Introduction to Electromagnetism and Its Application to

Materials Science: Week 2-1

Seungbum Hong
KAIST
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
6-1. Equations of the electrostatic potential
The Poisson Eq.

If ρ is known at every point, the potential at point (1) is

The solution of the differential equation (the Poisson Eq.) is reduced to an

integration over space.

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6-2. The electric dipole

The problem of two charges

Important special case where the two charges are very close
together: Dipole (d << R)

• Dipole antenna
• Atomic dipoles
• Polar molecules
• …

The field at large distances is not sensitive to the fine details.

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First order approximation
 Expanding the terms in a power series using the binomial expansion.

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Binomial expansion
(1st order approx., x << 1)

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Dipole Potential

 The potential of a dipole decreases as 1/r2 for a given direction from the axis
whereas for a point charge it goes as 1/r.

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The electric field of the dipole
 Ez: the only component at θ=0 and 90, where Ez (θ=0) = -2Ez (θ=90)
 Ex and Ey: the same format  combined to give one component, E

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6-3 Remarks on vector equations
 In making various calculations and analyses it is always a good idea to choose the axis in
some convenient way.
 Notice that when we were finding the potential of a dipole we chose the z-axis along the
direction of the dipole, rather than at some arbitrary angle. This made the work much
easier. But then we wrote the equations in vector form so that they would no longer
depend on any particular coordinate system. After that, we are allowed to choose any
coordinate system we wish, knowing that the relation is, in general, true. It clearly
doesn’t make any sense to bother with an arbitrary coordinate system at some complica
ted angle when you can choose a neat system for the particular problem – provided that
the result can finally expressed as a vector equation. So by all means take advantage of th
e fact that vector equations are independent of any coordinate system.
 If you can work out the x-, y-, and z-components of the electric field and differentiate
them, you will have the divergence, i.e. ∇E.
 It usually helps to write out the components to be sure we understand what is going on.
Nothing inelegant about substituting the derivatives for fancy symbols.
 It will look better and be more easily understood if you can write everything in vector
form when publishing your results in a paper.

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6-4 The dipole potential as a gradient
 One amusing thing about the dipole formula

How did we think of that? We just remembered that er/r2 appeared in the formula for
the field of a point charge, and that the field was the gradient of a potential which
has a 1/r dependence.

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Physical reason for the dipole potential as a
gradient
 Suppose we have a point charge at origin.

 Now if we move the charge +q up a distance Δz, the

potential at P will change by Δϕ+ = the amount that ϕ
would change if we were to leave the charge at the
origin and move P downward by Δz (=d/2).

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A different perspective on the dipole potential
 Dipole potential: the dot product between the dipole moment and the gradient of the
potential of a unit point charge.

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Nonuniform distribution of surface charge
σ = σ0cosθ
θ

 Although we can always find the potential of a known charge distribution by an

integration, it is sometimes possible to save time by getting the answer with a clever trick.
For example, one can often make use of the superposition principle.
 If the relative displacement of the two spheres is small, the net charge is equivalent to a
surface charge (on a spherical surface), and the surface charge density will be
proportional to the cosine of the polar angle.

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Δd

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Dipole moment and electric field inside the
sphere
+
= p = qΔd

-
z
Ez

E⊥
r+
θ
2Δθ
+q r-
y
-q
x

E = Er+ + Er-= ρ/3ε0(r+-r-) =-ρΔd/3ε0

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6-5 The dipole approximation for an arbitrary
distribution
 It is possible to find a relatively simple
expression for the fields which is appropriate
for distances large compared with the size of
the object that has a complicated distribution
of charge – like the water molecule.
 Let each charge qi be located at the
displacement di from an origin chosen
somewhere in the middle of the group of
charges.
 What is the potential at the point P, located
at R where R >> di?

where ri is the distance from P to the charge qi.

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First approximation: ri = R (Q=0 because objects are usually neutral)

 No effect when too far away from the neutral objects. What if we move a little
bit closer to the objects?

This is precisely a dipole potential. It is a generalization of our earlier definition and reduces
to it for the special case of two point charges.

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In a nutshell for the neutral objects

 Our result is that, far enough away from any mess of charges that is as
a whole neutral, the potential is a dipole potential.
 It is for these reasons that dipole fields are important, since the simple
case of a pair of point charges is quite rare.
 The water molecule has a rather strong dipole moment. The electric
fields that result from this moment are responsible for some of the
important properties of water.
 For CO2, the dipole moment vanishes because of the symmetry of the
molecule. For them we should expand still more accurately, obtaining
another term in the potential, which is called a quadrupole potential.

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6-6 The fields of charged conductors
 Moving our focus from situations in which the charge
distribution is known from the start to those where it
is not like the fields near charged conductors.
 A total charge Q placed on an arbitrary conductor will
spread out on the surface in a way to make the
surface equipotential.
 General way to figure out the charge distribution on
the surface:
– Guess the distribution and calculate the potential
– Check if the potential is constant everywhere on
the surface. If not go back to step #1.
 Nature has time to push and pull the charges until
they all balance themselves.
 We can obtain the answer by squeezing it out of
Nature by some trick or other
 The first trick involves making use of solutions we
have already obtained for situations where charges
have specified locations.

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6-7 The method of images
 Suppose we were to shape a thin sheet of metal so that it just fits the surface marked A.
 If we place it right at the surface and adjust its potential to the proper value, no one would
ever know it was there, because nothing would be changed.
 We have solved a problem where the surface of a curved conductor with a given potential
is placed near a point charge.

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 In the space outside the conductor the field is just like that of two point charges, whereas
inside the conductor it is zero.
 Thus we can compute the fields by computing the field due to q and to an imaginary
point charge –q at a suitable point.
 The point charge we “imagine” existing beyond the conducting surface is called an image
charge.

 Backward solutions: First solve a simple problem with given charges. Then find some
equipotential surface that showed up in a new shape. Then reverse the process and
publish the results.

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6-8 A point charge near a conducting plane
 Solving the problem of a positive charge next to a grounded conducting sheet.

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How are the negative charges distributed on the
sheet?
 The normal component of the electric field just outside a conductor is equal to the
density of surface charge σ divided by ε0.

(ρ2+a2)1/2
ρ
θ
a

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Is there a force on the point charge?

 Yes, because there is an attraction from the induced negative surface charge on the plate.

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6-9 A point charge near a conducting sphere
 The field of two unequal charges has an equipotential
that is a sphere.
 A sphere is the locus of all points for which the distances
from two points are in a constant ratio.
 The potential at P is proportional to

 The potential will thus be zero at all points for which

 If we place q’ at the distance a2/b from the center, the ra

tio has the constant value a/b.

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What happens if the sphere is not at zero
potential?
 We can always add a point charge q’’ at the center of the sphere. The sphere remains e
quipotential by superposition; only the magnitude of the potential will be changed.

 What if the conducting sphere is uncharged and floated?

– The solution is found using an image charge q’ and adding a charge q’’ at the cente
r of the sphere where q” = -q’.
– The field everywhere outside the sphere is solved.

q’'

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Two equal spheres, one with +Q and the other
with -Q
 What is the force between them?
– First approximate each sphere by a charge
at its center
– These charges will have image charges in
the other sphere.
– The image charges will have images, etc.,
etc., etc.

Source: J. Woo et al., J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B (2001)

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6-10 Condensers (Capacitors); parallel plates

 Let’s suppose that equal and opposite char

ges have been put on the plates. ϕ1

ϕ2

 Why this proportionality? Superposition. =0

+++++++++++
=2×σ/(2ε0)
where C is a constant called the capacity or
capacitance. ------------
=0
 This formula is not exact. A good
approximation for C is obtained if we take
for A the area as [A+(3/8)d].

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Touchpad Technology

http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Data_Sheets/AD7142.pdf

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Capacitance of a single object
 C of a sphere: 4πε0a

∞
+Q -Q

V=Q/(4πε0a)

 How to store many charges in a small volume?

– Charge a condenser with a large C
– Condenser: a pair of plates 1 cm2 in area with a 1 mm separation have a capacitance
of roughly 1 pF.

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6-11 High-voltage breakdown

 If we charge a conductor that has on it a sharp end,

the field around the end is much higher than that in
the other regions. Why?

ϕ1

a ϕ2

 This result is technically very important, because air

will break down if the electric field is too great.

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Sharp tip gets the strike
 What happens is that a loose charge (electron, or ion) somewhere in the air is
accelerated by the field, and if the field is very great, the charge can pick up enough
speed before it hits another atom to be able to knock an electron off that atom.
 As a result, more and more ions are produced, whose motion constitutes a discharge, or
a spark.
 If you want to charge an object to a high potential and not have it discharge itself by
sparks in the air, you must be sure that the surface is smooth, so that there is no place
where the field is abnormally large.

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6-12 The field-emission microscope (FEM)
 E > 4,000 MV/m at the tip (r = 100 nm)
 The electrons which arrive at a given point on the
fluorescent surface are, to an excellent approximation,
those which leave the other end of the radial field line.
 We see a picture of the emissivity of the surface of the
needle – that is the ease with which electrons can leave
the surface of the metal tip.
 Resolution limit (~2.5 nm):
– Quantum-mechanical diffraction of the electron
waves which blurs the image
– A small sideways initial velocity of electrons causing
some smearing of the image
 Improvement in resolution
– Reverse polarity and introduce He gas (heavier than
electrons, wavelength much smaller).
– He collision with the needle makes He ionized.
– He2+ is accelerated toward the screen.
 FEM provided human beings with the means of seeing
atoms for the first time.

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