Electromagnetic Waves

Lecture B17: Electromagnetic Potentials

Electromagnetic Potentials
Why Potentials?
Static Potentials
Retarded Potentials
Time Harmonic Potentials
Maxwell’s Equation – relates source and fields
∂B (I) Faraday ’ s Law: A magnetic field
∇×E = − changing in time gives rise to an E-field
∂t circulating around it. A circulating E-
field in time gives rise to a magnetic
field changing in time.
(II) Ampere's Law: A flowing electric
∂D
∇× H= J + current (J) gives rise to a Magnetic Field
∂t that circles the current; A time-changing
Electric Flux Density (D) gives rise to a
magnetic field that circles the D field
∇⋅D = ρ (III) Gauss' Law indicates how the electric
field behaves around electric charges.
(IV) Flux Conservation Law: No
magnetic monopoles exist – the
∇⋅B = 0 divergence of the B field is always zero,
B is a solenoidal vector field.
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Sources: J: Electric Current ρ: Electric Charges
Why study Potentials?
 In many applications, it is not so easy to solve the electric and magnetic field terms directly.
 Complexity due to the nature of the problems (hard to apply the boundary conditions to solve the field
problem)
 Complexity due to the steps involved when solving the problem
 Mathematical Tools are thus required - Potentials
 Potentials are slightly different for statics and time varying electromagnetic fields
 For statics, For time varying field
∂ ∂
=0 is replaced by − γ
∂t ∂t
 Conceptually, they are very similar.
 In this lecture, we first revisit statics potentials and how potential applies to time harmonic field.

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Potentials

PDE integration
Sources Fields
J, ρ E, H

Step 1: Potentials Step 2:

Integration A, V Differentiation

 A direct solution of Maxwell's equations is sometimes difficult, it is often advantageous to

introduce potential functions (vector &scalar potentials ) to solve the EM problem with much less
effort.

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Electric Scaler Potential
 Consider the presence of the field E exerts a force
E = −yˆ E
Fext Fe=qE on the charge in the negative y direction
 To physically move the charge q without
acceleration, the net force action on it = 0

Fe Fext +F e = 0 Fext = −F e = −qE

q: a positive charge
 The work done / energy required to physically move a vector differential distance dl under
the influence of a force Fext is (Work Done = Force x Displacement)

dW = Fext ⋅ dl = −qE ⋅ dl
 In this case,
dW = −qE ⋅ dl = −q(− yˆ E ) ⋅ yˆ dy = qEdy
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Electric Scaler Potential (ctd)
 The differential electric potential energy dW per unit charge is called the differential electric
potential dV, i.e.
dW
dV = = −E ⋅ dl Unit: J/C or V
q
 The potential difference between any two points P1 and P2 is obtained by integrating the above
expression along any path between them,
P2 P2
∫P1
dV = ∫ − E ⋅ dl
P1

OR
P2
V21 = V2 − V1 = ∫ − E ⋅ dl
P1

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Validation with Maxwell’s Equations
 Now, if we go from P1 to P2 through Path 1 and then return
from P2 to P1 by Path 2, the integral now becomes a closed
contour, i.e.
P2
∫P1
− E ⋅ dl => ∫ − E ⋅ dl
c
 and the left hand side of becomes 0 as there is no change in
the electric potential.  A vector field whose line
integral along any closed path is
V11 = V1 − V1 = 0 zero is called conservative or an
irrotational field.
 Equating the two equations:
 This implies that static electric
field is conservative.
∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
C

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Validation with Maxwell’s Equations (ctd)
 Let see if it agrees with Maxwell’s Equations
 Faraday’s Law
=0 For static field
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
 If we take the surface integral of ∇ × E over an open surface S,
=0
∂B
∫S (∇ × E)⋅ds = ∫S − ∂t ⋅ ds = 0
 And then apply the Stokes’s Theorem, the surface integral becomes a contour integral
Agrees with

∫ (∇ × E)ds = ∫ E ⋅ dl ∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
Maxwell’s
S C C Equation!!

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Defining Electric Scaler Potential
 Electric Potential V at a point in space is defined as follows:

P
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl
∞

 Recall from circuit theory: Absolute voltage at a point in a circuit has no physical meaning.

 When we talk of the voltage V of a point in a circuit, we do so in reference to the voltage of some
conveniently chosen point to which we have “assigned” a reference voltage of zero – which we
call ground.
 The same principle applies to electric potential V – the reference potential point is chosen to be at
infinity.

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Example: Electric Potential due to Point Charges
 For a point charge q located at the origin of a spherical coordinate system, the electric field at a
distance R is given by

ˆ =R
ˆ q
E R̂ = Observation Position Vector
4πεR 2

 We choose the path along the radical direction R̂

ˆ ⋅ dR
dl = R

R ˆ q  ˆ
R q
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫  R  ⋅ RdR =
 4πεR  4πεR
∞ ∞ 2

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Example: Electric Potential due to Point Charges
 If the charge q is at a location other than the origin, specified by a position vector Ri

q 1
V (R ) =
4πε R − R i Source Position Vector

Observation Position Vector

 For N discrete point charges with charges qi

and position vectors Ri R' = R − R i Observation
Point
Ri q

1 N
qi R
V (R ) = ∑
4πε i =1 R − Ri

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Electrical Potential due to Continuous Distributions
 For a continuous distribution specified over a volume, across a surface or along a line,

1 ρv
V (R ) =
4πε ∫
dv'
v' R'
1 ρs
V (R ) = ∫ ds ' where R' = R − R i
4πε s' R'

1 ρl
V (R ) = ∫ dl '
4πε R' l'

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How to find the Electric Field given the electric potential?
 Now we explore the inverse relationship by examining the differential form of V given by

dV = −E ⋅ dl = ∇V ⋅ dl
∂V ∂V ∂V
Gradient of V
∇V = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
E = −∇V

 With this relationship, if we know about the electric potential, we can determine the
corresponding electric field using the Grad operator – differentiation of scalers!!

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Advantages of using Scalar Electric Potentials to find Electric Field

 This relationship allow us to determine E for any charge distribution by first calculating V
Step 1: Integration Step 2: Differentiation

For example 1 N
qi
V (R ) = ∑


E = −∇V
4πε i =1 R − Ri
 Using Coulomb’s Law:
Scalar Sum
1 N
qi (R − R i )
E(R ) = ∑ 3
4πε i =1 R − Ri
Vector Sum

 Using Potentials: Scalar sum + differentiations - EASY

 Using Coulomb’s Law: Vector sum x 3 (for each vector components) – MORE COMPLICATED

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Poisson’s and Laplace’s Equations
Gauss’s Law For volume V’ containing a volume

∇ ⋅ D = ρv 

ρv ρv
charge of rv
∇⋅E =
D = εE ε 1 ρv
V (R ) =
4πε ∫
 Putting dv'
ρv
v' R'
E = −∇V ∇ ⋅ (∇V ) = −
ε  Poisson’s and Laplace equations are
2 ρv useful for determining the electrostatic
∇ V =− Poisson’s
potential V in regions whose boundaries
ε Equation
Solution are known, such as the region between
plates of a capacitor with specified
Laplace’s voltage across it.
∇ 2V = 0 Equation

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Vector Magnetic Potential
 Similar results can be reached for the magnetic field
Vector Identities
∇⋅B = 0 B = µH
∇ ⋅ (∇ × A ) = 0
Since ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A ) = 0
∇ A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ × (∇ × A )

2

B = ∇× A
 Take curl operation on both sides of B = ∇× A
Left Hand Side Right Hand Side
∇ × B = µ (∇ × H ) ∇ × (∇ × A ) = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ 2 A = −∇ 2 A
 ∂D 
= µ J +  = µJ ∇⋅A = 0
 ∂t  To satisfy the first identity

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Vector Magnetic Potential
 This results in Recall from earlier results
ρv
∇ A = − µJ
2 Vector Poisson’s Equation 2
∇ V =−
 Solution:
ε
1 ρv
µ J V (R ) = ∫ dv'
A=
4π ∫v ' R' dv' 4πε v ' R'
 In Cartesian coordinates, the vector potential can be written into three scaler equations:

µ Jx µ Jy µ Jz
Ax =
4π ∫v ' R' dv' Ay =
4π ∫ v' R'
dv' Az =
4π ∫v ' R' dv'
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Summary for Static Potentials
 How to determine electric field from electric scalar potential:
1 ρv
V (R ) = ∫ dv' E = −∇V
Given the source ρv , 4πε v' R'
electric charge Step 1: With Known Step 2: With V
Charge Distribution => determine E
=> Determine V
 How to determine magnetic field from vector magnetic potential:

µ J 1
H= ∇× A
Given the source J, A=
4π ∫v ' R' dv' µ
electric current
Step 1: With Known Step 2: With A
Current Distribution => determine H
⇒ Determine A
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Potentials for Time Varying Fields
 The same situation holds for the time varying (time harmonic) fields.
 You will see the static field is just a special case from the time-varying field.

PDE integration
Sources Fields
J, ρ E, H

Step 1: Potentials Step 2:

Integration A, V Differentiation

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The Arguments for/against Potentials
 Advantages:
 Decouples the two curl equations.
 Intuitively easier to consider sources.
 Easier to construct solutions for TE/TM waves.

Convenient division of
 Disadvantages: wave types, more later.
 Two new E/M quantities to deal with.
 Not physical quantities.
 Mostly regarded as a mathematical tool.
 Potentials are not unique.

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Math Development
 Since
= ∇⋅B 0 or ∇ ⋅ H 0
=
then since ∇ ⋅ (∇ × A ) = 0 Divergence of any curl is zero

We can express B as the curl B = ∇× A

of some new function A
Now, again using Maxwell’s Eq. (1)
δB
∇×E = −
δt
δ (∇ × A )
= −
δt

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Math Development (ctd)
 The last equation reads

 ∂A 
∇×E +  =0
 ∂t  Could also be written
∇ × ( −∇V ) = 0
but if we use ∇ × ∇V = 0 Curl of any gradient is zero

∂A
we can identify E+ = −∇V
∂t
∂A
or E = −∇V −
∂t
Recover electrostatics result
if second term=0!

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We still need to find solutions for A & V!
 For time varying fields, E depends on both A and V, but for low frequency we could try
the quasi-static results. These are:

Source point 1 ρ ( r')

V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫
V′ R
dV ′

µ0 J ( r )
A(r ) = ∫
4π V ′ R
dV ′
z
These solutions neglect
y time-retardation effects due
R= r − r ' Field point to velocity of propagation
x

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Find instead equations that A & V satisfy
Start with what we know: δA

B = ∇ × A, Β = µ H, D = ε E, E = −∇V −
δt
δD
Then from : ∇ × H= J +
δt
1 δ  δA
∇ × ∇ × A= J + ε  −∇V −
Vector Identity µ δt  δ t 
∇ 2 A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ × (∇ × A ) δ V δ 2
A Nice if this
∇ (∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ A2
= µ J − µε∇ − µε 2 term = 0!
δt δt
δ 2A δV
µε 2 − ∇ A 2
= µ J − ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A ) − µε∇
δt δt
δ 2
A  δV 
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J + ∇  ∇ ⋅ A + µε
2

δt  δ t 
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Lorenz Gauge / Lorenz Condition
 Setting this term to zero produces a wave equation for A.
 We note that Lorenz gauge relates the scalar and vector potentials and so is a link equation
i.e. we only have to find either a solution for A or for V but not both.
 This is based on the Helmholtz’s theorem, which states that a vector function is uniquely
specified if both its divergence and curl are defined.
∇× A ∇⋅A

∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε = 0 Lorenz gauge
∂t
∂ 2
A Inhomogeneous
∇ A − µε 2 =
2
− µ J wave equation for A
∂t
Ludvig Lorenz, 1829-1891

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Equation for V
 Starting from Gauss’s law:

∇⋅D =ρ
D = ε E
 ∂A  
ε∇ ⋅  −∇V − Using  ∂A
=ρ E = −∇V − ∂t
 ∂t 
∂ (∇ ⋅ A ) ρ
∇ ⋅∇V + =− Using Lorenz gauge
Inhomogeneous ∂t ε
wave eqn. for V ∂V
∂ 2
V ρ ∇ ⋅ A = − µε
∇ 2V − µε 2 = − ∂t
∂t ε

 In practice, we solve for A and then use Lorenz gauge to find V if we need to.

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Retarded Electric Potential
 If we use the expression the Laplacian of V in a new spherical coordinating system with the
coordinate origin at P’, so r=R and the terms with respect to θ and φ dropped,
∂ 2
V ρ
∇ 2V − µε 2 = −
∂t ε Source point
1 δ  2 δV  ∂ 2V
R  − µε 2 =0, ( ρ =0 )
R δR δR
2
∂t
U
 If we now define V =
R
z
δ 2U 1 δ 2U 1
− 2 = 0, where =
c
δ R c δt
2 2
µε y R= r − r ' Field point
x

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Retarded Electric Potential (ctd)
 This equation is the well-known one dimensional source-free wave equation.
δ 2U 1 δ 2U
− 2 0
=
δ R c δt
2 2

 It can be shown that any twice differentiable function f of the variable t’=t-R/c is a solution of the
above wave equation, i.e.

 R
U ( R=
, t ) f (=
t ') f  t − 
 c

 The retarded electric potential will be in the form of V= U= f ( t − R / c )

R c

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Retarded Electric Potential (ctd)
 The particular solution of the function f(t’) (when ρ≠0) is determined from the condition that its
value in the vicinity of the source point must be the same as the quasi-static solution for the
potential V due to ρdv as R→0
f (t ) 1 ρ ( t ) dv
= ( R → 0)
R 4πε R
 For an arbitrary R (other positions beyond the source point),

1 1 ρ (t − R / c )
f ( t ')
= ρ ( t ') dv=
→ V dv
4πε 4πε R

Finally, the retarded electric scaler potential V = 1

ρ (t − R / c )

4πε ∫
v
R
dv

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Lorentz / Retarded electromagnetic potential
∂ 2
V ρ 1 ρ (t − R / c )
V (t ) =
4πε ∫
∇ V − µε 2 =
2
− dv
∂t ε v
R

 By duality, the magnetic vector potential can be given by

∂2 A µ J (t − R / c )
A (t ) =
4πε ∫v
2 dv
∇ A − µε 2
−µ J
= R
∂t
R
 τ= Time Delay (Retardation) between the sources and the potentials (and thus the field)
c
 This is well known as the Lorentz electromagnetic potential or retarded electromagnetic potential.

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Time Harmonic Fields
 For waves with a sinusoidal time dependence ejωt (phasor).
 We make the replacement globally:

∂
⇔ jω
∂t
Why? Well…….because!
∂t
( )
∂ j ωt
e = j ω e j ωt

∂H
 So a term like ∂t becomes jω He jωt The ejωt part is dropped and implied. If we want to
refer back to instantaneous quantities we must reinsert the time dependence that was
dropped.
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Maxwell’s Equations (time harmonic form)

∇ × E = − jωµ H
Note that we are dealing with a
∇ × H= J + jωµ E single frequency now! We say
ρ that the time convention is e jωt
∇⋅E =
ε Note the k
∇× H =0 term!
 2 2 ρ
∇ V + k V =−
∂ 2V ρ Helmholtz equations  ε
2
∇ V − µε =− ∇ 2 A + k 2 A =
∂t 2 ε  −µ J
2
∇ A − µε
∂2 A
−µ J Wave number = ω
∂t 2
=
k ω=
µε
Phase velocity vp
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 Time harmonic solutions for A and V
R
 What about time retardation? τ =
c R 2π f
Consider a time-harmonic current − jω −j R
e
= e= e − j β R
 c c

=i ( t ) I 0 cos (ωt +ψ )
( t − τ ) I 0 cos (ω ( t − τ=
i= {
) +ψ ) Re I 0e= Re {I 0e− jωτ e jωt }
jω ( t −τ )
}
Lorentz Potentials / Complex Lorentz Potentials
Retarded Potentials (Time Harmonic Potentials)
Source point
z R= r − r ' 1 ρ (t − R / c ) 1 ρ e− jβ R
V (t ) =
4πε ∫ 4πε ∫
dv V= dv
r' v
R v
R
r µ J (t − R / c ) µ Je − j β R
A (t ) = ∫ dv
4πε ∫v R
y Field point 4πε v R A= dv
x
No. / 34
Solution Procedure using Potentials
 (1) Given ρ or J, find V or A using the integrals:

1 e − jkR µ e − jkR
V (r ) =
4πε ∫
ρ ( r ')
V′
R
dV ′, A(r )
4π ∫
V′
J (r )
R
dV ′

1
 (2) Use H = ∇× A and E = −∇V − jω A to find E and H.
µ

 Note: it is customary to work with A (currents) rather than V. (charge).

 We use Lorenz gauge to write E in terms of A alone.
1
−∇ ⋅ A E = − jω A + ∇(∇ ⋅ A)
∇ ⋅ A + jωµε
= V 0 ⇒ =V jωµε
jωµε

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Want to learn More
 Potentials for electrostatic and magnetostatic field
 Notaros: Section 1.6 - 1.10, 4.9, 4.10
 Ulaby: Section 4.3 - 4.5, 5.5

 Potentials for Time-Varying Fields

 Notaros: section 8.8 - 8.10

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