-1-

Static and Stationary Fields (SSF)

2. The Electric Current

• Charge flow in vacuum

• Classification of Materials
• Charge flow in conducting solids
• Current strength and current density
• Ohms Law and Electric Resistance
• Electric Current and Field Theory
• Energy and power in the electric flow field
• Charge transport in semiconductors
 -2-
Basic Mechanism of Charge Flow
Charge Flow in Vacuum
Charge carriers in an homogeneous electric field

A charged particle with q > 0

 + + + + + + + + + is at t = 0 on position x = 0.
q, m
 x
homogeneous electric field:
E   
 U
d
  U E= E
= E ⋅ ex
F,v d
 
- - - - - - - - - (1) Force: F= q ⋅ E

This force will cause an
acceleration.
 -3-
Charge Flow in Vacuum
Acceleration and Velocity
(2) Acceleration:
 
    F q⋅E
F =m ⋅ a =q ⋅ E → a= =
m m
Note: There is an constant acceleration in vacuum under an
constant electric field.

(3) Velocity:
 
  q ⋅ E ⋅ t ds
v = a ⋅t = =
m dt
Note: The velocity increases linear in time.
 -4-
Charge Flow in Vacuum
Distance and Time
(4) Distance:

 ds 
v= = a ⋅t
dt
t  2  2
  a ⋅t q ⋅ E ⋅t
s = ∫ a ⋅ t ′ ⋅ dt ′ = =
0
2 2⋅m
(5) Time:
 2 time of flight
 q ⋅ E ⋅τ
s= : = d free path way
2⋅m
2⋅m⋅d
τ= 
q⋅E
 -5-
Charge Flow in Vacuum
Target Velocity
(6) Velocity after τ (or at x = d ) :
 
  qE 2⋅m ⋅d 2 q ⋅ E ⋅d
v = a ⋅τ = ⋅  =
m q⋅E m

 2 q ⋅U
v =
m
Alternative consideration (Energy conservation)
(2) (2)
    
Wkin W=
= Field ∫ F ⋅ ds =q ⋅ ∫ E ⋅ ds =q ⋅ E ⋅ d = q ⋅ u
(1) (1)
m 2  2q u
Wkin= ⋅v ⇒ v=
2 m
 -6-
Charge Flow in Vacuum
Velocity and Distance Example Electron (m = m0):
(7) Graphic Presentation: U = 1 V; d = 1 cm; E = 1V/cm;
τ = 337 ns; vend = 593.1 km/s.
 -7-
Classification of Materials
Electric Charge Flow
In some materials electric charge can flow. Such a flow of electric charge is called
“electric current”.

Materials, where electric charge can flow are called “conductors”.

(Note: All metals are conductors)
In contrast, materials where the electric charge cannot flow
are called “insulators” or “dielectrics”.
(Note: Many glasses, plastics and gases are insulators)

conductor semiconductor Insulator

charge flow possible A semiconductor can charge flow impossible
be changed from an
insulator to a conductor
by light, temperature,
electric fields or chemical
modification.
⇒ Allows control over charge flow –
extreme important for electrical engineering
 -8-
Classification of Materials
Types of Conductors
Note: The charge carriers in
conductor
semiconductors are beside electrons
charge flow possible also “holes”. “Holes” are missing
electrons in an otherwise completed
valance state. They behave like an
electron with a positive charge.
Type of
charge carriers
Ions Electrons

Ionic Conductors Electronic Conductors

• Electrolytes All metals and semiconductors

(e.g. CuSO4→ Cu2+ SO42-) are electronic conductors
• Plasma
(e.g. Na → Na+ + e-) Charge flow is not accompanied
by mass flow (flow of material)
Charge flow is accompanied
by mass flow (flow of material)
 -9-
Classification of Materials
Electronic Structure of Materials

Atom Solid

W ∝ − e0ϕ ( r ) W Primary discrete electronic states become

wide “bands” and are extended over
the whole solid.

−
− −
forbidden − −
discrete
gaps
electronic
− − − − − − − − − −
states
There are energy
(Result of + gaps, where
+ + + +
Quantum nucleus electronic states
Mechanics) are forbidden.
 -10-
Classification of Materials
Electronic Structure of Materials

Metal
(Au, Ag, Cu, Al, …)

A metal has an partially filled band

W (conduction band).
Partially filled
conduction band Electrons in this conduction band
are free to move inside the solid.

− − − − −
Note: Lower lying states or bands are
− − − − − − −
fully occupied. Electrons in these states
are not able to move, because they cannot
− − − − accept additional (kinetic) energy.

+ +
 -11-
Classification of Materials
Electronic Structure of Materials

Insulator (Teflon, SiO2, Al2O3, …) Semiconductor (Si, Ge, GaAs, GaN,…)

An insulator has an huge energy
gap between fully occupied
states and empty bands.
Wpot
A semiconductor has a fully occupied band
(valance band) and an empty conduction
band. At low temperatures a semiconductor
behaves like an insulator.
Thermally excited
charge carriers

−
Wgap < 3.5 eV
- + − − − −

Wgap > 3.5 eV − − − −

− − − −

+ +
There are no free charge carriers.
+ +
At higher temperature charge carriers can be
excited over the energy gap into the conduction
band.
 -12-
Charge Flow in Conductors
Temperature Induced Motion and Drift
(1) Cylindrical Conductor:

→
T>0 s result.
q>0

q
q
x
q 
E U (voltage)

a) b)
There is only a thermal induced The thermal induced stochastic movement is
stochastic movement: In the time superimposed by a field induced drift:
average there is no charge transport. There is charge transport in the time average.
 -13-
Charge Flow in Conductors
Temperature Induced Motion and Drift
Qualitative Representation of Drift Movement of an Electron:

vx Strong idealized characteristics of additional
 (field induced) movement in x-direction
e ⋅ E ⋅τ … 1 2 3 …
λ
m

vx

0 1τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ t
 
Microscopic Model: τ : mean time of flight  max q ⋅ E ⋅τ e ⋅ E ⋅τ
vx = = −
λ : mean free path m m
 -14-
Charge Flow in Conductors
Temperature Induced Motion and Drift
Mean velocity: 
 =λ vth ⋅τ 0 mean free path
v th
 τ0 
 1 e⋅ E ⋅t e ⋅ E ⋅τ 0
− ⋅∫
v = dt =
−
τ0 0 m 2⋅m
λ Quantum
Mechanic
 q ⋅τ  e ⋅τ 
v := * ⋅E =− * ⋅E m * : effective
m m mass
The Concept of Effective Mass: τ : relaxation time

• An electron in a solid underlies different and very complicated interactions, which

have to be described by quantum mechanical methods. Fortunately, in many
cases an electron in a solid behaves like a free electron, however, with a different
mass. (effective mass m* ).
 -15-
Charge Flow in Conductors
Mobility of Charge Carriers
Stationary charge flow:

 q ⋅τ  e ⋅τ   In average there appears a constant velocity,

v = * ⋅E =− * ⋅ E : = vD the drift velocity vD.
m m

Mobility:

The drift velocity vD is proportional to the electric field intensity E.

The proportionality factor is called mobility:
 
vD = b ⋅ E
e ⋅τ
b= − * b: Mobility
m
 e ⋅τ  Assm 2
m 2
ms
[=
b]  = * 
=3
=
 m  VAs Vs V m
 -16-
Charge Flow in Conductors
Short Summary

• If an external voltage source on a conductor is applied, the interior of the conductor

does not more remain field free.

• A charge current flows through the conductor, while the voltage source provides
permanent new charges.

• The charge carriers inside the conductor are not only accelerated by the electric field,
but get also scattered by defects. The scatter process acts like friction. Therefore,
a constant mean drift velocity of the charge carriers appears. (In contrast to the
movement of charge carriers in vacuum, where the velocity increases linear with time.)

• The mean drift velocity is proportional to the applied electric field intensity.
The proportionality factor is called “mobility”.
 -17-
Current Strength and Current Density
Charge Transport in a Cylindrical Volume Element
Charge Carrier Density n:
• external constant
voltage u.
• constant electric
field intensity
inside the
conductor
• N carriers with
charge q in ∆V.
• Carriers enter with
vD at A1 and leave
with vD at A2.
[]
n = m −3
∆V= A ⋅∆
charge carrier
stationary carrier
Space ∆Q N ⋅q N density
charge η= = = ⋅q = n⋅q balance in volume
density ∆V ∆V ∆V ∆V
 -18-
Current Strength and Current Density
Charge Transport in a Cylindrical Volume Element
Electric Current Strength:

 The current strength i is the amount of charge per

 ∆Q  dQ
i lim =   unit time, which penetrates the area Ai.
∆t → 0
 ∆t  dt It is a scalar quantity.

C The unit of the current strength is ampere,

with: [i=] = A which is equal to coulomb per seconds.
s
 -19-
Current Strength and Current Density
Charge Transport in a Cylindrical Volume Element
Electric Current Strength:

Microscopic interpretation
of the current strength

 ∆ ∆
v D= → ∆=t 
∆t vD
∆Q n ⋅ q ⋅∆V n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅∆  ⇒ i = n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅ b ⋅ E
i= =  =  = n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅ vD
∆t ∆ v D ∆ v D  
b⋅ E
 -20-
Current Strength and Current Density
Variable Conductor Cross-Section
The electric current density J:
• It holds charge carrier
   conservation. This
J= J ⋅ evD means, there are no
carriers lost or
added in the
conductor

• With constant drift

velocity vD is the
number of carriers
 : Drift direction of per time constant.
vD
positive carriers • Current strength i
• The current per unit area gives the current density. The through cross-
current density is a vector field: section area A1 and
A2 is equal.
  ∆i  di
J lim
=   
 J  = A m 2
∆A → 0
 ∆A  dA with:
 -21-
Current Strength and Current Density
Variable Conductor Cross-Section
(2) Current Density J and Current Strength i :

∆Aν
   
∆iν= Jν ⋅ nν ⋅∆Aν

N 
 nν : direction can
= i ∑ Jν ⋅ nν ⋅∆Aν be freely chosen
ν =1
 
i ∫∫ J ⋅ n
= ⋅ dA
A 
dA

(1) The current strength i is a scalar quantity,

i  in
which becomes positive or negative
dependence on the choice of nν .

(2) The definition of surface normal nν
The current arrow gives the
defines also the direction of the current
direction for positive current strength.
arrow and defines herewith also the sign
It is not a vector!
of the current strength.
 -22-
Current Strength and Current Density
The counter arrow of the electric current
Sign convention between current strength i and current density J:

(a) Current density vector and surface normal

are directed in the same direction:

Current strength is positive.

(b) Current density vector and surface normal

are directed oppositely:

Current strength is negative

 -23-
Ohm´s Law
Electric Conductivity
Current density and electric field intensity: note: this relation is free
of geometric quantities
In a conductor holds:
  
i = n ⋅q ⋅ A⋅b⋅ E J = n ⋅q ⋅b⋅ E
  General form of
 di J= κ ⋅ E Ohm´s Law
J =
dA In a conductor is the current
density proportional to the
electric field intensity
Note: The conductivity κ is due
to q2 always positive. Therefore,
the electric field intensity and the n⋅q 2 ⋅τ Electric
current density point always in the κ = n⋅q⋅b = Conductivity
same direction. m*
Asm 2 A
[κ ] = 3 = = Sm −1 S: Siemens
m Vs Vm
 -24-
Ohm´s Law
Electric Conductivity
Microscopic and macroscopic parameters of conductivity

 • distance of atoms in the lattice Å (10–10 m).

= λ vth ⋅τ
• Mean free path λ in the order of nm.

vth : thermal velocity. • regular lattice atoms obviously not centers
for scattering.
• defects are responsible for carrier scattering
 -25-
Ohm´s Law
Electric Resistance
Cylindrical conductor
(with constant cross section A
Macroscopic description of Electric Current: and conductivity κ).
  u
A E =
→ 
E  
J= κ ⋅ E
 i
J  u κA
i = J ⋅ A = κ ⋅ ⋅ A = u⋅
 
Therefore: (cylindrical conductor)

u  
x =u ⋅i =: R
κ⋅A κ⋅A
Ohm´s Law: The voltage that drops
across a conductor is proportional to the u = R ⋅i Ohms Law
current that flows through the conductor. (conventional form)
 -26-
Electric Resistance
Parameters of the Electric Resistance R

(cylindrical conductor)

κ 1   Is always
R = ⋅ =ρ ⋅ positive !
ρ κ A A
V
A  [ R ] = = Ω (read “Ohm”)
A
with:
R : (Electric) Resistance 1 m* 1
ρ= = =
ρ : Resistivity κ n ⋅ q ⋅τ
2
n ⋅q ⋅ b
The resistance is the always positive Vm
proportional constant between the voltage [ρ ] = = Ωm
u and the current strength i. A
 -27-
Electric Resistance
Resistivity
Table of ρ and κ for different materials:

Technical
adapted units:
• Cross section
in mm2.
• Length in m

Ωmm 2
[ρ ]= m
Sm
[κ ]= 2
mm
 -28-
Electric Resistance
Resistance of arbitrary shaped conductors
Calculation of Resistance: The resistance between two equipotential surfaces
is in general defined as the ratio between the voltage
 between the surfaces and the current strength that
s penetrates this surfaces:
 
n1 n2
 
2 By taking the absolute value
A1 A A2
u
∫ E ⋅ ds
1
of the integrals, it is guarantied
that only a positive resistance
R= = can be obtained.
i  
∫∫ κ E ⋅ dA
A

The surface of integration A in the lower integral has to be fully penetrated by the
current, but can be arbitrary chosen between both electrodes, because the current is
equal everywhere. But the electric field intensity and the conductivity
may vary inside the conductor and along the surface of integration.
 -29-
Electric Resistance
Resistance of arbitrary shaped conductors
Example: Resistance between inner and outer shell of a tube

κ
κ
r2

r1

Question: What is the resistance between the inner and outer shell?
 -30-
Electric Resistance
Resistance of arbitrary shaped conductors
Example: Resistance between inner and outer shell of a tube
 
2

u
∫ E ⋅ ds
1
κ
r2
R= = E =?
i  
∫∫ κ E ⋅ dA
A
r1

1. Calculation of E (or D):

     2π
 
∫∫ D ⋅=
Q 
= dA ∫∫ D=
⋅ dA ∫∫
0 0
D ⋅ er rdϕ d  
A
  Q  λ r
Q = 2π D r ⇒ D = ⇒ E =
2π r 2πε r
=λ
 -31-
Electric Resistance
Resistance of arbitrary shaped conductors
Example: Resistance between inner and outer shell of a tube
 λ 
E= er κ
2πε r r2

2. Calculation of u:
r1
r2
  r2
 r2
λ λ r2
u = ∫ E ⋅ ds = ∫ E dr = ∫ dr = ln ( r ) r
r1 r1 r1
2πε r 2πε 1

r2
  λ  r2 
u = ∫ E ⋅ ds = ln   
r1
2πε  r1  κ
 -32-
Electric Resistance
Resistance of arbitrary shaped conductors
Example: Resistance between inner and outer shell of a tube
 
r2
λ  r2 
u = ∫ E ⋅ ds = ln   κ
r1
2πε  r1  r2

3. Calculation of i: r1
   2π
  λ
i ∫∫A κ E ⋅ dA = ∫0 ∫0 κ E rdϕ d use : E = 2πε r
 2π
λ λ
=∫ ∫κ rdϕ d  = κ  
0 0
2πε r ε κ
4. Calculation of R:
u 1  r2 
R= = ln  
i 2πκ   r1 
 -33-
Electric Resistance
Temperature Dependency of the Resistance
There are mainly two reasons for a change of conductivity (or resistivity)
with temperature:

1 m* 1
ρ= = =
κ n ⋅ q ⋅τ
2
n ⋅q ⋅ b

The charge carrier concentration n The charge carrier mobility b

can increase with temperature,
because more charge carriers
are excited over an energy gap
(This holds mainly for
semiconductors, not for metals)
depends on the concentration of
scattering centers. With increasing
temperature more disorder appears
in the solid, which lowers the mobility.
(this process is dominant in metals)

 Basic Rule: In metals the resistivity increases almost linearly with the temperature,
while in semiconductors the resistivity decreases non-linearly with temperature.
 -34-
Electric Resistance
Temperature Dependency of the Resistance

Point of Reference

R=
0 ρ0 ⋅
A
R (ϑ=) R0 ⋅ [1 + α ⋅∆ϑ ]

ρ0 = ρ (ϑ0 )
= ρ ( 20°C )

Formal description of the temperature ρ (ϑ ) = ρ0 ⋅ 1 + α ⋅ (ϑ − ϑ0 ) 

dependency of the resistivity:
= ρ0 ⋅ [1 + α ⋅∆ϑ ]
 -35-
Electric Resistance
Temperature Dependency of the Resistance
Temperature coefficient
for different materials:

∆ρ= ρ0 ⋅α ⋅∆ϑ

∀∆ϑ > 0 posistor,

barretter,
∆ρ > 0 : PTC resistor

∆ρ < 0 : Thermistor,
NTC-resistor

 α > 0: PTC

 α < 0: NTC
 -36-
Electric Resistance
Characteristic Temperature behavior

PTC: resistor
(metalic conductors)

e.g. constantan,
(Cu-Ni), Manganin
(Cu-Ni-Mn)

NTC: thermistor
(Carbon,
Semiconductors)
 -37-
Electric Current and Field Theory
“Materials Equation”
Electric Field Intensity

E
Dielectrics Conductors
(Insulators)
   
D = ε0 εr E J = κE Ohm´s Law

Electric Flux Density Current Density

(former “Dielectric Displacement”)

Like the electric flux density is the current density a field quantity.
 -38-
Electric Current and Field Theory
Conservation of Charge and Continuity
• According to all observations and experiences, charge can not be generated or
destroyed. But there are positive and negative charges, which can compensate
each other.

Volume
entering leaving
charge charge

In case of a stationary current, the same amount of charge that enters a specific
volume per unit time has to leave that volume per unit time. Otherwise the charge would
be accumulated in the volume. This would lead to a non-stationary condition. This
principle is called the continuity of a stationary electric current.
 -39-
Electric Current and Field Theory
Kirchhoff´s Current Law

The concept of conservation of charge and the continuity of a stationary electric

current leads to Kirchhoff´s Current Law:
The stationary current through any closed surface is always zero.

 
∫∫ J ⋅ n ⋅ dA =0
In a stationary current field
 no current can be created or vanish
A (Continuity of current)

electric J
current density Note: For network
analysis one uses the
Thus, a stationary current can discretized form of
flow over a closed path only. KCL:
This rule is the basic for all n

electric circuits.
n A ∑
ν
iν
=1
node µ
=0
 -40-
Interface Conditions
Relations for Tangential Field Components
Special Case #1: «Vertical Inhomogeneity»  
 
E1,2 ⋅ ds =
0 ∫ E ⋅ ds =
C
0
 
+ + + + + + →
+ + + + +
n12
E1 ⋅  − E2 ⋅  =0
κ1   κ2
E1 E2    
→ E1 = E2 → E1 = E2
 t C 
Parallel −
Plates −

- - - - - - - - - - - The components of the electric

field intensity tangential to the
Two equivalent interface are continuous.

descriptions: Et1 = Et 2
      
(
n12 × E2 − E=
1 0 ; ) (
t ⋅ E2 − E=
1 0)
 -41-
Interface Conditions
Relations for Normal Field Components

Special Case #2: «Horizontal Inhomogeneity»

 
∫∫ J ⋅ n

A
⋅ dA =0

Kirchhoff´s Law
dA
+ + + + + + + + + + + «Integration box» A
 →
κ1 J1 n1
A →
→
n12
σ1 J1 → →
n1 n6
A
κ2 
J2
→
n2 → →
n12 n4
- - - - - - - - - - -
→
n3
→ → →
    n5 J2 n2
J1 ⋅ n1 ⋅ A + J 2 ⋅ n2 ⋅ A = 0 σ2
     
− J1 ⋅ n12 ⋅ A + J 2 ⋅ n12 ⋅ A =
0 J1,2 ⋅ n36 ⋅ dA =
0
 -42-
Interface Conditions
Relations for Normal Field Components

Special Case #2: «Horizontal Inhomogeneity»

   
+ + + + + + + + + + +

J1 ⋅ n1 ⋅ A + J 2 ⋅ n2 ⋅ A = 0
→
κ1 J1 n1    
A − J1 ⋅ n12 ⋅ A + J 2 ⋅ n12 ⋅ A =
0
→
  
( )
n12
n12 ⋅ J 2 − J1 ⋅ A = 0
κ2 
J2
→
n2
  
- - - - - - - - - - - (
n12 ⋅ J 2 − J1 =
0 )

The components of the electric current density

 
normal to the interface are continuous.
J n1 = J n 2
 -43-
Interface Conditions
Law of Refraction for the Electric Current
Combination of interface conditions
for tangential and normal components:
    κ1 κ2
J1 ⋅ n12 =J 2 ⋅ n12  
    E1 , J1 
E1 ⋅ t = E2 ⋅ t n12
α1
which results in: α2
    
κ1 ⋅ E1 ⋅ cos (α1 ) =κ 2 ⋅ E2 ⋅ cos (α 2 ) t E2 , J 2
 
E1 ⋅ sin (α1 ) = E2 ⋅ sin (α 2 )

κ2 tan (α1 ) κ1
tan (α 2 ) = ⋅ tan (α1 ) ⇔ =
κ1 tan (α 2 ) κ 2
 -44-
Summary: Fluxes through surfaces
electric flux current
   
i ∫∫ J ⋅ n ⋅ dA
Ψ=
e ∫∫ D ⋅ n ⋅ dA
A
=
A
electric electric
flux density current density

 
D, J


E
Ψe , i
 -45-
Fluxes through closed surfaces
Gauss´s Law Kirchhoff‘s Current Law
   
∫∫ D ⋅ n ⋅ dA =Q
 ∫∫ J ⋅ n ⋅ dA =0
A
A
electric electric
flux density current density

Charges are sources In a stationary current field

or drains for the electric flux no current can be created or vanish
(Continuity of current)
 
D J

  A
n A n
 -46-
Flux Densities at Interfaces
 
D J
electric electric
flux density current density

Material 1 Material 2 Material 1 Material 2

ε1 ε2 κ1 κ2

● ●

   
Dn1 = Dn 2 J n1 = J n 2

Note: For all flux densities (electric and current) hold:

The normal component is continuous at the interface between two materials
 -47-
Field Intensities
   
D = ε 0ε r E J = κE
electric electric
field intensity field intensity

Material 1 Material 2 Material 1 Material 2

ε1 ε2 κ1 κ 2

   
Et1 = Et 2 Et1 = Et 2

Note: For the electric field intensity holds always:

The tangential component is continuous at the interface between two materials
 -48-
Energy and Power
Power in the Electric Flow Field
(1) Mechanic work, provided by the electric field
 
   ∆u ∆  =∆ ⋅ ex
E A A1 ∆ A2
P2
→
J
→
Q v i
C q
→ →
E n
Field provides P1
u
mechanical work
a) b) x
 P2
  P2
    ∆u
   N
W f =+ ∫ F ⋅ ds =Q ⋅ ∫ E ⋅ ds =Q ⋅ u12 ∆W f = N ⋅ q ⋅ E ⋅∆  = n ⋅∆V ⋅ q ⋅∆u
P1 P1
 -49-
Energy and Power
Power in the Electric Flow Field
(2) Provided Power in the Volume ∆V:  ∆u
   N

∆u ∆W f = N ⋅ q ⋅ E ⋅∆  = n ⋅∆V ⋅ q ⋅∆u
A A1 ∆ A2

= n ⋅ q ⋅ ∆V ⋅ E ⋅∆
→ 
J = n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅∆ ⋅ E ⋅∆
→
v i
q Power ∆p:
→ → ∆W f n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅∆ 
E n ∆p =
= ⋅ E ⋅∆
∆t ∆t
u ∆ 
= n ⋅ q ⋅ A ⋅ ⋅ E ⋅∆
∆t
   
J = n ⋅ q ⋅ vD = n ⋅ q ⋅ v D ⋅ E ⋅ A ⋅∆
 -50-
Energy and Power
Power in the Electric Flow Field
(2) Provided Power in the Volume ∆V:
 
∆u ∆p = n ⋅ q ⋅ v D ⋅ E ⋅ A ⋅∆
 
A A1 ∆ A2 = J ⋅ E ⋅∆V
→
J
→    
v i ∆p = J ⋅ E ⋅∆V ⇔ p = J ⋅ E ⋅ V
q
→ →
E n Power, which is provided by the
electric flow field in the volume.

dp   1 2 2 2
(2) Power Density in the =J ⋅ E = ⋅ J =ρ ⋅ J =κ ⋅ E
considered volume: dV κ
 -51-
Energy and Power
Power in the Electric Flow Field
(2) Provided Power in the Volume ∆V:

∆u
   
p = J ⋅ E ⋅ V = J ⋅ E ⋅ A ⋅∆
A A1 ∆ A2  
→
= J ⋅ A ⋅ E ⋅ ∆ = i ⋅ u
J
→ If the voltage u is applied across a
v i
conductor and a current strength i
q flows through the conductor, than
→ → the electric field provides the power
E n p in order to move the charge
through the conductor.
u
p=
u ⋅i [ p] =
VA =
W
 -52-
Energy and Power
Power in the Electric Flow Field
(3) Provided Power and Dissipation Loss:

Ohms Law
u = R⋅i
Yield:

2
u
p = u ⋅i = R⋅i 2 =
R
(4) The provided energy is converted The provided energy is used against the
into heat (thermal loss): «friction» in the conductor in order to move
t2 t2
the carriers through the conductor and is,
W = ∫ p⋅dt = ∫ u ⋅i⋅dt = Q⋅u therefore, converted into «friction heat».
t1 t1 The resistor (conductor) becomes heated
Electric field loses energy! up and converts the power into thermal
dissipation loss.
 -53-
Summary
• Vacuum: Electrons get permanent accelerated :
(u = 1 V; ve = 593.1 km/s).
• In Materials: A mean constant drift velocity appears
due to scatter processes on deviations from the regular
atomic arrangement.  
vD = b ⋅ E
• Current strength and Current density
(conservation of charge and current)
 
∫∫ J ⋅ n ⋅ dA =0
A
Kirchhoff‘s Current Law

 
• Ohms Law: u = R·i or J= κ ⋅ E  
2

u
∫ E ⋅ ds
1
• General Resistance: R= =
i  
• Power: p = u·i electric field energy is
∫∫ κ E ⋅ dA
A
transformed into heat (thermal loss)
 -54-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
A Semiconducting Crystal

Most technical important

semiconductors are crystals.
Crystals are a very regular
arrangement of atoms.

Model of a silicon crystal

 -55-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Crystal Structure and Chemical Bonding
Silicon

Si Si

- -
- -

Si

- -
- -

Si Si
a)
b)

Silicon (Si) is a tetravalent element. It has 4 valence electrons.

There is a covalent binding between the atoms.
 -56-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Electronic Structure
Conduction band
(empty)

Energy
(for Silicon EG = 1.12eV)
gap EG

− − − − − −

− − − −

Valence band
(fully occupied by electrons)
+ +
Lattice constant

A semiconductor has a fully occupied band (valance band) and an empty conduction
band. At low temperatures a semiconductor behaves like an insulator.
 -57-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Intrinsic Conduction

Conduction band
E -
Si Si

+- -
-
- -

Energy Si
gap EG
- -
- -
+
Si Si

Valence band

At room temperature a few electrons gain enough thermal energy to leap the gap.
The excited electron leaves a hole in the valance band.
 -58-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Intrinsic Conduction

Conduction band
E -
Si Si

+- -
-
- -

Energy Si
gap EG
- -
- -
+
Si Si

Valence band

The electron in the conduction band is free to move in an electric field. The left hole in
the valance band allows another electron from the valance band also to move. Since
the hole is a missing negative charge in an otherwise neutral crystal, it can be
considered as a carrier of positive charge.
 -59-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Intrinsic Conduction
The thermal generation of charge carriers creates pairs of electrons e-
and holes h+.

Therefore, the concentration of electrons (n) and holes (p) is equal in an intrinsic
semiconductor. This concentration is called intrinsic carrier concentration ni

n= p= ni For Silicon is: ni = ni(T = 300 K) ≈ 1010 cm–3

The intrinsic carrier concentration is a strong function of the temperature and
the energy gap:
EG
−
2 k BT
ln ni ni ∝ e
The intrinsic carrier concentration causes a
EG low conductivity of a semiconductor at room
Slope: − temperature, which is called intrinsic conductivity.
2kB

1 Arrhenius plot
T
 -60-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Intrinsic Conduction: Bipolar Charge Transport
Electric current in an intrinsic semiconductor:
→
  
vp J = Jn + J p =
+ + + +  
→ - - - - = qn ⋅ n ⋅ bn ⋅ E + q p ⋅ p ⋅ bp ⋅ E =
vn

+
-
- → + =
-
+ e ⋅ ( −n ⋅ bn + p ⋅ bp ) ⋅ E
E
→
J qn = −e q p = +e
u e⋅τ n e⋅τ p
bn = − * bp = +
Conductivity of Semiconductors: mn m *p

   n⋅τ n p⋅τ p    n ⋅τ n p ⋅τ p  
J= κ ⋅ E κ = e ⋅ * + * 
2
J= 2
e ⋅ * + *
 m  ⋅ E
 mn mp   n mp 
 -61-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Intrinsic Conduction: Bipolar Charge Transport

Examples for Electron and Hole Mobilities:

Note:
The mobility of holes is
usually lower than the
mobility of electrons.

This is due to the fact

that the effective mass
of holes mp*
is larger than the
effective mass of
electrons mn*,

m *p > mn* ⇔ b p < bn

 -62-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Impurity Conduction (n-Doping)
Inclusion of Impurities (Substitutional Doping):

Conduction band
E
Si Si
-

- -
-
- -
Energy Donor
Donator As gap EG state
5+

- -
- -

Si Si
Valence band
a)

Donor: For Si: pentavalent element like: P, As, Sb. It provides 5 valance electrons;
4 are used in the covalent binding; 1 remains available: → n-doping, n-conduction.
 -63-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Impurity Conduction (p-Doping)
Inclusion of Impurities (Substitutional Doping):

Conduction band
E

Si Si

- -
- - Acceptor
- Energy state
In Akzeptor gap EG -
3+

- +
- -

Si Si
Valence band
b)
Acceptor: For Si: one uses trivalent elements like B. It has only 3 Valance electrons,
therefore, one covalent binding remains not fully occupied. → p-doping, p-conduction.
 -64-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Impurity Conduction
Inclusion of Impurities (Substitutional Doping):

Doping enhances the charge carrier concentration at room temperature essentially.

Depending on the type of doping the electron concentration can be enhanced (n-doping)
or the hole concentration can be enhanced (p-doping).

Temperature dependency of charge carrier concentration of a doped semiconductor:

ln n Intrinsic
range
Saturation
range Freeze-out
range

1
T
 -65-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Impurity Conduction
Thermal Equilibrium Law of Mass Action

 Generation G  Recombination R R ∝ {collision interaction of e– und h+}

e– e– R ∝ n⋅ p
h+ (i) Intrinsic Semiconductor:

Equilibrium h+
n = p = ni , n ⋅ p = ni2
R ∝ ni2
G=R (ii) Doped Semiconductor?
G: Generation rate
(pairs/second)
R: Recombination rate
(eliminations/second)
 -66-
Charge Transport in Semiconductors
Impurity Conduction
Law of Mass Action: Consequence for the carrier density:

(ii) Doped Semiconductor:

n⋅ p =ni2
 Increase of p due to doping
⇒ ln(n ⋅ p)= ln(n ) + ln( p)= 2 ln(ni )
 spontaneous increase of R which
decreases the electron density n
ln(n ) + ln( p)
 This lowers the recombination rate=
R. ln(ni ) = const.
2
 The recombination rate R becomes

ln (carrier concentration)
regulated to a constant value. n-conductor p-conductor
majority carriers
In the thermal equilibrium it
holds also for doped
n p
semiconductors:
n ni
n⋅ p = ni2 p
minority carriers