. .. .. . •.
TO MO ri ly n, wife, mother, partner, friend,
and one true love for more than 47 years, through
good times and bad, helping me enjoy the journey.
.. .. .. . •.
SECTION ONE Standard 4: Satisfy Human Need for
Fiber and Safe, Nutritious Foods 31
INTRODUCTION Standard 5: Conserve and Seek
AND BACKGROUND 3 Energy Resources 32
Standard 6: Create and Conserve
Chapter 1 Healthy Soil 33
Overview of Food Science 4 Standard 7: Conserves and Protects
Water Resources 34
Parts of the Food Industry 5
Standard 8: Recycle and Reduce
Trends 6
Waste Products 36
Allied Industries 14 Standard 9: Select Animals
International Activities 15 and Crops Appropriate for an
Responsiveness to Change 19 Environment and Available
Resources 37
Interrelated Operations 19
Standard 10: Manage Pests with
Summary 20
Minimal Environmental Impact 38
Review Questions 20
Standard 11: Encourage Strong
Student Activities 21 Communities 38
Additional Resources 21 Standard 12: Use Appropriate
References 21 Technology 39
Standard 13: Promote Social and
Chapter 2 Environmental Responsibility 39
Food Systems and Sustainability 22 Sustainable Standards Score Card 40
Food-System Definitions 23 Summary 40
Allied Industries 24 Review Questions 41
International Activities 24 Student Activities 41
Interrelated Operations 25 Additional Resources 42
Food-System Trends 25 References 42
Retail Trends 26
Chapter 3
Defining Sustainability 27
Chemistry of Foods 44
Standards of Sustainable Food
Production 28 Carbohydrates 45
Standard 1: Base Direction Function in Food 46
and Changes Based on Science 28 Monosaccharide 46
Standard 2: Follow Market Principles 30 Di saccharides 49
Standard 3: Increase Profitability Sugars in Food 50
and Reduce Risks 30
Polysaccharides 52
CONTENTS vii
C
Proteins 54 References 67
Functions of Proteins in Foods 57 Endnotes 67
Lipids 57
Role of Fats in Food 58 Chapter 4
Fatty Acids 59 Nutrition and Digestion 68
Double Bonds 59 Nutrient Needs 69
Triglycerides 60 Water 69
Phospholipids 60 Energy 69
Cholesterol 60 Carbohydrates 71
Vitamins 60 Fiber 71
Fat-Soluble Vitamins 60 Protein 72
Water-Soluble Vitamins 61 Lipids 74
Minerals 61 Vitamins 74
Calcium 61 Minerals 75
Phosphorus 61 MyPlate 75
Potassium 62 Food Groups 75
Sodium 62 Digestive Processes Bl
Chloride 62 Ingestion 81
Magnesium 62 Digestion 81
Sulfur 62 Absorption Bl
Chromium 62 Elimination Bl
Cobalt 62 Components of the Human
Copper 62 Digestive System 81
Fluorine 62 Vegetarian Diets 83
Iodine 62 Bioavailability of Nutrients 83
Iron 62 Stability of Nutrients 83
Manganese 63 Diet and Chronic Disease 84
Molybdenum 63 Summary 84
Nickel 63 Review Questions 84
Selenium 63 Student Activities 85
Silicon 63 Additional Resources 85
Tin 63 References 85
Vanadium 63 Endnotes 86
Zinc 63 Chapter 5
Water 64
Food Composition 88
Biotin 64
Determining the Composition of Foods 89
Choline 64
Energy in Food 89
Phytochemicals 64
Summary 65
Food-Composition Tables 90
Summary 91
Review Questions 65
Review Questions 92
Student Activities 66
Additional Resources 66
viii CONTENTS
" ..
Additional Resources 93 Mixing 117
References 93 Heat Exchanging 117
Concentration 119
Chapter 6 Drying 120
Quality Factors in Foods 94 Forming 120
Sensory Evaluation 96 Packaging 120
Appearance Factors 96 Controlling 121
Textural Factors 97 Overlapping Operations 121
Flavor Factors 98 Conserving Energy 122
Additional Quality Factors 101 Other Processes 122
Proteins 101 Summary 124
Lipids 101 Review Questions 124
Carbohydrates 101 Student Activities 124
Vitamins 102 Additional Resources 125
Chemicals and Microbiological References 125
Characteristics 102 Endnotes 125
Quality Standards 102
Quality Standards: USDA Chapter 8
and the AMS 102 Food Deterioration 126
Grading and Certification 104
Types of Food Deterioration 127
Mission 105
Shelf Life and Dating of Foods 127
Food Quality Assurance 106
Causes of Food Deterioration 129
Commercial Item Descriptions 106
Bacteria. Yeast. and Mold 129
Quality Control 106
Food-Borne Disease 130
Summary 108
Insects 130
Review Questions 109
Food Enzymes 130
Heat and Cold 132
Oxygen 132
References 110
Postharvest Biochemical Changes 133
Endnotes 110
Postslaughter Biochemical Changes 133
Chapter 7 Principles of Food Preservation 133
Unit Operations in Food Heat 133
Processing 112 Cold 133
Drying 134
Materials Handling 113
Acid 134
Cleaning 113
Sugar and Salt 134
Separating 114
Smoke 134
Cream Separator 114
Atmosphere 135
Clarification 114
Chemicals 135
Membrane Processes 115
Radiation 135
Size Reduction 115
Summary 136
Pumping (Fluid Flow) 115
CONTENTS Ix
" ..
Student Act ivities 136
.' . Student Activities
'i - 150
Additional11Resources
- 137 Additional. Resources
I - ·1 150
References 137 References 151
Chapter 10
SECTION TWO Cold 152
PRESERVATION 139 Refrigeration
I -· ,- - Versus
1 ·-n Freezing
· --; - 153
Refrigeration and Cool Storage
1 --· • - -·f, , 1 1 · · · • ·- --,- - 153
ChapterI 9I
Requirements ofr Refrigerated I .r j_-
Heat 140 Storage 154
Heat 141 Changes
, 1 - • in r - · During
1- Food r , ,-,-
.
Degrees of. Prese
I rvation 141 Refrigerated
- 0 i I Storage 154
Sterilization
'II" 141 Freezing
I • . I -11 and r I Frozen
I
.,
- ' Storage
- - - f· - 155
Commercial I - i I Steril
: i
ty 141 Chemical' Changes I I -
. During
r -r•- - Freezing
r--- - -' -,- 157
. -, .--
I I
Pasteurization
1' 142 - -·- I - 1Changes
Textural I I . During r ·---· -
I ·1 '1 · I Freezing 157
Blanching
11 Ii 142 Microbial
i I _, " I Growth
I in the Freezer 158
Selecting Heat Treatments 142 IFreezing
·- -- I - Methods
I 158
Heat Resis I tance of Microorganisms
I.I · , I -' I I 142 r-, -, r -
Packaging
I 158
Heat Transfer 142
INew- Developments
- - . ,, - 159
Convection-Conduction
• I 143 IHome- Freezing
I . - ·-j . I 159
Conduction-Convection 143 Rigid Containers
- - , ·, I. 159
' I I
Radiation 143 Flexible
,-· 1 1- I Bags
- • or Wrappings 160
Protective
I- rEffects
- of Food Constituents
·1 144 Freezer -- rPointers
-i I • 160
Different Temperature-Time I- Foods. .to_ Freeze
r·- -- ·for - Quality 160
ICombinations
' 144 Effect of Freezing
. I . I - on
• I Spices
Organisms 144 and Seasonings I I 160

Thermal Death Curves 145 --- ,- - Management
Freezer 161
DValue 145 Summary
I I I. 162
ZValue 145 Review Questions 162
Time-Temperature Combinations 145 Student Activities 163
low-Acid Foods 145 Additional rResources
- - 163
Heating Before or After Packaging 145 References 163
Still Retort 146
Chapter 11
Agitating Retort 146
Drying and Dehydration 164
Hydrostatic Retort 146
Aseptic Packaging 147 Dehydration 165
Home Canning 148 Drying Curve 167
Food Acidity and Processing Solute Concentration 167
__, ..... _ -
Methods 148 Binding of Water 167
Process Adjustments at Chemical Changes 168
High Altitudes 149 Drying Methods 169
Summary 149 Food Concentration 169
Review Questions 149 Reduced Weight and Volume 170
X CONTENTS
- 'ui. .,, ....- -,

• I -- •.,_ · • - • •• • ~
Solar Evaporation 170 Uses of Fermentation 188
Open Kettles 171 Fermented Dairy Products 188
Flash Evaporators 171 Bread Making 189
Thin-Film Evaporators 171 Pickling 189
Vacuum Evaporators 172 Processed Mea1s 190
Freeze Concentration 172 Vinegar 190
Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis 172 Wine Making 191
Home Drying 173 Brewing 191
Food Dehydrators 173 Microorganisms as Foods 192
Oven Drying 173 Genetic Engineering and
Room Drying 173 Biotechnology 192
Sun Drying 173 Chymosin (Rennin) 193
Summary 175 Bovine Somatotropin (BST) 193
Review Questions 175 Tomatoes 193
Student Activities 175 Cloning 193
Additional Resources 176 GMO Debate 193
References 176 The Future 194
Summary 195
Chapter 12 Review Questions 195
Radiant and Electrical Energy 178 Student Activities 195
Food Irradiation 179 Additional Resources 196
Food Irradiation Process 179 References 196
Approved Uses for Food Irradiation 180 Endnotes 196
Applications for Food Irradiation 180
Chapter 14
Nutritional Quality of Irradiated
Foods 181 Food Additives 198
Regulation of Food Irradiation 181 Reasons for Use 199
Microwave Heating 181 Preservatives 203
Food-Processing Applications 183 Nutritional Additives 204
Ohmic (Electrical) Heating 183 Color Modifiers 205
Summary 184 Flavoring Agents 207
Review Questions 184 Texturing Agents 207
Student Activities 185 Acidulants 208
Additional Resources 185 Fat Replacers 208
References 185 Irradiation 208
Endnote 185 Hazards 209
Summary 209
Chapter 13 Review Questions 210
Fermentation, Microorganisms, Student Activities 210
and Biotechnology 186 Additional Resources 211
Fermentations 187 References 211
Benefits 187 Endnote 211
Control 187
CONTENTS xi
" ..
Chapter 15
'! Homogenization 231
Packaging 212 Beverage Milk 231
Nutritional
., 'j- - Qualities
I ' --
231
Types of
I Containers
I . i 213
Quality Control During Processing 232
Food-Packaging Materials and Forms
I - -· 213
I • (
Packaging 232
Metals 213
Milk
11· Products
I - l - r ·.I
and By-Products 232
Glass 214
Butter 233
Paper 214
Plastics 215
r ,·- · r -·,- -
Concentrated and Dried Dairy
Products 235
Laminates ..
215
'. '
Condensed Buttermilk 236
Reto
I
I table Pouches
r
I
.
216
: •I
238
Cheese
Edible
I' I Films
I 216
: •I
Yogu r t 240
Package Testing 216
: , I ,- ..
241
.. Ice
I - - Cream
I I
I-
Packages .
I 1 Features 218
:
j
I
' with Special 1 I-
.. QualIi"ity Products
I -- I ' , • 242
Environmental
•I I I I
''Considerations 218l Milk 243
ill Substitutes
' - ,.I
Innovations
11 in Packaging
I I .
219
••I
Reduced
r- I r- Products
Fat 1 - 1.
,.244..
Summary
:I 220 Milk Quality r ---
I II Evaluation
I · I and Flavor
Review Questions 220 Defects 244
Student Activities 221 FFA Milk Quality
I ' andI • 1Products
·- I - • Career
Additional
' i Resources
11 I I I 221 Development
- 1- 1 -· Event
r ·-1 · 244
References 221 Summary 245
IEndnote
1 1 I 221 - .
Review• Questions
I 245
Student Activities
'·- ,. .
246
Additional
. i'1 I I I IResources 246
SECTION THREE
I- •
References 246
FOODS AND FOOD IEndnotes
r ,- 247
PRODUCTS 223
Chapter 17
Chapter 16 Meat 248
Milk 224 Meat and Meat Products 249
- '
Fluid Milk 225 Government Oversight
- r - .-' . 250
Legal Description 225 Grading 250
Production Practices 225 Grading Formulas 251
Grades and Classes of Milk 226 Value-Based Beef Pricing 251
Factors Necessary to Produce Dressing Percentage 252
Quality Milk 226 Slaughtering Practices 252
Mastitis Detection and Control 227 Wholesale and Retail Cuts of Meat 253
,-
Quality Control on the Farm 227 Structure and Composition of Meat 256
- j"- - -
Milk Pricing Economics and Trends 229 Meat Products Formulations 256
Processing 229 Chilling 257
Pasteurizing 229 Aging of Meat 257
Identifying Diseases Transmitted to Tenderizing 258
Consumers Through Milk 230
Muscle Identification 258
Butterfat 230
xii CONTENTS
• I -- •,,_- • -
Curing 261 Review Questions 285
Color 262 Student Activities 285
Smoking 262 Additional Resources 286
Meat Specialties 262 References 286
Freezing 262
Storage 263 Chapter 19
Cooking 263 Fish and Shellfish 288
FFA Meats Evaluation and Technology Fish and Shellfish: Saltwater
Career Development Event 263 and Freshwater 289
Meat Substitutes 265 Fishing Versus Culture 289
Summary 265 Aquaculture 289
Review Questions 265 Composition, Flavor, and Texture 290
Student Activities 266 Spoilage 290
Additional Resources 266 Processing 292
References 267 Aquaculture Processing 292
Inspection 293
Chapter 18 Quality 293
Poultry and Eggs 268 Grading 294
Poultry Production 269 Products 295
Processing 270 Preservation 295
Processing Steps 271 Shellfish 296
Meat Properties 272 Fish By-Products 296
Grading 274 Roe 296
Products 276 Storage 296
EGGS 278 New Products 297
Caged Layers in California 278 Summary 298
Processing 278 Review Questions 298
Formation and Structure 278 Student Activities 298
Composition 279 Additional Resources 299
Grading 280 References 299
FFA Poultry Evaluation Career Endnote 299
Development Event 281
Quality Factors of Eggs 282 Chapter 20
Evaluation of Egg Interior Cereal Grains, Legumes,
and Exterior Quality 283 and Oilseeds 300
FFA Meats Evaluation and
Technology Career Cereal Grains 301
Development Event 283 General Structure and Composition 301
Storage 284 Starch 302
Fertile Eggs 284 Properties of Starch 302
Organic Eggs 284 Factors Requiring Control 303
Egg Substitutes 284 Handling of Cooked Starch 304
Summary 285 Weeping 304
CONTENTS xiii
" ..
Milling of Grains 304 Soy Nuts 322
Classes of Wheat 306 Soy Oil and Products 322
Grades of Flour 307 Soy Sprouts 322
Types of White Flour 307 Tempeh 322
Enriched Flour 308 Tofu and Tofu Products 322
Gluten 308 Soy-Based Whipped Toppings 323
Other Flours 309 Summary 323
Rice 310 Review Questions 323
Corn Refining 310 Student Activities 324
Inspection and Cleaning 310 Additional Resources 324
Steeping 310 References 324
Germ Separation 311 Endnote 325
Fine Grinding and Screening 311
Starch Separation 311 Chapter 21
Syrup Conversion 311 Fruits and Vegetables 326
Fermentation 312 Types of Fruit 327
Bioproducts 312 Vegetable Properties and Structural
Breakfast Cereals 312 Features 327
Principles of Baking 313 General Composition 328
Legumes 314 Fresh Vegetable Labels 328
Nutritional Composition 317 Fresh Fruit Labels 328
Legume Products 317 Activities of Living Systems 329
Soybeans 318 Plant Tissues 330
Green Vegetable Soybeans 318 Harvesting 331
Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein 318 Ripening 331
Infant Formulas. Soy-Based 320 Appearance 332
Lecithin 320 Texture 332
Meat Alternatives (Meat Analogs) 320 Flavor 333
Netto 320 Quality Grades for Fresh Vegetables 334
N ondairy Soy Frozen Dessert 320 Quality Grades for Canned and
Frozen Vegetables 334
Soy Cheese 320
Quality Grades for Fresh Fruit 335
Soy Fiber (Okara. Soy Bran.
and Soy Isolate Fiber) 321 Quality Grades for Canned
and Frozen Fruits 335
Soy Flour 321
Country of Origin Labeling 336
Soy Grits 321
Post-Harvest 337
Soy Protein Concentrate 321
Processing Fruits 338
Soy Protein Isolates (Isolated
Soy Protein) 321 Canned Fruits 344
Soy Protein. Textured 321 Frozen Fruits 344
Soy Sauce 322 Fruit Juices 344
Soy Yogurt 322 Processing Vegetables 344
Soy Milk and Soy Beverages 322 Canned Vegetables 351
Soy Nut Butter 322 Frozen Vegetables 351
xiv CONTENTS
"
By-Products 351 Invert Sugar 375
Biotechnology 352 Caramelization 376
Summary 352 Corn Syrups and Other Sweeteners 377
Review Questions 353 Fructose and Fructose Products 378
Student Activities 353 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 378
Additional Resources 353 Cocoa 378
References 354 Milk Chocolate 379
Confectionery Manufacturing Practices 379
Chapter 22 Enrobing 381
Fats and Oils 356 Standards 381
Effects of Composition on Fat Properties 357 Sugar Substitutes 381
Sources of Fats and Oils 360 Labeling 382
Functional Properties of Fats 360 Summary 383
Production and Processing Methods 360 Review Questions 383
Degumming 362 Student Activities 383
Alkali Refining 362 Additional Resources 384
Bleaching 362 References 384
Winterization (Fractionation) 362 Endnotes 385
Hydrogenation 362
Deodorization 362 Chapter 24
lnteresterification 363 Beverages 386
Products Made from Fats and Oils 363 Carbonated Nonalcoholic Beverages 387
Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 364 Sweeteners 388
Fat Substitutes 364 Flavors 388
Protein-Based Fat Replacers 365 Colors 388
Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 365 Acid 388
Fat-Based Fat Replacers 365 Water 388
Lipid (Fat and Oil) Analogs 367 Carbon Dioxide 389
Tests on Fats and Oils 368 Mixing 389
Summary 369 Noncarbonated Herbal and Healthful
Review Questions 369 Beverages 389
Student Activities 369 Hi-C® 389
Additional Resources 370 Gatorade• 390
References 370 SoBe 390
Endnotes 371 Snapple• 391
Bottled Water 392
Chapter 23 Alcoholic Beverages 393
Candy and Confectionery 372 Beer 393
Sources of Sugar 373 Wine 394
Sugar-Based Confectionery 374 Coffee 396
Composition 374 Coffee Substitutes 396
Ingredients 374 Tea 397
CONTENTS xv
" ..
Processing 397 Bacteria 421
Blended and Unblended Varieties 397 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 421
Instant Tea and Bottled Tea 397 Food 422
Herbal Tea 398 Acidity 422
Summary 400 Temperature 422
Review Questions 400 Time 422
Student Activities 400 Oxygen 422
Additional Resources 401 Moisture 422
References 401 Fat Tom 422
Endnote 402 Microbiological Methodology 425
Processing and Handling 425
Good Manufacturing Practices 426
SECTION FOUR Rodents. Birds. and Insects 427
RELATED ISSUES 405 Cleaning and Sanitizing 428
Cleaning 428
Chapter 25
Sanitation 428
Environmental Concerns
Regulatory Considerations 430
and Processing 406
HACCP and Food Safety 430
Water In Food Production 407 Biotechnology 433
Properties and Requirements Genetically Modified Foods 434
of Processing Waters 407
FFA Food Science and Technology
Environmental Concerns 407 Career Development Event 437
Disposal of Solid Wastes 408 Summary 437
Properties of Wastewaters 410 Review Questions 437
Wastewater Treatment 411 Student Activities 438
Lowering Discharge Volumes 411 Additional Resources 438
Responsibility 412 References 439
Summary 412 Endnotes 439
Student Activities 413 Chapter 27
Additional Resources 413 Regulation and Labeling 440
References 414 Federal Food. Drug. and Cosmetic Act 441
Additional Food Laws 441
Chapter 26
Legal Categories of Food Substances 442
Food Safety 416
Testing for Safety 442
Safety, Hazards, and Risks 417 Quality Assurance 443
Food-Related Hazards 417 Food Labeling 443
Cross-Contamination 418 Foods Affected 444
High-Risk Foods and Individuals 418 Exemptions 444
Microorganisms 421 Restaurant Nutritional Labeling 447
Viruses 421 Nutrition Panel Title 449
Parasites 421 Serving Sizes 449
Fungi 421
xvi CONTENTS
" ..
Nutrition Information 450 Review Questions 477
Nutrition Panel Format 450 Student Activities 478
Daily Values-DRVs 453 Additional Resources 478
Nutrient Content Descriptions 453 References 478
Other Definitions 455 Endnotes 479
Proposed Revisions to the Nutritional
Facts Label 456 Chapter 29
USDA's Meat Grading Program 458 Food and Health 480
Health Claims 458 Food and Disease 481
Ingredient Labeling 458 Obesity 482
Formulation and Costing 460 Possible Cancer Prevention 486
Factors in Packaging Design 460 Type 2 Diabetes 489
FFA Food Science Career Development Sleep Problems 491
Event 461
Digestive Disorders 493
Summary 462
Gas 493
Heartburn 494
Lactose Intolerance 494
Peptic Ulcer Disease 495
References 463
Diarrhea 496
Endnotes 463
Constipation 497
Chapter 28 Diverticular Disease, Celiac
Disease. Crohn's Disease.
World Food Needs 464 and Pancreatitis 497
World Food Hunger and Malnutrition 465 Eating Disorders 500
Causes of Hunger 466 Anorexia Nervosa 501
Fighting the Problem 469 Bulimia Nervosa 501
Step l: More Self-Sufficiency 470 Binge-Eating Disorder 501
Step 2: Check Farming Regulations 470 Food Allergies 502
Step 3: Proper Storage 471 Dental Caries or Tooth Decay 502
Step 4: Check Food Aid 471 Phytonutrients 503
Step 5: Work Together 471 Nutraceuticals 503
Step 6: Prevent Waste 471 Herbs 504
Step 7: Pay Off Debt 471 What Are Herbs? 504
Roles of Technology 471 Research on Herbs 504
Resource Management 471 Regulation of Herbal Supplements 507
Protection of Crops 472 Using Caution 507
Genetic Improvement 472 Nutrigenomics 508
Global Action 473 Components of Food 509
World Food Summit 473 Fruits and Vegetables 509
World Food Summit Plan of Action 473 Whole Grains 509
Hunger Agencies and Organizations 474 Protein 510
Summary 477 Fats and Oils 510
CONTENTS )(VII
" ..
Bad Diets, Good Diets 511 Food-Industry Supervised Agricultural
What to Eat 511 Experience 532
Balancing Calories 512 Getting a Job 532
Summary 512 Application Forms 532
Review Questions 514 Letters of Inquiry and Application 533
Student Activities 514 Resume or Data Sheet 534
Additional Resources 515 The Interview 534
References 515 Follow-Up Letters 535
Occupational Safety 536
Chapter 30 Summary 538
Careers in Food Science 516 Review Questions 538
General Skills and Knowledge 517 Student Activities 538
Basic Skills 517 Additional Resources 539
Thinking Skills 518 References 540
General Workplace Competencies 519 Endnotes 540
Information Technology 520
Appendix A
Personal Qualities 521
Review of Chemistry 542
Entrepreneurship 521
Jobs and Courses in the Food Industry 522
Appendix B
Education and Experience 523
Reference Tables 552
Identifying a Job 523
Food Inspection and Safety 523
Appendix C
Food-Service Industry 524
Harvesting and Storing Fruits,
Food Retail and Wholesale Industry 528
Nuts. and Vegetables 630
Research and Development 529
Food Scientist and Related Scientists 530 Glossary/Glosario 636
Marketing and Communications 530
Index 670
Others 531
xviii CONTENTS
" ..
Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems, Second Edition, is designed for high
school agriscience and consumer science programs and for postsecondary students
enrolled in a food science course. It is an excellent overview for anyone interested in
attaining a basic understanding of food science.
As the title suggests, science is an important component of the book. Food science
as understood by humans represents a specific body of knowledge that approaches
and solves problems by the scientific method-a continuous cycle of observations,
hypotheses, predictions, experiments, and results. The science of food science is em
phasized throughout the book.
HOW THIS TEXT IS ORGANIZED

Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems makes teaching easy. The information
is divided into four basic sections, and chapters are based on a thorough, easy-to
follow outline.
Section I: Introduction and Back g round provides the necessary
background information for understanding the science of foods. This
includes an introduction to the industry, a new chapter on food systems
and sustainability, the chemistry of foods, nutrition and digestion, food
composition and quality, unit operations, and food deterioration. These
chapters are the foundation.
• Section II: Preservation groups the chapters that relate to methods of food
preservation, including heat, cold, drying, radiant and electrical energy,
fermentation, microorganisms, biotechnology, chemicals, and packaging.
These chapters are the basics of food science.
Section III: Foods and Food Products includes chapters on milk, meat,
poultry and eggs, fish and shellfish, cereal grains, legumes and oilseeds, fruits
and vegetables, fats and oils, candies and sweets, and beverages. These chapters
are the application of food science.
PREFACE xix
r
I I
Section IV: Related Issues includes chapters that cover environmental
concerns, food safety, regulations and labeling, world food needs, and career
opportunities as well as a new chapter on food as it relates to health. These
chapters represent the challenges of food science.
FEATURES OF THIS EDITION OIJECTIVU

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~""~---c...---.--.
_
............... . . . t--- ...
Education Standards Correlations that highlight ----.--

,. ._...
.... __ .... ... ----,.-...-r-
.......... ......,.__
1..
...... . >-------------~
.,.... __., .........
........ -. ·-
-..,.~---•
________
-......................
.......
..,..,....,..
-.--...,._ ,..
~
. .-...., -~----
.
the specific core competency that is met through .......
--~---.....-~-"' -~--"""--
-..----~--- ...-
e-------·
-----...
------ ---------
-"' ~
successful completion of each chapter.

.............. rf""""II,.._, __ •tu.t,•1•--.....---
.... ___
_..
ICIINCl COJtH.1C1TON1
.. --........
--- __
APPLICATION is emphasized throughout with en
...--
·----.. --------
.............
."-�-�...
-�, .. ____ "" ........ ._ --.
_--...........
� ,OCIDB

.. ·- .... .._
..,...,.,,,
gaging Math and Science Connection activities ,...,
.,......... �- .-.
-.
..
integrated into each chapter and a set of Review ...,...,.._,�---...-
.-. ....,.,..._ ...
-- ........... ....... ...,_ ... ..,., ::: �
_.,..a,......,_ .......----'-----------,
Questions and Student Activities to conclude
___
------
.__ .,...
.._...............
.. .. ..
__._
'
each chapter. __ ___
...,t...._..._
........ __
......
,.-.r
,_..,..
,..'"'... .. --·--------
--.-----
.,..,...._ ... __ '""
FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag

ing articles highlighting interesting tidbits about
the industry-whether historical insights, fun facts, or a synopsis of an
emerging food trend-and a list of Additional Resources at the end of
each chapter to inspire students to learn more about specific topics. ·--------
---··•�"""---""
----.;i ..... ,�-
.., ........... __ _,_ ... ••'Q
•-- I ..... •qJU -1' 1:)
HIGHLY ILLUSTRATED, and now in full color, the text is accompanied by

many tables, charts, graphs, photos, and illustrations to assist further
understanding of the topics under discussion.
ROBUST APPENDICES reinforce topics learned in the chapters and of
fer valuable reference materials. Appendix A contains a review of the
chemistry behind food science for those students who require additional learnjng in
this area. Appendix B includes a multitude of reference tables, in particular the Food
Composition Table, which provides specific nutrient information of different foods.
It also features another list oflnternet resources so that students can expand on their
learning of specific food-science topics. Appendix C covers the details of harvesting
and storing fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Also included is a combined Glossary and
Glosario that provides terms and definitions in both English and Spanish.
xx PREFACE
:J
NEW
I I TO THIS
I: IEDITION
I I
CURRENT INFORMATION,
I including new chapter
I I ; on
I the
I' food y tern and 'Iu •-
ta inability and food
I and health, along with aj new
1 ection on geneti ally engineered
fo d , will keep tudent . in ,· know about. signifi
ii the '
. cant indu try trend .
ALL-NEW,
I I FULL-COLORI DESIGN
I I . .-r'
tfea•turing photo , chart
' - , graph., and illu- tration I - •
that
I : vi · I ·1ually
• demon trate food production
l •I and pro
- :e 1 te
I - : hnique
I I- to
f . engage
I - tu
I •
dent i .. ational Agricultural Education Standard Correlation are highlighted at

I _, , - • , r -, : 1 - r - 1 I . .
the tart
I f ea h chapter to I - address
l core- competencie
I - , whil .. MATHI and SCIENCE
- I
CONNECTION
I I ACTIVITIES throughoutI .- - the chapters encourage
I I I tudent - • to
1- demon-
' "j
trate
I the
I ' I eI kill
t 1] in
11 theI context
I I of
I food science.
I I I I · ,to FFA CAREER

ALIGNED 1 1 DEVELOPMENT
I I I - I ·1I - EVENTS
I ' I - (CDEs),
1- I wh
r r
I :, applicable,
' f •
to
1 lhelp
,- ., , • I
I ..
student focuI , OJn important

ii I ., jobI skills
'
ADDITIONAL
I I RESOURCES,
II I I I' including
I a listI of
I valuabl
• I ·: I and r levant Web ite in
_,
each chapter,I encourage
I tudent to further
, , 5 I I explore
I pecific fo d-indu try topic .
GLOSSARY
I I and GLOSARIO provides
i terms and definiti n in Engli hand panish.
I
I • T
EXTENSIVE
' I TEACHING AND LEARNING
rI 11
PACKAGE
I I
NEW! COMPANION SITE

Instructor Re ource are availableI on
t the Companion
I - ite t accompany Food
ienc & Food ystems, econd Edition, to facilitate teaching and learning. 111i ite
offer FREE, ecur acce to the following re ource :
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS includes the answer to all end-of-chapter que tion to

validate learning.
LESSON PLANS that outline the key concepts in each chapter, along with orrela
tion t th e c rre ponding PowerPoint• presentation , pr vid t ol for classroom
in tru Ction.
POWERPOIN PRESENTATIONS map the Les on Plan and include photo and
illu tration to reinforce learning. This feature i only al availabl to tudent for
important lf-r iew.
COGNERO ONLINE TESTING system include quiz que lion for each chapter,
providing he ability to:
Author, dit, and manage test-bank content from multiple r ource

• reat e multiple te t ver ion in an in tant
Deliver te t from instructor- or institution- pecific LM r cla room
IMAGE GALLERY, c ntaining all the images from the bo k, nable in tructor to
nhanc cla r om presentation or review key concept and in£ nnation.
PREFACE XJC.I
NEW! MINDTAP FOR INTRODUCTION
TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS.
SECOND EDITION
The MindTap for I11trodu tion to Food Science & Food '}'Stems, ond Edition, fea
ture an integrat Cd cour e offering a complete digital experience fi r b th tudent and
teacher . Thi MindTap i highly customizable and combine a ignment , video ,
interactivitie , lab exerci es and quizzes along with the enhan ed -b ok to enable
student to directly analyze and apply what they are learning as weII a all 0 w teacher
to mea ure kill and outcome with ease.
• A Guide: Rel vant interactivities combined with prescribed reading , featur d
multimedia, and quizzing to evaluate progres will guid tudent from basic
knowledg and mprehen ion to analysis and application.
Per onalized Teaching: Teachers are able to control cour ·e c ntent-hiding,
rearranging exi ting content or adding and creating their own content to meet
the need of their pecific programs.
Promote Better Outcome : Through relevant and engaging content,
a ignment , and activitie , tudents are able to build the c n.fid nce they need
to ultimately chart a cour e to uccess. Likewise, teacher are able to view
analytic and rep rt that pro V idea snapshot of cla progre , time in cour e,
engagement, and completion rates.
xxll PREFACE
"
Without the upport of my wife Marilyn, any of the writing I have d ne would still
be a dream or idea. I have di covered, writing require the goodwill and support
of an under landing pouse. Our marriage ha thrived for 47 year , and it continue
trong. Marilyn i a friend who critique ideas, type part f the manu ripts, write
qu e tion and an wer , organize artwork, take s ph 0 tograph , and che ks format.
he i a partn r in the production of a text and in all other a p ct of my life.
Finally, 1 appre iate the upport, under tanding help, and en ouragement of icole
Robin n, Jennifer tarr, and the rest of the Cengage team.
A ah ay , we wi h to expre sour sincere appreciation t tho e who have contributed
to th dev I pm nt of thi and past edition :
Daniel Andrew Diane Ryberg
Wauneta-Pali ade High School Eau Clair orth High chool
Waun ta, bra ka Eau Claire, Wi con in
R y rawford Dr. Janelle Walter
Lanca ter High School Baylor Univer ity
Lan a ter• �exa Waco, Texa
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxlll
C
RICK PARKER
R. 0. (Rick) Parker grew up on an irrigated farm in outhern Idaho.
Hi I of agriculture guided hi education. tarting at Brigham
Y0 ung niver ity, he received hj bachelor' d gre and th n moved
to Ame , Iowa, where he fini hed hi PhD in animal phy iology at
Iowa tate Uni er ity. After completing hi PhD, he and hi wife,
Marilyn, and their children moved to Edmonton, lberta, anada,
where he completed a po tdoctorate at the Univer ity of Alberta. Hi n t mov wa
to Laramie, Wy ming, wh re he wa a re earch and teaching a o iate at the Univer
sity of Wy ming. fter Wyoming, he moved to Clovi , alifornia, where he wrote
with Dr. M. . En minger, author of numerous early animal cience textbook .
Returning to Idah , th author erved as divi ion director and in tru tor at the College
of outh rn Idaho for 19 year . He then worked a director for AgrowKnowledge, the
ati nal enter for Agriscience and Technology Education, a project funded by the
ational cien e Foundation. Currently, he is president of th e National Agricultural
In titute and the dir tor of the North American College and Tea her f Agriculture
( A TA). In addition, he is the editor of the peer-reviewed NA TA Journal, which
focu e n the ch lar hip of teaching and learning and he teach bi logy, food
cience, and animal cience for the College of outhern Idaho. Dr. Parker i also the
author f the £ llowing engage Learning texts: Aquaculture cien Ce, Introduction to
Plant ience, Fundamentals of Plant and oil Science, and Equin e cience. He i al o the
co-author of Fundamentals of Plant cience.
IRIAH PACE
iriah Pace is currently a board memb r and a i tant editor
ational Agricultural In titute. H r r le include d V el
oping and maintaining eb ite , d veloping Curriculum and
editing th peer-re iewed ACTA Journal for the orth American
II ge and Teachers of Agriculture. he al o rv a a tea hing
a i tant for a College of Southern Idaho cla s , Fo d y t m and
xxlv ABOUT THE AUTHORS
C
.
.r
cienee. iriah joined the taff of the ational Agricultural In titute in July 2012
and i urrently working toward her bachelor's degree.
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
For the econd edition, we were fortunate to find two talented individual to a i tin
reV i ing the ontent. We gratefully acknowledge their contribution .
FARRAH JOHNSON
Farrah J hn on i the Agriscience Educator at Deltona High ch ol in Deltona,
Florida. Ms. John on arned her BS in Agricultural Educati0 n from th Univer ity of
Florida and her M from Mi si sippi State University als in Agricultural Education.
Ms. John on began working with food-science curriculum through a grant project
with ornell Univer ity, the University of Florida, and the Univer ity of alifornia
Davi early in her teaching career. She now teaches food- cience c 0 ur e a part of
th agri ulture program at Deltona High School. Farrah i · active in the profe sional
organization for agricultural education and works with new agriculture teacher in
Florida. he erved a pre ident of the ational As ociati 0 n of Agri ultura1 Educa
tor in 2012-2013 and erved a 2-year term on the Nati nal F A Board of Director
a a tak eholder. he ha erved in numerou role for the Flori.da ociation of
Agricultural Educator during her teaching career.
LEVI CAHAN
Levi ahan ha a di tingui hed background in live to k production from year
of training and ducating other a we11 a being elf-employ d a a farmer. He i
the l ad Agriculture Educator at chuylerville High chool in up tate ew York,
wher he in truct and manages tudent learning in everal agri ulturaJ ubject
with a focu on animal cience. He received hi B in Animal cience and hi
M in Agricultural Education from Cornell University. H e al o tudi ed abroad in
ew Z aland at Lincoln University, specializing in animal cienc and rotational
grazing practice . Mr. Cahan stays active in agriculture and edu Cation as an FFA
advi 0 r; he ha erved on the New York State FFA Governing Board a a trustee, a
a trustee� r th e NY AAE, and currently as the chairman of the NY FFA Founda
tion board, and he i a member of the YS Beef Council. He ha al o contributed
to other engage title , including serving as author of the Modern Livestock and
Poultry Production Lab Manual, i_nth Edition.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS ltXV
" ..
.
,...
,
\.
..
r • • �• �" .ii ffl818f llll
SECTION One
Introduction
and Background
Chapter 1 Overview
i of Food Science
I
Chapter 2 I I r n,• --
Food System and Sustainability
r , I
Chapter 3 Chemistry of Foods

Chapter4 Nutrition and Digestion
Chapter 5 Food Composition
Chapter 6 Quality Factors rin Foods
Chapter 7 Unit Operations
in Food Processing
Chapter 8 Food Deterioration
, ..,
•• n req1u 1011
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name
' I theI four
I parts
I : of .- I ' I
' the food- iindustry
allied industry
• Describe
·1 consumerI food
' - I buying trends I
consumer
'
. IDivide
I the
. I food IIindustry
l ' J by major product
I- , • lines
I distribution
• Compare
' I I ,-
spending for food in
11 the IUnited - -,
I r· . States
,-
expenditures
to .that
I in
11 other countries manufacturi
·r ng
• List four consumption
I ' I I trends
I '
marketi
' - ng
• ,-
Discuss trends in
11 consumer meal purchases
I -
per capita
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends
NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name
' I theI four
I parts
I : of .- I ' I
' the food- iindustry
allied industry
• Describe
·1 consumerI food
' - I buying trends I
consumer
'
. IDivide
I the
. I food IIindustry
l ' J by major product
I- , • lines
I distribution
• Compare
' I I ,-
spending for food in
11 the IUnited - -,
I r· . States
,-
expenditures
to .that
I in
11 other countries manufacturi
·r ng
• List four consumption
I ' I I trends
I '
marketi
' - ng
• ,-
Discuss trends in
11 consumer meal purchases
I -
per capita
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends
NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
.
N
o ImatteIr Iwhere people Ilive- or whatr jthey
I many. I .. I6I Id" ;are. Ibeing . ' .- Iproces
.- - ed into ready-to
do. they are food consumers - . We con
- t -
Ieat
., jpr- duCl', t , Imore . . · 1 - . manufacturing i
-r !specialized
'
sume food on ia Idaily basis so- 'we- Imake I• 1required.
- lDistribution deals with tho- fe ;-aspect ---
choices every day about what 1foods - to- IpuIr· conduciv- Ito Iproduct .. lale
r - ),, iincludi
- n.-g r-product .-· Ifor.
chase and consume based on a 'variety - .., r' of -· '
mation, weighing and- lbulk, ,transportation, ------- and
,-
needs and wants. Consumers vote eveIry• Iday -
,-
..
-, . I . IMarketing- ·' - r - -
• - 1 -
torag Irequjrem . r- lnt and stability

in the marketplace with their dollars, and the
'
market Ilistens
' carefully to their votes. A Icontinu
I I
-1 ' I
i 1th Iel,.ling
i)
.,
I
of Ifil ds and iinvolves __ , -- - •. 1 r r ;; r.
whole ale, rre·-
ous feedback exists from consumers rrespond - tail, in titutional,

I . and 1- re 1· taurant
· - -, · :-·· ales ,-i-··r-
(Figure -.-· 1-1).
ing to Iofferings by marketers who rare trying
, I - I • Markw!ting Iii 1'th Iegment
I I .-1 -- that consumers are mo•ft
1· -· 1· · - r · - - ; r· ..
ived 'wants ..
irinvolved with. Adverti ing through television, print,
to meet the lperce of Iconsumers.
.
IPrice. availabil i
I
I i i ty.
l health,
I ' 'and
- 1
I l
-1
convenience and .
ial mediaI ·1 i; ,a :multibill
l J ~ J ion-dollar effort 1that
- - _,--r -ri-•--r· ' _,
are all factors that affect personalI Ipurchas r-' food companie . l i - 1use: - Ito r·reach-' 1consumers.
- · · T · ·· · .
ing choices. Changes i n the makeup- Iof the

'
population. lifestyles. iincomes.
I
' I I and
I
I
I
att itudes The ·,
' Ie four divi ion are not clear-cut and often
- : - - J I . I - - - . ,- ·•' ; -1 I_, .. -r
l overlap n another. For example, ·- r-~·-. ·when ' -- Ifarmers

-- -
on food safety, hea th. and convenience j- I -
have
l i r- take th ir rop to a farmer's market, distribu
--': -- . J - -j ' ,• •
drastical y altered the cond tions facing the
I - - ."
- I
I
producers and Imarketers I of 'food - ,-
I
Iproducts. I - ti n and marketing merge
I' -- ,,into · - r'the same
---- 1--1category.
-
r' -
Food manufacturers and distributors- Iwork - e erth l the food industry require planning
·r· r· · ' -
hard to meet 'changing
I Iconsumer
-I demands.
PARTS OF THE FOOD

INDUSTRY
The fi d indu try i divided into four major
egm nt
1. Pr du ti n
2. Manufacturing and processing
3. Di tribution
4. Mark ting
Production i the raising or growing of plant

and animal pr du t for food consumption. It in
clude uch indu trie a farming, ranching, orchard
management, fi hing, and aquaculture. TechnoJ
ogie involved in the production of raw materials
include the ele tion of plant and animal varietie ;
their ultivati n, grO\ th, harvest, and laughter;
and th torage and handling of raw materiaJ .
Manufacturing convert raw agricultural prod
u t t more r fined or fini hed product . For ex
ample, peanut are manufactured into hw1dreds of
differ nt pr0 du t , only one of which is peanut but FIGURE 1-1 School meals are just another exam
ter. Manufa turing require many unit operation ple of consumer products that are influenced by
and pr c se that are at the core of food technology. food industry marketers.
OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 5
Coiiynght 20 I ""1!'18• L• nu,

...
.... __ ..
... - ~- .
and synchronization in all its divisions to be suc for food: As income rises, the proportion spent for
cessful. When the entire food system is analyzed, food declines (Figure 1-2). The expenditures for
additional divisions are often included. These are food require a large share of income when income
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. is relatively low-in any country.
Another way to divide the food industry is Americans spent only about 6% of their per
along major product lines: sonal consumption expenditures for food eaten
• at home (Figure 1-3). This compares with 10% for
Cereals and bakery products
Canada and 11% for Switzerland. In less developed
Meats, fish, and poultry countries, such as Kenya and the Philippines, at
•
• Dairy products home food expenditures often account for more

• Fruits and vegetables than 40% of a household's budget (Table 1-1).
• Sugars and other sweets Americans do not have the highest per
Fats and oils capita income (the average Swiss income is
• onalcoholic beverages higher). In relation to total per capita personal con
sumption expenditures, however, Americans spend
• Alcoholic beverages
the lowest percentage on food. Factors other than
These divisions are typically where consumer income alone influence food expenditures in de
consumption is measured and reported. veloped nations. Thanks to abundant arable land
and a varied climate, Americans do not have to
rely as heavily on imported foods as do some other
TRENDS nations. The American farm-to-consumer distri
bution system is highly successful at moving large
Although consumers' food spending has increased
amounts of perishable food over long distances with
considerably over the years, the increase has not
a minimum of spoilage or delay. Finally, American
matched the gain in disposable income. As a re
farmers use a tremendous wealth of agricultural in
sult, the percentage of income spent for food has
formation and state-of-the-art farming equipment.
declined. The decline is the direct result of the
This allows them to produce food more efficiently.
income-inelastic nature of the aggregate demand
Food spending and share of income spent on food across

U.S. households, 2013
O Bllreau f Labo,
12,000 40
to d
0
ng,
0
:s
C:
10,000 Spending (left axis)
D Share (right axis) 32 C: .,;
0
d pe
nt
UJ 8,000 Cl.I �"'

0. "'
24 UJ .,,
g I
0 UJ
0 ..
·� �
-..!l! E "'"'
e
6,000
iSo
�,,
-
d,N
0 ·� it
16 (J - >
C: �"" "'�
C:
cu 4,000 u"'
0 «i 5
Average
� -5
C: "" g
�
CX)
2,000 Cl.I -�
...Cl.I
E""'
(J Q -
""'
0. ��
<i.§
0 0 "' �-
0(.)
Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest ::,

(11"�
� -E
Income quintile ��
"'"'
FIGURE 1-2 As income rises the proportion spent on food declines.
6 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

e:..
20
18
16 -�
u•
tu,o Sn
14
l]
Inc me
Total Food
0
12
0 10 ;;:;
C: Food at Home �
Q)
8 ·�
ere
Cl. Jl
6 .c
Food Away from Home
Re.io.,c
4
·�
OA. Econo
2
0L..C.-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'--'--'--"-'-'-L...L-"-''--'-L...L-"-''--'--'--'--'-'--'--'--'--'-L..C.-'--'-'-L...L-'--'-'-L...L-'--'--'-'�
��*��&��
� � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � �
�!o.:
FIGURE 1-3 Percent of Disposable Income Spent on Food, 1960-2011. The percentage of income spent on
food at home has steadily declined in recent years.
MATH CONNECTION!
Track your food consumption tor a day. What is the average cost of your consumption in the United
States? Research and compare those costs with another county. How much would it cost for the same
food in that other country?
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food, Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1
SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES
ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2
COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON
United States 6.6 1.9 34,541 2,273
ERS estimate 6,4 1.9 34,541 2,215
Singapore 7.3 2.1 19,398 1.422
United Kingdom 9.1 3.8 24,260 2,214
Canada 9.6 3.4 27.761 2,679
Austria 10.1 3.3 25,908 2,617
Ireland 10.l 5.4 20,093 2,037
(Continues)

e:..
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages. and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Australia 10.2 3.6 37.492 3,814
Germany 10.9 3.0 22,762 2.481
Switzerland 11.0 3.5 44,899 4,943
Denmark 11.l 3.8 27,306 3,036
Netherlands 71.6 3.3 20,625 2,388
Finland 12.0 4.7 24.927 3,001
Qatar 72.l 0.3 11,799 1,361
Sweden 12.2 3.7 26,146 3,193
South Korea 72.2 2.2 12.002 1.468
Norway 13.2 4.3 37.146 4,885
France 13.2 3.3 22,945 3,037
Czech Republic 13.3 9.3 9,643 1,279
Hong Kong, China 73.4 1.0 24,060 3,224
Taiwan 13.5 2.1 72.247 7,657
Japan 13.8 2.5 27,761 3,818
Belgium 73.8 3.8 22,208 3,075
Bahrain 73.9 0.4 10,200 7,422
Spain 14.0 3.0 17,713 2.483
Italy 14.2 2.8 20,362 2.892
United Arab Emirates 14.3 0.2 21.206 3,024
New Zealand 14.6 3.0 22.448 3,284
Slovenia 15.3 5.6 13,858 2,125
Brazil 15.9 1.4 7,063 7,723
Israel 15.9 2.6 17,491 2,783
Hungary 16.2 7.5 6,972 1,127
(Continues)
B INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION
:J
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries, 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Chile 16.2 3.0 9,566 1,546
Greece 16.5 4.4 16,652 2,740
Portugal 16,5 3.0 13,473 2,225
Slovakia 16,8 4.9 9,556 1,603
Uruguay 18.3 3.4 10,272 1,878
Colombia 18.4 3.3 4,744 872
Kuwait 18.6 0.5 7,284 1,352
Venezuela 18.6 3.6 7,421 1,378
Latvia 18.8 6.8 8,612 1,619
South Africa 19.4 6.1 4,524 877
Malaysia 19.5 2.5 5,557 1,084
Poland 19.6 6.5 7,773 1,521
Estonia 19.6 8.6 8,923 1,753
Argentina 20.9 4.5 6,595 1,381
Bulgaria 21.2 4.0 4,718 999
Ecuador 21.9 0.9 3,526 771
Turkey 22.2 4.6 7,705 1,708
Costa Rica 23.3 0.4 6,754 1,577
Turkmenistan 23.5 2.0 2,503 589
Dominican Republic 24,5 4.2 5,192 1,272
Mexico 24.9 2.2 6,518 1,625
India 25.2 3.0 871 220
Iran 25.5 0.4 2,744 699
Lithuania 25.7 8.5 9,067 2,331
Saudi Arabia 25.8 0,6 6,220 1,607
China 26.9 3.6 2,149 577
(Continues)
:J
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1
ALCOHOLIC
Romania 28.6 3.4 4,827 l.382
Bolivia 28.7 1.9 1,567 450
Uzbekistan 31.0 2.5 908 281
Croatia 31.4 3.7 9,078 2,847
Bosnia-Herzegovina 31.4 6.3 4,057 1,275
Russia 31.6 7.8 6.709 2,120
Thailand 32.0 4.7 3,177 1,016
Jordan 32.2 4.5 3,743 1,205
Indonesia 33.4 5.4 1,964 655
Macedonia 34.4 3.5 3,626 1,247
Kazakhstan 35.l 2.6 5,483 1.925
Tunisia 35.5 1.0 2,660 943
Vietnam 35.9 2.8 962 345
Belarus 36.l 8.1 3,091 1,115
Peru 36.5 6.1 4,126 1,507
Ukraine 37.0 6.7 2,779 1,028
Guatemala 37.9 1.5 2,878 1,091
Nigeria 39.5 2.5 966 381
Georgia 40.4 5.1 2,663 1,076
Morocco 40.5 1.3 1,921 777
Azerbaijan 42.7 2.0 2,862 1,222
Egypt 42.7 2.2 2,410 1,030
Philippines 42.8 1.2 1,925 823
Algeria 43.7 2.0 1,749 764
(Continues)
10 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION
:J
Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1
SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES "'0 �"'

��
s= -"
ALCOHOLIC _g I
1i:i1ij
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE 2 5
"'"'
C •c
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2 !i

� .5
�E
COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON � '§-..
·,;; Eg
��wg
��
Kenya 44.8 2.8 782 350 � _g -�
1-------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------t�se
Cameroon 45,9 2.2 921 423 �- �:
j i�
1---------------+---------+---------+---------+------------1 � -� �
�-----------�--------�--------�--------�-------��-=
Pakistan 47,7 1.0 871 415
NA = Not available.
'Data were computed based on Euromonitor International data extracted July 2013.
'Includes nonalcoholic beverages.
'Consumer expenditures include personal expenditures on goods and services. Consumption expenditures in the domestic market are
equal to consumer expenditures by resident households plus direct purchases In the domestic market by nonresident households minus
direct purchases abroad by resident households.
NOTE: Two sets of food-spending figures ore shown for the United States. The first is from the ERS Food Expenditure series and is based on
a comprehensive measure of the total value of all U.S. food expenditures. The second set is based on Euromonitor International Inc. data.
which reports spending on food and nonalcoholic beverages and Consumption Expenditures for 84 countries, including the United States.
The ERS estimate is lower partly because it excludes pet food, ice. and prepared teed, which are included in the food-spending data
published by Euromonitor International.
Consumption trends change over time, and demand both more convenience and higher quality.
this influences what the food industry does in Short-period changes in consumption reflect mostly
terms of production and advertising. According changes in supply rather than changes in consumer
to loss-adjusted food availability data, Americans
are consuming more calories per day than they did
40 years ago. In 1970, Americans consumed an es Flour and cereal products provided more calories per day for the
average American than any other food group in 2010 �
=>
...""
timated 2,109 calories per person per day; by 2010, -� �
oN
e2
Fruit and vegetables and dairy products provided smaller shares of
calories per day for the average American
they were consuming an estimated 2,569 calories
.. ..
.§ �
Fruit and �o�
(after adjusting for plate waste, spoilage, and other vegetables ...,
§e
food losses) (see Figure 1-4). Of this 460-calorie 206
Added fats and oils al.§
="'"
�-'
and dairy lats
increase, grains (mainly refined grains) accounted �= 0
590 w ..
for 180 calories; added fats and oils, 225 calories; ·"'; �E
.c,"
� g
added sugar and sweeteners, 21 calories; dairy fats, Meat, eggs,
and nuts
<00
jf
19 calories; fruits and vegetables, 12 calories; and 545 !:? -g
�%
meats, eggs, and nuts, 16 calories. Only dairy prod 8!
.... 0
-""�
ucts declined (13 calories) during the time period. <r "'
��
According to government recommendations from sweeteners ��
::,
400 -g 1
MyPlate, American diets fall short in the consump CDS
Noles: Added fats and oils and added sugar and sweeteners are added to foods during B �
processing or preparation. They do not include naturally occurring lats al\d su�rs
tion of fruits, vegetables, and dairy (Figure 1-5). in food (e.g., tats in meat or sugars in fruits),
��
e e:
Food availability data serve as proxies lor food consumption. ��
However, demand for individual foods is more
"' v.
FIGURE 1•4 In 2010 Americans consumed. on aver

responsive to prices as consumers choose from alter age, 2.569 calories per day. This is a considerable
native food commodities. Rising incomes mean con increase from 1970 when the average American
sumers spend more on more expensive foods as they consumed only 2.109 calories per day.

140
120
My Plate Recommendations 1
100 �-
....
5�
=
::: >-
!l!;;;
E
cQ)
80
o=
.::�
so
"' �
.,, "'
I:! §.�
��
Q)
a. 60 :'"E
.,, 0
= ·-=
u "'
40 ]!
.c �
��
t�JI
5l >-
20
=u.,,0
0 ___.__.....__, � ..f
Meat Grains Vegetables Dairy Fruit fil �
if
::, Jg
1Data based on a 2,000-calorie diet.
Note: Rice and durum flour data were discontinued and thus are
i-;
��
not included in the grains group. Food availability data serve as
proxies for food consumption. ij
"' ia
FIGURE 1-5 American diets are out of balance with dietary recommendations. In 2072, Americans con
sumed more than the recommended share of meat and grains in their diets but less than the recom
mended share of fruit dairy. and vegetables.
tastes. Demographic factors, such as changes in Sales in fast-food industries now outpace sales in
household size and the population's age distribution, full-service restaurants. The top five U.S. fast-food
also can bring about changes in consumption. chains and their sales are shown in Table 1-2.
Away-from-home meals and snacks now capture The number of fast-food restaurant outlets in the
almost half (45%) of the U.S. food dollar. This is up United States has risen steadily since 1970. People
from 34% in 1970. Fast food accounts for the largest want quick and convenient meals. They do not want
and fastest rising share of sales in the food industry. to spend a lot of time preparing meals, traveling to
TABLE 1·2 Top 5 Restaurant Chains: U.S. Sales
-----------------------
$ MILLION
RANK CHAIN SEGMENT 2011 2010 2009
l McDonald's Sandwich 34,172 32,395 31,033

2 Subway Sandwich 11.434.0 10,633 9,999
3 Starbucks Coffee Beverage-snack 8,490 7,955 7.415
4 Burger King Sandwich 8,131 8.433 8,799
5 Wendy's Sandwich 8,108 7,943 8,023
NOTES: The rankings are based on U.S. system-wide food service sales. Including company-store and franchised-unit sales. for the latest
full fiscal years ended closest to December of the years listed.
• Tied results are given the same rank.
• The year 2011 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2011.
• The year 2010 reftects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2010.
• The year 2009 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2009.
• Data are reported by a chain or parent company or estimated by Nation's Restaurant News.
:J
pick up meals, or waiting for meals in restaurants. Perhaps the current food service industry strategy
This trend has increased as more women have be was best stated in McDonald's 1994 annual report:
come part of the workforce. In more and more fam
McDonald's wants to have a site wherever people
ilies, both parents work and no one stays at home. In
live, work, shop, play, orgather. Our Convenience
addition, consumers more often combine meals with
Strategy is to monitor the changing lifestyles of
time engaged in activities such as shopping, work
consumers and intercept them at every turn. As
ing, and traveling. For example, McDonald's, Burger
we expand our customer convenience, we gain
King, Taco Bell, and others are now located in out
market share.
lets such as Wal-Mart stores and many gas stations.
MATH CONNECTION!
Research the number of calories found in each item of your favorite fast-food restaurant meal. How do
the total calories for that meal fit with a 2,000-calorie diet?
The food industry is big and it employs large prepared products at home and many meals away
numbers of people in a variety of occupations be from home. Advertising (media) also plays an im
cause everyone eats (Table 1-3), and they eat more portant role in influencing food trends (Figure 1-6).
TABLE 1-3 U.S Per Capita Food Expenditures
U.S. PER CAPITA FOOD EXPENDITURES
CURRENT PRICES 1988 PRICES
U.S. RESIDENT AWAY AWAY

POPULATION, AT FROM AT FROM
JULY 1 HOME HOME TOTAL HOME HOME TOTAL
VEAR MILLIONS DOLLARS
1953 167.306 278 91 369 1,068 516 1,584
1960 179.979 306 109 415 1,132 522 1,654

1965 193.526 318 135 454 1,108 581 1,689
1970 203.984 387 194 581 1,130 630 1.760
1975 215.465 567 316 883 1,069 706 1,775
1980 227.225 828 529 1.357 1,092 773 1,865
1985 237.924 1.009 710 1.718 1.128 798 1,926
1990 249.464 1,301 982 2,283 1.147 897 2,044
1-------1------------+-------+--------1--------+-------+--------1------- ;;;~
1995 262.803 1.408 1,170 2,578 1,104 957 2,061 "
~
2000 282.172 1.571 1,396 2,966 1.091 1.003 2.093 "'
t--------t---------+------+------t---------t------+------+---------i i!
2005 295.753 1,853 1,730 3,583 1,138 1,085 2,223 j
2010 309.326 2,065 1.979 4,043 1,116 1,054 2,170
j.,-
2011 311.588 2,171 2,058 4,229 1,113 1,081 2,194 C
1-------1------------+-------+--------1--------+-------+--------1---------t ;"'
_____
2012
._ __________
313,914
_._ _______
2,215 ______
2,167 _______
4,382
....... _______
1.114 ______
1,109
.._ ______
2,223_. ....... .._ _. __, ~5
:J
~
PEP ICO
,-
IMON•fo'tttoH
- t !l
<
.,
e
"'a
FIGURE
I I I 1-6 Illusion of choice. Most products
I - • - 1we
- buy are controll
. --1 e- d by just a few companies.
ALLIED INDUSTRIES includ can , i d lorings and flavorin-··- -· g

product , and pla ti products (see Figure 1-7).
I - ,- -
1--_s, paper
- - --,
Many ompani do not ell food directly but are hemi al manufa ttuer represent another group
still deeply involved in the food industry. These . -- . ... -
of allied indu trie . They supply the acidulants,
allied industries produ e nonfood items that preservative , enzymes stabilizers, and other
are nece ary fi r marketing food. The packag chemi al u d in fo cl .
ing indu try i a g ad example.
r pecific example5
SCIENCE CONNECTION!
Research food additives or preservatives commonly r-
found in foods.
fr ez r , in trumentation, and computer control

e, fo d pr duct and afe food require new
( ee hapt e r 7).
food-proce ing method and y tern . Food ma
chin ry and Cquipm enl manufacturer are more Finally, k eeping thC food upply afe and
example f allied indu trie . They develop pa - healthy and c0 n um r informed require moni
teurizer , vap 0 rat r , microwave ovens, infrared toring and regulatory agencie u Cha theFoodand
cooker , freeze-drying ystem , liquid nitrogen Drug Admini tration (FDA), attorneys, consumer
I -- -.,.·
price formula established before the purchase
is to be made.
3. Vertical integration. A single firm controls
the flow of a commodity across two or more
stages of food production.
The food industry has traditionally operated
in an open production system. However, more dis
criminating consumers, plus new technological
developments that allow the differentiation of farm
products, are helping to lower open production
and increase both contract production and vertical
integration. Also fueling this trend are changing
demographics and the increasing value of people's
time, both of which have contributed to consumer
Source: USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo lly Peggy Greb

preferences for a wider variety of safe, nutritious,
and convenient food products.
Providing food products with specific char
acteristics preferred by discriminating consumers
will likely involve producing more detailed raw
commodities such as a frying chicken of a specific
weight and size or a corn kernel with a specific
protein content. This effort to carefully tailor raw
commodities with processing in mind is already
underway in some food industries and has been
FIGURE 1-7 Plant physiologist prepares to make accompanied by changes in vertical coordination.
wheat-starch biodegradable containers.
INTERNATIONAL
action and information agencies, and other regula
tory agencies. ACTIVITIES
If recent trends in the U.S. food industry con Food is an international commodity, with prod
tinue, food production may be increasingly dom ucts being traded and shipped around the world.
inated by firms exercising control over most and Most grocery stores now carry food items from
even all stages of food production. Vertical coordi other countries. Specialty and gourmet stores stock
nation seems to be the way of the future, including many international foods such as cheeses from
how products are acquired or traded in the mar Europe, beef from Australia, strawberries from
kets. Food industry firms form three basic types of Mexico, and apples from Argentina. In addition,
vertical coordination: gourmet and specialty foods can be purchased On
line. International food clubs and online buying
1. Open production. A firm purchases a are available to consumers worldwide.
commodity from a producer at a market price
determined at the time of purchase. Many U.S. companies also have established
subsidiaries in other countries, and fast-food com
2. Contract production. A firm commits to
panies such as McDonald's and Pizza Hut continue
purchase a commodity from a producer at a
r
to open outlets all around the world. Major food The processed-food sector is a major partici
companies such as Kraft-General Foods, CPC In pant in the global economy. The United States ac
ternational, H.J. Heinz, Borden, Campbell Soup, counts for about one-fourth of the industrialized
Nabisco Brands, Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Beatrice world's total production of processed foods. Six
Companies, Ralston Purina, and General Mills all of the largest 10, and 21 of the largest 50 food
have extensive overseas operations. Table 1-4 lists processing firms in the world are headquartered in
the top 50 international food-processing firms, the United States. The U.S. processed-foods mar
their headquarters, and their annual sales. ket has become truly global in scope through a
TABLE 1-4 Top 50 of the World's Largest Food-Processing Firms
2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
VEAR VEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
l l Pepsico Inc. 37.806 37.618 66.415 6,740
2 2 Tyson Foods Inc. 32,999 31,614 34,374 778

(9/28/13)
3 3 Nestle (U.S. & 27.300 27.200 103536C 11.000C

Canada)
4 4 JBS USA 22,140 20,979E 41,000C 429
5 11 Coca-Cola Co. 21,600 21656R 46,854 8,626
6 5 Anheuser-Busch 16,023 76,028 43,195 76,518

InBev
7 6 Kraft Foods Inc. 14.346 14,358R 18,218 2.715
8 8 Smithfield Foods Inc. 12,531 11753A 14,000 NA-Private
9 7 General Mills Inc. 12,524 12.574 17,910 1,861

(5/25/14)
10 72 ConAgra Foods Inc. 11,511 9,360R 17,703 315

(5/25/14)
11 10 Mars Inc. 17000E 11.000 33,000E NA-Private
12 74 Kellogg Co. 9,716 9,539 74.792 7,808
13 9 Dean Foods Co. 9,016 11,462 9,016 819
14 75 Hormel Foods Corp. 8,752 8,231 8,752 530
15 13 Cargill Inc. (5/31/13) 8,500 8.500E 136,700 2,310
16 16 MillerCoors LLC 7,801 7,761 7,801 1.271
17 21 Saputo Inc. C7789 C6063 C9,233 C534

(3/31/14)
(Continues)
:J
2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME•
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
18 17 Pilgrim's Pride 7,500 7,249 8,411 550
19 20 Hershey Co. 7,146 6,644 7,146 820
20 19 Mondelez 6.991 6,903 35,299 2.332

International
21 18 Unilever North 6,876 7111E 68551 cc 7245 cc

America
22 22 Bimbo Bakeries USA 6,101 6,062C 13,464C 365C
23 23 Dr. Pepper Snapple 5,997 5,995 5,997 624

Group
24 24 J.M. Smucker Co. 5,611 5,898 5,611 565

(4/30/14)
25 29 Campbell Soup Co. 4,910 4,110 8,052 449

(7/28/13)
26 38 Constellation 4.868 2,796 4.868 1,943

Brands (2/28/14)
27 27 H.J. Heinz Co. 4,530 4,570 NA-Private
28 25 Maple Leaf Foods 4,406 4,552R 4,406 496
29 26 Land O'Lakes lnc.(2) 4,250 4,200E 14,236 306
30 31 Perdue Farms 4,140 3.860E 6,729 NA-Private

(3/30/14)
31 32 Brown-Forman Corp. 3.946 3.784 3,946 659
32 30 Hillshire Brands 3.920 3,958 3.920 184

(6/29/13)
33 37 Flowers Foods Inc. 3,751 3,046 3,751 231
34 86 Dairy Farmers of 3,700 3,500R 12,800 61

America (2)
35 33 Agropur Cooperative 3,630 3,640 3,630 54
36 66 Lactalis American 3,500 3.230 3,500E NA

Group Inc.
37 35 E&J Gallo Winery 3,400 3,400E 3,600E NA-Private
38 59 Parmalat Canada 3,161 2,848R 178
(Continues)
:J
2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)
39 36 Chiquita Brands Intl. 3,057 3,078 3,057 (-16)
40 28 Dole Food Co. Inc. 2,800 4,247 23,800E NA-Private
41 61 Prairie Farms Dairy 2,800 2,700 2,800 NA

Inc. (9/30/13)
42 42 Sanderson Farms 2,683 2,386 2,683 131
43 39 Rich Products Corp. 2,661 2500E 3,300 NA-Private
44 48 Molson Coors Co. 2,575 2,675R 4,206 565

(Canada only)
45 72 Beam Inc. 2,558 2,466
46 52 WhiteWave Foods 2,542 2,289 2,542 NA-Private
47 44 Great Lakes Cheese 2,500 2,250E 2,S00E NA-Private

Co. ~
48 39
McCain Foods C2,500E C2,500E C$6,000 NA-Private !
(6/30/13)
.<=
g
·~
1-------t--------i"'"""-------------1---------1----------+-----------t------------1 1
49 41 Pinnacle Foods 2,464 2,478 2,462 89
"' 0
____ _______ _____________ ________ ________ ________.....________

0
.._ 50 ...., 68 .._ Dannon Co. Inc. .._ 2,305NA .._ l,800R ...._ 2,305 __.~~
combination of imports and exports of foods and Aside from the worldwide demand for food
food ingredients, foreign production by U.S. food and food products, recent trends to decrease trade
firms, host production by foreign food firms, and tariffs has stimulated international activities in
other international commercial strategies. Easily the food industry, as have improvements in trans
recognized U.S. food brands are so well received portation and communication. Products now
internationally that many consumers in other move around the world by air freight in hours or
countries accept them as leading local brands. In days. The World Wide Web has enabled communi
terms of international trade, the processed-foods cations to take place around the world in a matter
sector surpasses agricultural commodities by a of seconds.
considerable margin.
A nation's infrastructure policies affect the
World trade imports are also represented by ability of its firms to pursue global marketing strat
products not grown in the United States such as egies. For processed foods, particularly important
coffee, tea, cocoa, and spices. The worldwide de linkages exist between the communications and
mand for cereal grains and soybeans has also in transportation sectors. Technical innovations in
creased, so the United States is the largest exporter both communications and transportation make
of these foods. the production and distribution of processed foods
18 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION
:J
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cerebellar tract—or, rather, a large part of the periphery of the lateral
column—may be sclerosed in this disease. In this way, since the
direct pyramid tract in the anterior, the greater part of the border of
the lateral, and the entire posterior column are degenerated, the
sclerosis resembles a marginal ring113 in shape.
113 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xiv. p. 384.
Anatomically, the sclerosis of the family form of tabes resembles that

form of combined sclerosis in which the lateral and posterior
columns are together affected. It is probably due to a defective
development of these tracts, rendering them liable to premature
decrepitude or increasing their vulnerability. The latter alternative is
exemplified in those cases where some acute disease of childhood,
such as scarlatina or measles, acted as an exciting cause.
DIAGNOSIS.—There are two affections some of whose leading

symptoms are so closely imitated by those of this disease that they
may be confounded with it on first sight. These are tabes dorsalis—
of which the family form is still regarded a variety, as the name
indicates—and disseminated sclerosis. In the gait the former, in the
nystagmus and scanning speech the latter, disorder is approximated.
The distinction from true tabes has already been dilated on. (See
Tabes.) The fact that relatives—usually the sisters and brothers—of
the patient are affected in the same way in their youth speaks in
favor of the family form. The deep reflexes are not abolished early,
as in tabes, nor are anæsthesias or paræsthesias early symptoms,
as in the latter. The speech-disturbance and nystagmus, which in
most cases develop later in the family form, serve to distinguish it
from true tabes in the advanced stage. It is at this period that the
disease may resemble a disseminated sclerosis. The hereditary or
family character does not aid us in making a discrimination here, as
there is also a family form of the latter disease. But the absence of
intention tremor, which we would assume to be present in a case of
disseminated sclerosis of the cerebral type, and of optic-nerve
atrophy serves to distinguish the two. Musso claims that the speech-
disturbance is also different in character. There certainly is more
lingual ataxia in the family form of tabes, and less of typical
scanning, but I am doubtful about our ability to differentiate these
characters in all cases. The following table includes the main points
of difference, clinically considered, between the acquired and the
family form of tabes:
Tabes Dorsalis. The Family Form.

Prodromata. Marked and constant. Absent or slight.
Static ataxia (Romberg Early and constant. Absent.
symptom).
Involvement of upper extremities. Usually late. Early.
Ataxia of tongue, eyes, and Absent or unnoticeable. Always developed.
trunk-muscles.
Paresis. Rare. Characteristic.
Anæsthesia. Present in some form. Absent or slight.
Paræsthesia. Constant. Rare.
Sexual desire. Becomes extinguished. Remains unaffected.
Deep reflexes. Abolition usually initial. Abolition in course of
disease.114
Sphincters. Involvement is characteristic Involvement late, if at all.
and early.
114 There are conflicting observations on this point.
Disseminated Sclerosis.
SYNONYMS.—Multiple cerebro-spinal sclerosis (also spinal and

cerebral form), Insular cerebro-spinal sclerosis, Focal sclerosis,
Multilocular sclerosis; Herd-sklerose (Ger.); Sclerose en plaques
disseminées, Sclerose en plaques generalisées (French).
The occurrence of disseminated patches of gray degeneration in the

nervous axis was observed by Cruveilhier and Türck, but they
regarded the affection rather from the anatomical than the clinical
standpoint, and it was left for Frerichs to recognize its important
position among the chronic affections of the brain and spinal cord.
The earlier German investigators who followed him were cautious in
generalization, and it was not until Vulpian, Charcot, and their
followers announced the discovery of infallible diagnostic criteria that
disseminated sclerosis received that attention at the hands of the
profession which it merits. But the more thorough researches made
during the last two decades have shown that this announcement was
premature. The best authorities recognize the existence of a large
number of cases in which the supposed pathognomonic signs of
disseminated sclerosis are absent, notwithstanding the existence of
characteristic lesions, and thus the more cautious earlier
investigators are justified in the reserve they had maintained.
It is in perfect harmony with the irregular location of the disease and

the lack of any constant rule governing the distribution of the
sclerotic foci that there is no constant clinical picture by which its
existence can be accurately determined in all cases. The diagnosis
of tabes dorsalis, of spastic paralysis, of amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, and of transverse myelitis rests on exact and constant
signs, but that of disseminated sclerosis does not. The dictum of
Charcot, that there is always intention tremor and nystagmus in
disseminated sclerosis, has long been overthrown. Well-determined
cases are on record by De Fleury and Westphal, and a number have
been observed by myself, where there was no tremor or no
increased tremor with intended movement, and no nystagmus, nor
any other of the pathognomonic symptoms so considered by Charcot
and his followers.
The morbid process of disseminated sclerosis consists in the

development of patches of sclerosed tissue, scattered apparently
without any regularity or rule through the brain and spinal cord. They
are the results of insidious inflammatory changes. The symptoms
marking their presence may include nearly every known focal and
general symptom studied by neurologists, varying with the number,
size, and distribution of the foci. Usually there is some disturbance of
motility, both ataxic and paretic; in the majority there is tremor, which
in a large proportion of cases is of a distinctive character, and
disturbance of the functions of the cranial nerves, amblyopia, color-
blindness, mental enfeeblement; and, above all, apoplectiform
seizures are frequent.
Some writers discriminate between cases in which the lesions are

limited to, or most intense in, the spinal cord, and those in which the
brain is chiefly or exclusively involved, and hence they speak of a
spinal, a cerebral, and a cerebro-spinal form. This discrimination is
not sufficiently supported by clinical evidence to be of any practical
value. Each case is to be studied by itself during life and after death,
and to be regarded as one of a series in which the lesion may be
concentrated in any one segment of the cerebro-spinal axis. It
seems that when the sclerotic foci are limited to or chiefly located in
the spinal cord, the clinical signs are less pronounced than where
the brain is seriously involved; those cases in which the symptoms
are latent, or so vague that they cannot be distinguished from spinal
irritation or spinal exhaustion, have been found to be of the spinal
type. The cases of this character thus far observed are not
sufficiently numerous to justify the creation of special subdivisions.115
115 According as the formation of the sclerotic foci preponderates in a given segment
of the nervous axis, the early signs of the disease may consist in disturbances of the
cerebral or the spinal functions, and we may speak accordingly of a cerebral or spinal
invasion type. But the principle of classification adopted by several recent writers,
which would rank the spinal type among the spinal diseases, the cerebral type among
the cerebral diseases, and which is compelled to erect a third category for the
reception of the cerebro-spinal type under the name of cerebro-spinal diseases, is a
bad one. Modern pathology recognizes the existence of affections which involve
whole fibre-systems, which are intracerebral in one and intraspinal in other parts of
their course, such as tabes and amyotrophic sclerosis, which would therefore have to
rank among the cerebro-spinal, and not among the spinal affections, with which the
authors referred to classify them.
CLINICAL HISTORY.—Prodromal.—Disseminated sclerosis is usually

inaugurated by a long initial period in which the symptoms are not
characteristic, and in which, unless there be decisive pupillary or
optic-nerve symptoms present, the nature of the disease is not
recognized. The patients feel weak and tired; walking is difficult, and
an element of unsteadiness suggests the development of a tabic
disorder. In other cases ankle-clonus is found and tremor of the foot
on extension (dorsiflexion); it is discovered that the unsteadiness is
due to weakness or to rigidity of the muscles, and thus the
impression of a developing spastic paralysis may be created. But
symptoms on the part of the cranial nerves soon show that the case
is one of disseminated sclerosis. Sometimes a marked belt
sensation is developed, and other forms of paræsthesia are not
uncommon; nay, the symptoms of spastic paralysis and tabes
dorsalis may be mingled. Diplopia of the same transitory character
as in tabes usually accompanies the gradually-developing speech
trouble. The reflex and mechanical excitability of the muscles is
increased in all cases where the lateral column is extensively
involved and the gray substance of the cord is—as it usually is in the
main—intact. In some cases a slight tap on the knee when held in
the position required to demonstrate the knee-jerk produces
oscillatory movements of the limb; as the patient endeavors to
suppress these they become more violent, extend to the trunk and
head, and may eventually involve the opposite side. In those cases
which show the cerebral-invasion type headache, vertigo, and
speech disturbance, temporary darkening of the visual field, and loss
of memory are the earliest symptoms directing attention to the
existence of serious disease.
Whether the spinal or the cerebral symptoms preponderate, they

continue increasing slowly and with temporary variations, which are
particularly marked in the cerebral-invasion type. As a rule, the
sensory disturbances are not pronounced at this time, but later, after
the initial symptoms have existed for a few years, they become
intense, and often extremely distressing. Those most complained of
by the patient are neuralgic, lancinating, and other pains. The
lancinating pains are, as a rule, not as severe as those of tabes
dorsalis, but they are apt to be associated with a dull heavy pain
which is located in a whole extremity, referred to the deep structures,
and very persistent. This diffuse pain sometimes occupies all of the
lower half of the body. As in tabes, the pain may be regarded the
forerunner of anæsthesia, which rarely, however, reaches a high
degree or an extensive distribution. Its distribution, like that of the
other peripheral symptoms of disseminated sclerosis, is commonly
irregular. Like the motor disturbance, which at this period consists in
a combination of paretic and spastic—occasionally of ataxic—
symptoms, it is most marked in the lower extremities.
In the majority of cases there is a peculiar tremor, which usually

presents the character to which Charcot directed attention—namely,
that it increases when the patient attempts to carry out a voluntary
movement, and disappears, or at least diminishes, when the
muscles of the part in question are at rest. This is the important
symptom known as the tremor on intended movement or intention
tremor. One of the time-honored means of testing it is to order the
patient to take a glass of water and pass it to his mouth. While he
reaches out for it some oscillatory unsteadiness is observed, but on
grasping, this is increased, and on raising the glass the oscillations
increase till he spills the water; if he succeeds in carrying it to his
mouth, there is a clattering against the teeth, and but for the
steadying aid of his mouth he would throw it aside by the violence of
the disturbing movements. In incipient cases this intention tremor is
best shown with delicate movements, and the more distinctly the
more slowly they are performed. It has been suggested that the
peculiar character of the lesion of disseminated sclerosis has some
relation to the intention tremor. It is a remarkable feature of the
morbid process that it leaves the axis-cylinder comparatively intact,
beyond any other form of myelitis or encephalitis. The myelin,
however, is destroyed, and the consequence is that the naked axis-
cylinders lie in a newly-formed connective tissue, which has not the
same faculty the myelin has of isolating the nervous impulses
conducted through the axis-cylinders. The result is, that when a
nervous impulse, such as a voluntary movement, travels through a
sclerotic focus, it may become deflected to neighboring fibres going
to another muscle or muscular bundle than the one intended to be
innervated. An unintended motion results; the patient makes a
stronger effort, intended for the right channel, but again it slips off, to
use a coarse simile, and thus a number of erroneous messages are
transmitted, and an equal number of disturbing motions respond to
these messages.
Whether this histological explanation be correct or not, the tremor is

probably due to the lesion of the peduncular tracts of the brain. At
least, this is rendered plausible for the tremor on intended
movement, which indicates an interference with the transmission of
voluntary impulses. Whether, as Pasternatzky116 claims, the extreme
muscular oscillation seen in advanced cases is due to irritation of the
cortical motor fields, it is impossible to decide. No strong evidence
can be adduced in favor of his view. A few cases have been
described (Schüle, Jolly, and Greiff); and, in my opinion, such are far
more numerous than is usually supposed, where the tremor did not
have the so-called characteristic feature of ceasing in conditions of
rest, claimed by Charcot, but continued as in paralysis agitans.117 A
collection of cases by Erb, Ordenstein, and Greiff shows clearly that
with a typical dissemination of sclerotic foci in the cord the tremor on
intended movement may be entirely absent, while no case is known
where the crus and pons were involved to a similar extent in which it
was absent. So it seems that a cerebral lesion is necessary to
produce this symptom in its characteristic form.
116 Jahrbücher für Psychiatrie, iii. 3, 1882.
117 For several years I had been puzzled by the fact that Charcot's formula failed to
correspond to the clinical picture in the majority of cases, and I registered such cases
as incipient multiple sclerosis or as a connecting group between paralysis agitans and
that disease.
In advanced cases of disseminated sclerosis the intention tremor

becomes generalized; previously noticed, perhaps, only in one arm,
it now affects all the limbs and the muscles which maintain the trunk
and head in static equilibrium. The result is, that even when the
patient is at rest sitting in a chair, his body, and particularly his head,
are agitated by a violent and coarse tremor, which is increased on
rising and walking, as well as on attempting to use the hands.
Delicate mechanical occupations become impossible, and the
handwriting shows a characteristic change, the forward strokes of
the letters and the curvilinear back strokes, as well as the dots and
crosses, registering the tremor of the hand in their peculiar
irregularity.
The speech is usually rough and broken, and sometimes enunciation

is impeded in a peculiar way, the patient appearing to scan his
words. Krause118 has found relaxation of the vocal cords in a
remarkable degree to underlie the change in phonation. The
scanning of speech appears to be due to impeded innervation of the
lips and tongue. When the patient is told to protrude his tongue, he
does so either in spasmodic instalments of movement or with a
sudden jerk after delay. The same delay and apparent halting are
noticed in the mimic expressions that are observed in speech. The
features sometimes express an emotion opposite to the one
experienced by the patient.119
118 Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1885.
119 This symptom is found where there are other reasons for suspecting the existence
of large foci in the pons. I have observed it in one case of tumor of this region, and
one of a focal disease of undetermined anatomical nature in the same location, in a
remarkable form. In the former case the patient not only exhibited the facial
contortions of hearty laughter when she felt as if about to break out in tears, and
broke out in tears when she felt amused, with perverse regularity, but both emotional
manifestations occurred simultaneously. The other case is still under observation.
There was complete anarthria in the first, and nearly complete anarthria in the second
case—a fact not unrelated to the inferred site of the lesion, and which may be
associated with the fact that where the perverse mimic expression occurs in
disseminated sclerosis the speech-disturbance often has an anarthric character.
Whether diplopia occur as an early symptom or not, nystagmic

oscillation of the eyeballs is commonly found in the developed
affection. This nystagmus is usually universal, noted in associated
movements in every direction, and aggravated by excitement, by
constrained positions, and by any act of innervation of the eye-
muscles. It may be looked upon as an intention tremor of the latter,
and attributed to sclerotic foci in the cerebral axis, particularly in the
tegmental part of the pons varolii.
The deep reflexes are in some cases but slightly affected. Where
spastic phenomena preponderate, they are exaggerated, and where
the posterior root-zones are involved in the lesion, they may be, as in
tabes dorsalis, diminished or absent. The nutrition of the muscles is
not impaired in the early stages, and indeed most functions which
depend for their proper performance on the intact condition of the
gray substance, such as the power of retaining the urine, micturition,
and the functions of the rectum, are properly performed at this
period. The cutaneous reflexes are not markedly abnormal in the
majority of cases. They sometimes become diminished in the last
stages.
In cases regarded as disseminated scleroses and similar disorders

approximating the combined form of sclerosis, Westphal120 noticed a
paradoxical muscular phenomenon which is the reverse in action of
the tendon reflexes. It is best observed in the tibialis anticus: if the
foot be extended (dorsiflected)—in other words, if the origin and
insertion of this muscle be approximated—the muscle contracts
firmly, keeping the foot in the enforced position, as if frozen into that
attitude. The same occasionally occurs if the patient voluntarily
extends his foot. Westphal observed the same phenomenon in the
disease described by him in which the symptoms of disseminated
sclerosis are present, but the corresponding lesion is not visible.121
120 Archiv für Psychiatrie, x. p. 243.
121 Ibid., xiv. p. 132. It is a noteworthy fact that this sign has been observed by its
discoverer also in paralysis agitans.
In a number of cases the mind becomes involved. Simple dementia

is the commoner condition, and some indication of passive mental
enfeeblement is found sooner or later in the history of the disease in
the majority of cases. In addition, there may be a morbid emotional
condition, usually in the direction of depression. I have been struck
by the frequent association of a melancholic state with large foci in
the oblongata. When it is borne in mind that the patient exhibits
tremor and speech-disturbance in addition to his mental trouble, it
will be understood that with some modifications of the typical signs
the case may simulate one of paretic dementia; and there are cases
in which it is exceedingly difficult to decide whether they belong to an
aberrant type of disseminated sclerosis or to the sclerotic type of
paretic dementia. There are some which constitute veritable
connecting-links between the two affections.122
122 Zacher, Archiv für Psychiatrie, xiii. p. 168; the writer, Journal of Nervous and
Mental Diseases, April, 1877, and Insanity, its Classification, Diagnosis, and
Treatment, p. 240.
Like tabes dorsalis, the progress of disseminated sclerosis is often

marked by episodes. Some of these differ in no way from the
visceral crises of posterior-column sclerosis; every form of these
symptoms found with that affection may occur in the present one,
while episodes involving the cerebral functions are much more
common. The latter manifest themselves as apoplectiform or
epileptiform seizures. They are preceded by headache and vertigo,
or, if these be continuously present, by an aggravation of them; then
unconsciousness develops, either accompanied by convulsions or
not, and the face is flushed, the pulse full and frequent, and the
temperature raised. Consciousness returns in a few hours or a day,
the attack rarely lasting more than two days, and it is found that the
patient is hemiplegic. But, unlike the hemiplegia found after vascular
rupture, embolism, or structural cortical disease, it is rapidly
recovered from.
In a case of Gnauck's an attack of scotoma scintillans, associated

with a noise of thunder in the right ear and pricking pains on the right
side of the face, preceded anæsthesia and the formation of a small
defect of the visual field.
There is a close resemblance between these apoplectiform and

epileptiform seizures and those of paretic dementia, not alone in
clinical character, but also in the surprisingly complete and rapid
recovery from the more serious symptoms. But just as in paretic
dementia, especially in its advanced stage, each seizure leaves the
patient somewhat more impaired in mind and body than he was
before, so it is in disseminated sclerosis; each attack marks a step
forward in the invasion of the morbid state.
Eye-trouble is much less frequently a premonitory sign of

disseminated sclerosis than of tabes. A few such cases are on
record. Magnan observed the development of the characteristic
symptoms of disseminated sclerosis fourteen years after an
amaurosis which followed typhoid; and Gnauck reports another in
which first a right ptosis, and then a right amblyopia, preceded the
ordinary symptoms. In exceptional cases this premonitory eye-
trouble may, like that of tabes, rapidly lead to extreme amblyopia or
even amaurosis. The visual disturbances are remarkable for their
rapid changes. They appear within a short period, attain their
maximum rapidly, and may occasionally retrograde as quickly. They
develop under two forms—the central and the peripheral scotoma,
or, rather, limitation of the visual or color field. The former, like the
amblyopia of alcoholic and nicotine intoxication, consists in an
inability to differentiate between red and green in the centre of the
visual field. It never, in my experience, proceeds as far as the toxic
amblyopias; that is, to the complete extinction of vision.123 The
peripheral limitation of vision may be for both quantitative and
qualitative light-perception, but it is not, as a rule,124 concentric as in
tabes, but sector-like.
123 Gnauck says that the central color-blindness may become total, and the red-green
blindness extend to the periphery.
124 Concentric limitation of ten to thirty degrees has been noted for color-perception.
The atrophy of the optic nerve in disseminated sclerosis is typically

partial, in the majority of cases manifesting itself as a sharply-
marked discoloration of the temporal half of the papilla. In others the
nasal half of the papilla also becomes discolored, but so much less
intensely that the difference between the earlier involved and later
involved portions is quite easy. It is doubtful whether the subjective
visual disturbance is always an indication of the extent to which the
optic nerve is involved. There are good reasons for believing those
amblyopias and limitations of the field of vision which show marked
remissions and exacerbations to be due to some dynamic central
condition involving the visual centres and tracts. Thus it has been
observed that almost total amaurosis occurred after an apoplectiform
attack, to disappear later on. Occasionally the amblyopia is bilateral
and the optic-nerve lesion unilateral. The frequency of this affection
is stated by Gnauck125 as follows: In one half the cases there is
diminished vision, and in half this half optic-nerve atrophy with
limitation of the visual field. It is only in exceptional cases that an
optic neuritis can be determined to have preceded the atrophy.
125 Of 50 cases, 22 had no visual trouble, 8 showed simple diminution of perception,
5 added limitation, and 15 changes of the optic disc, a case of total atrophy and
amaurosis being included in the latter.
The pupils are perfectly normal in some cases; in others myosis of

the spinal type is observed; and this I found to be nearly constant in
all advanced cases. Irregularity in outline and inequality exist in a
small proportion, and reflex iridoplegia is found in about 10 per cent.
of the cases.
Thus far, the symptoms which occur either in a majority or in a large

percentage of cases have been enumerated. The typical course of
disseminated sclerosis may be stated as consisting in their gradual
development and intensification, covering a period of from four to
twenty or more years. There are a number of cases in which so
many of the symptoms regarded as typical are either absent or
where some given symptom-group preponderates over the others to
such an extent that they require special mention.
It is not difficult to understand that disseminated sclerosis may ape

other forms of spinal disease. Its symptoms depend on the location
of the sclerotic foci. If these are situated chiefly in the crossed-
pyramid tract, spastic phenomena will predominate, and the case
may resemble a spastic paralysis.126 If they be distributed in both the
posterior and lateral columns, the symptoms will resemble those of a
combined form of sclerosis in which the tabic and spastic signs are
associated, as far as they do not, in the nature of the case,
neutralize each other. This was well shown in a case of De Fleury's.
Not infrequently an unusually large focus involves the entire
transverse section of the cord, and the case becomes complicated
by the symptoms of a transverse myelitis. In such a case, described
by Rovigli,127 a large transverse focus in the cord had led to
ascending secondary degeneration in the column of Goll and
descending degeneration of the crossed pyramid tract. In a large
series, instances of which are related by Kilian,128 Siemens,129
Schultze,130 Zacher,131 and Greiff,132 the disseminated foci were
complicated by a diffuse lesion distributed like that of a diffuse or
fascicular myelitis; and there seems to exist every connecting-link
between ordinary chronic myelitis, strictly so called, and
disseminated sclerosis.
126 Gnauck, Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1884, p. 315.
127 Rivista sperimentale di Freniatria e di Medicina leqale, x. p. 227.
128 Archiv für Psychiatrie, vii. p. 28. He designates this form sclerosis continua
multiplex.
129 Ibid., x. p. 135.
130 Ibid., xi. p. 216.
131 Ibid., xiii. p. 168.
132 Ibid., xiv. p. 287.
Not only does disseminated sclerosis occasionally imitate or

approximate the regular (fascicular) affections of the cord, as well as
diffuse cerebro-spinal affections, but it may appear under the mask
of a nuclear oblongata paralysis.133 And cases are on record where,
in addition to the disseminated sclerosis, there occurred sclerotic
atrophy of an entire hemisphere or of its capsular tracts, thus leading
to a hemiplegic resemblance of the motor paralysis. In my
experience the cases presenting the type of a nuclear oblongata
paralysis run a more rapidly fatal course than others. The shortest
history in my series, one of four years, was of such a case. A
number of instances are on record by careful observers—and are
probably much more numerous than is commonly suspected—where
no decisive evidence of spinal or cerebral disease could be detected
during life, and yet disseminated foci of sclerosis existed in the
nerve-centres. In such cases the symptoms may be in the direction
of simple nervous prostration, more commonly of spinal irritation. I
have now under observation a case which for years had been
regarded as one of spinal irritation, and which made that impression
on me until I discovered the existence of optic-nerve atrophy, which
was the only indication that the symptoms depended on gross
structural disease.134
133 It is customary to speak of symptoms referable to the oblongata as bulbar. The
designation bulbus rachidicus is now obsolete, and just as we speak of a capsular
hemiplegia, a pons paralysis, or a spinal hemiplegia, so we should say an oblongata
paralysis, discriminating between the nuclear, the neural, and the tract affections by
means of a prefix.
134 At present the symptoms of disseminated sclerosis are unmistakable. Cases are
mentioned by Strümpell and others in which they remained indecisive throughout.
Among the anomalous forms of disseminated sclerosis there is one

which is characterized by the preponderance of paraplegia and
contractures in a combination which is usually found in spinal
diseases of a different type. The coexistence of dementia, however,
usually enables the observer to determine that the lesion is both
cerebral and spinal, although those signs which might enable him to
decide the disseminated focal character may be absent.
MORBID ANATOMY.—In advanced cases of disseminated sclerosis the

lesion is visible to the naked eye on the surface of the brain and
spinal cord. Grayish maculas, sometimes elevated, more rarely a
little sunken, and occasionally showing a buff or reddish tinge, are
seen on the surface of the spinal cord, the oblongata, pons, and
crura. On making sections across the region of the spots, it is found
that the color-change is not superficial, but extends inward, involving
large parts of the transverse area of the cord or the cerebral axis;
and patches lying more deeply in their substance are revealed
whose existence could not have been suspected from a mere
surface inspection. Exceptionally, patches are found involving the
entire transverse section of the spinal cord in a length of a half to two
inches. And, similarly, in the brain nearly the entire area of the pons
or one of the crura or an entire division of the internal capsule may
be occupied by a sclerotic focus. Otherwise, they may vary from
almost microscopic dimensions to the size of a chestnut or even
larger. Bourneville135 has described cases in which the nerve-centres
appeared normal to the naked eye, while the microscope revealed
the existence of sclerotic foci. It is, however, unlikely that the fresh
brain- and cord-tissue, when the site of disseminated sclerosis, will
appear perfectly healthy to the naked eye under fairly good
illumination. Much less intense lesions than those of disseminated
sclerosis reveal their presence by changes in color and consistency.
135 Mouvement medicale, 1869, No. 27.
On examining the diseased spots more narrowly, they are found to

be slightly diaphanous. Usually, they are rounded or elliptical, but
they are often drawn out, as it were, in the most irregular shapes,
and not infrequently appear to be the result of a confluence of
originally remote and separate foci. In the cord they are sometimes
wedge-shaped, extending inward from the periphery. To the touch
they appear firm—sometimes not much more so than the normal
tissue, contrasting with it as hard-boiled white of egg would contrast
with soft-boiled; in advanced cases they become of almost leathery
consistency, and there are instances recorded where they actually
creaked under the knife. A clear fluid usually runs from their cut
surface, and the latter does not jut up on section like normal nerve-
tissue.
The distribution of the diseased areas follows no known law. They

may be numerous and of large size in one segment of the nervous
axis, and small, few in numbers, or even absent, in others. In some
altitudes of the cord the lateral, in others the posterior, in still others
the anterior, columns are chiefly involved. The cerebrum usually
contains a larger number of foci irregularly scattered in the centrum
ovale of Vieussens, the internal capsule and its surrounding ganglia,
as well as in the corpus callosum. Throughout the nervous axis it
seems that the lesion chiefly affects the white substances, and even
the roots of the peripheral nerves, both cranial and spinal, are
occasionally found to contain small foci, gray, firm in consistency,
and as distinctly outlined as those of the central organs.
The morbid process consists in an atrophy and gradual

disappearance of the myelin, which is preceded, if not caused, by an
increase of the enveloping interstitial substance. This change is of
the same character as that found in chronic myelitis. The septa and
trabeculæ of connective tissue become thicker, formless connective
substance and fibrillar tissue, which seems to arise in, if not in part
from, it, constituting the new formation. The neuroglia-nuclei are
increased, enlarged, and develop into spider-shaped cells, whose
long processes contribute (according to some authors exclusively) to
the newly-formed fibrillar network.
While the myelin undergoes wasting, the axis-cylinders remain intact

for a long period, and even in intensely sclerosed regions they may
be found in nearly their normal number, but naked and in direct
contact with the pathological fibrillæ. Some of them become
hypertrophied, increasing to twice, thrice, and, according to Leyden,
even more, of their normal diameter. This change seems to
inaugurate the last phase of the process: the axis-cylinders,
becoming sclerosed and brittle, ultimately disappear, and no trace, or
at best but doubtful traces, of the normal nerve-tissue are left behind.
The blood-vessels, following the rule of the sclerotic process, take
part in it. Their walls become thickened, richly nucleated, and the
lumen becomes narrowed in consequence. In the smaller vessels
complete obliteration of the lumen is sometimes observed.
The gray substance is not involved as frequently as the white, but it

opposes no barrier to the extension of the morbid process when
once established in its neighborhood. The nerve-cells show the
same resistance which the axis-cylinder does; that is, they retain
their outline and fibre-connections a long time in the midst of the
diseased area. But eventually they become discolored, undergo
hyaline or granular disintegration, their processes shrink, and finally
they disappear.
Ribbert and Zacher consider the sclerosis of tabes and the

disseminated affection to be much more similar than Leyden and
Charcot supposed. They locate the starting-point of the morbid
process in the vascular and connective tissues; and Greiff, in
harmony with this view, finds that the foci occur most frequently in
those parts of the cord where the connective-tissue trabeculæ are
most numerous, as in the posterior columns and at the junction of
the anterior and lateral columns.
Although the morbid foci appear to the naked eye to be uniform, and
to be sharply demarcated in the normal tissue, closer examination
shows that the areas of maximum lesion are surrounded by a narrow
transition zone by which the lesion seems to mark its eccentric
progress, and occasionally a focus of intense disease lies in a
diffused area of slight changes, resembling those of diffuse myelitis.
Sometimes the cord appears to be almost continuously involved by a
lesion of moderate intensity, and a few disseminated foci in the brain
alone prove that the case belongs to this form of sclerosis.
A few years ago Greiff described what he considered a new lesion in

multiple sclerosis, under the name of disseminated vitreous
degeneration of the cerebral cortex.136 I have been familiar with this
lesion since 1876: it can be produced at will in perfectly healthy
brains, and consists in a precipitation of leucine crystals extracted
from the brain-substance by the action of alcohol. His accompanying
figure137 represents this artificial lesion very accurately; and Greiff, if
he fails to recognize that his vitreous degeneration is a spurious
lesion, at least identifies it with the miliary sclerosis of Bucknill and
Tuke and the spheres of Schüle, which are now generally
recognized to be the results of post-mortem manipulations and not
actual lesions.138
136 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xiv. p. 286.
137 Ibid., xiv., Plate ii. Fig. 5.
138 Attention was first called to the artificial nature of these bodies by the writer in the
Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, October, 1877, and a more accurate
description was given in the Chicago Medical Review of 1880, and in a demonstration
before the New York Neurological Society in 1883. In commenting on the latter a
German critic stated that the facts related had been long known in Germany
(Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1883, p. 283). On inquiring of the critic what publication
contained any reference to this discovery, he frankly stated that he knew of none, but
had had in mind what he considered a tradition of the laboratory. It was in the same
year that Greiff worked at the Heidelberg laboratory under the eminent supervision of
Fürstner, and it was a few years previous that Schüle, one of the collaborators of
Ziemssen's Cyclopædia, had made the same mistake. So it seems that the tradition is
in some danger of expiring, and that it would do no harm to accept the caution, even
though it travel across the Atlantic in the reverse of the usual direction. It has been
amply confirmed by Savage and Plaxton (Journal of Mental Science, October, 1882,
and April, 1883).
In judging as to the nature and intensity of the inflammatory process

which leads to the development of the sclerotic foci, it must be
remembered that we are acquainted thus far only with the terminal
period of the disease, when, as is to be presumed, the active
inflammatory changes have gone by or are in the background. It is
very probable that the newly-formed tissue is more nucleated in early
periods than is found in the cases which constitute the material of
pathological laboratories. In a case of protracted nervous exhaustion
accompanied by spinal irritation in an alcoholic subject who was
murdered, and whose brain and cord I had an opportunity of
examining, I found, both in the cord and brain, districts in which the
white substance showed a slight grayish discoloration and increased
consistency. Minute examination failed to show any qualitative
change in the conducting elements, but the interstitial tissue was
hypertrophied, richly nucleated, and showed Frommann's cells in
abundance.
ETIOLOGY.—Heredity has been observed in a number of cases by
Duchenne, Erb, and Frerichs. The latter two had each an opportunity
of recording this inheritance in several members—sisters or brothers
—of the same family. In these cases the transmitted affection
developed in adult life. Dreschfeld, however, cites a case where two
brothers developed its symptoms in a marked degree in infancy. As
an associated feature it is found with some cases of congenital
defect. Thus Pollak139 discovered disseminated sclerosis in an infant
which had a defective corpus callosum and exhibited the
characteristic signs of the focal affection side by side with the
imbecility due to imperfect cerebral development. As a rule, the
disease is developed after the twentieth year. But cases have been
related (De Fleury) where the patient developed the disease and
died with an apoplectiform onset in earlier life. One of the youngest
on record is described by Hödemacker.140 The subject developed the
disease at the seventh year, and died with it at the fourteenth, having
shown the characteristic symptoms, besides more muscular atrophy
than is common. The sclerosis in this case belonged to the type
which has been referred to as a connecting-link between diffuse and
disseminated sclerosis. Pelizæus141 reports five cases developing in
the same family in early life, corresponding somewhat in their
relation to multiple sclerosis of advanced life, as the family forms of
tabes and spastic paralysis correspond to the typical adult forms of
those diseases. All the cases were of males, and the ancestral taint
had been present in male members of the family, passing through
the females to their progeny without breaking out in the mothers.
Each branch of this family appeared to develop its own peculiar type
of the disorder.
139 Deutsches Archiv für klinische Medizin, Bd. xxiv. p. 404.
140 Ibid., vol. xxiii. p. 442.
141 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xvi. p. 698.
CAUSES.—Disseminated sclerosis may develop as a sequel of an

acute myelitis. An excellent observation of Singer,142 in which a
unilateral optic-nerve atrophy of central origin occurred after
recovery from an acute inflammation of the cord, proves that
sclerotic foci may develop secondarily to an acute process. Westphal
believes that obstruction to the circulation, both of blood and lymph,
in the cord may act as a predisposing factor in the production of
multiple sclerosis. He rests this opinion on a case where the cord
had been compressed by a tumor, and sclerotic foci of probably later
date were found in the neighboring segments of the cord.
142 Prager medizinisch Wochenschrift, 1885, No. 8.
The myelitic affection discovered by the same observer143 to be an

occasional sequel of typhus, smallpox, diphtheria, measles, and
erysipelas is a true disseminated sclerosis. The foci are usually very
small and very numerous. A focal sclerosis of the posterior columns
of the disseminated type has been found by Brigidi-Bandi in a case
of pellagra which presented ataxic symptoms.144
143 Archiv für Psychiatrie, iii. p. 376, iv.; Oertel, Deutsches Archiv für klinische
Medizin, viii.; Damaschino, Gazette médicale de Paris, 1871, p. 505. In one case now
under observation a typical disseminated sclerosis developed in a robust young man
of thirty after typhoid fever.
144 Lo sperimentale, December, 1879.
Among the exciting causes, prolonged exposure to wet and cold are
acknowledged to occupy an important position. The frequent
combination of these factors with over-exertion and depressing
emotions among the poorer classes probably account for its great
frequency among them. In some cases excessive grief has been the
only discoverable etiological factor: in three of my own cases this
was so prominent and connected a feature that I could not doubt its
influence, if not as a primary at least as an exciting cause.145 Fright
has been distinctly connected with the outbreak of the disease in a
number of cases.146 There is considerable unanimity among
observers regarding the effects of shock and injury in producing
disseminated sclerosis, usually of that anomalous type which
approximates the diffuse or fascicular form. Railway spine is
undoubtedly the mask of a disseminated inflammatory trouble in a

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Introduction to Food Science and Food

Systems 2nd Edition Rick Parker

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

Organisms 144 and Seasonings I I 160

- 'ui. .,, ....- -,

HOW THIS TEXT IS ORGANIZED

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION OIJECTIVU

learning and a learning pathway that enables them to easily navigate •

through food-science topics: •

mation. Also included are National Agricultural

Education Standards Correlations that highlight ----.--

successful completion of each chapter.

FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag­

HIGHLY ILLUSTRATED, and now in full color, the text is accompanied by

dent i .. ational Agricultural Education Standard Correlation are highlighted at

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student focuI , OJn important

NEW! COMPANION SITE

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS includes the answer to all end-of-chapter que tion to

Author, dit, and manage test-bank content from multiple r ource

xxlv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ltXV

Chapter 3 Chemistry of Foods

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

torag Irequjrem . r- lnt and stability

ous feedback exists from consumers rrespond­ - tail, in titutional,

ing choices. Changes i n the makeup- Iof the

l overlap n another. For example, ·- r-~·-. ·when ' -- Ifarmers

PARTS OF THE FOOD

Production i the raising or growing of plant

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 5

Coiiynght 20 I ""1!'18• L• nu,

• Dairy products home food expenditures often account for more

Food spending and share of income spent on food across

UJ 8,000 Cl.I �"'

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest ::,

6 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

United States 6.6 1.9 34,541 2,273

ERS estimate 6,4 1.9 34,541 2,215

Singapore 7.3 2.1 19,398 1.422

United Kingdom 9.1 3.8 24,260 2,214

Canada 9.6 3.4 27.761 2,679

Austria 10.1 3.3 25,908 2,617

Ireland 10.l 5.4 20,093 2,037

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 7

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

Australia 10.2 3.6 37.492 3,814

Germany 10.9 3.0 22,762 2.481

Switzerland 11.0 3.5 44,899 4,943

Denmark 11.l 3.8 27,306 3,036

Netherlands 71.6 3.3 20,625 2,388

Finland 12.0 4.7 24.927 3,001

Qatar 72.l 0.3 11,799 1,361

Sweden 12.2 3.7 26,146 3,193

South Korea 72.2 2.2 12.002 1.468

Norway 13.2 4.3 37.146 4,885

FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag

ous feedback exists from consumers rrespond - tail, in titutional,