1 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

BS (Physics)

Notes (finals)

Department of Physics,
Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan
Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019
 2 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

List of Contents
Sr.no. Topic’s name Page no.
01 Electric Potential Due to A Ring of Charge 03
02 Electric Potential Due to A Charged Disk 03

03 Calculating the Electric Field from The Potential 04

04 Laplace and Poisson equation 05

05 Types of Materials 06
06 Dielectrics 07

07 Conductor in an Electric Field (Static Conditions) 08

08 Conductor in an Electric Field (Dynamic Conditions) 08

09 Current Density and Drift Speed 09

10 Equation of Continuity 09

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 3 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

Electric Potential Due to A Ring of Charge: Z-axis

Consider a circular ring of radius ‘R’ that has positive charge density ‘λ’
𝑞
(charge per unit length). Where: λ=2𝜋𝑅 (Equation.1) P
Figure.1 shows a uniform ring of positive charge. To calculate potential at
point ‘P’ that is located along the axis of ring, a distance ‘z’ from the center
of the ring, we consider a small charge element ‘dq’ of the ring having r z
a length ‘RdФ’ that carries a charge λRdФ.
As we know from Equation.1 that:
𝑞 𝑞
λ=2𝜋𝑅 or λ= 𝑠 because s=2𝜋𝑅.
𝑞
But here we are calculating only for a charge element dq. Thus λ=𝑠 gets
𝑑𝑞 dФ R
changed into λ= . The circumference of ‘dq’ in the whole ring is S=RdФ.
𝑠
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 ds= R dФ
Which converts λ= 𝑠 into λ=𝑅𝑑Ф or dq= λ𝑅𝑑Ф (Equation.2)
The contribution to the potential at point P on its axis due to the dq
charge element dq= λds= λRdФ is: Figure.1: A uniformly charged ring. To
1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆𝑅𝑑Ф
dV= 4𝜋ɛ˳ 𝑟 = 4𝜋ɛ˳ 2 (Equation.3). {Because by figure r= √𝑅 2 + 𝑧² } calculate the potential at P, we calculate
√𝑅 +𝑧² the total effect of all charge elements such
Integrating around the ring, we note that R and z both remain as dq.
constant. The variable of integration is ‘Ф’, which ranges from 0 to 2π.
1 𝜆𝑅 2𝜋 1 2𝜋𝜆𝑅
V= ∫0 𝑑Ф = 4𝜋ɛ˳ (Equation.4)
4𝜋ɛ˳ √𝑅2 +𝑧² √𝑅2 +𝑧²

𝑞
But as here we are considering the whole ring thus q=2𝜋𝜆𝑅. (From λ=𝑠 ), Equation.4 gets converted
1 𝑞
into: V= 4𝜋ɛ˳ (Equation.5)
√𝑅 2 +𝑧²
Note that as z ∞, the potential decreases to zero and for large value of ‘z’, potential has the
approximate value of 𝑞⁄4𝜋𝜀˳𝑧 (where q= 2πλR), as expected for a location that is a distance z from the
point charge.

Electric Potential Due to A Charged Disk:

Consider a circular disk of radius ‘R’, that has positive surface charge density ‘σ’ (charge per unit
area). To calculate potential at point ‘P’, a distance ‘z’ from the axis of the disk, we divide the disk
into concentric (having a common center) rings. We take one ring of radius ‘w’. The potential at
point ‘P’ due to that ring of disk of radius ‘w’ having a charge of dq is:
Z-axis
1 𝑑𝑞
dV= 4𝜋ɛ˳ 𝑟
, where dq= σdA. And dA= 2πwdw P

By putting the complete value of dq= σ2πwdw and also from figure
r= √𝑤 2 + 𝑧² into the above equation. We get:
1 σ2πwdw
dV= 4𝜋ɛ˳ r
z
√𝑤 2 +𝑧²
To sum the contribution from all the rings on the disk, we integrate as ‘w’
Ranges from 0 to R.
1 𝑅 σ2πwdw w
∫ 𝑑𝑉= 4𝜋ɛ˳ ∫0 Where w= radius of ring and ‘dw’ is its width. dw R
√𝑤 2 +𝑧²
1
σπ 𝑅 2wdw σ 𝑅
V= 4πε˳ ∫0 = ∫ (𝑤 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 . 2wdw
√𝑤 2 +𝑧² 4ε˳ 0
Figure.2: A disk of radius R carries a uniform charge density ‘ σ’.
The element of charge ‘dq’ is a uniformly charged ring. Actually, we
have a selected ring in the disk. The whole is the disk which has a radius
of ‘R’ but we have selected a ring having radius ‘w’.

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 4 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

1 R 1 R
− +1 1 1
σ (𝑤 2 +𝑧 2 ) 2 σ (𝑤 2 +𝑧 2 )2 σ
𝑉= 4ε˳
| 1 | = 𝑉= 4ε˳
| 1 | = 2ε˳ {(𝑅 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 − (0 + 𝑧 2 )2 }
− +1
2 0 2
0

1
σ
V= 2ε˳ {(𝑅 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 − 𝑧} (Equation.1)
Remember that potential has its maximum value at the surface of the disk where z=0. And potential
decreases when we move the point ‘P’ in either direction along z-axis. When ‘z’ is very large then
1
from (𝑅 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 − 𝑧
1 1
1
𝑅2 2 𝑅2 2
= (𝑧 2 )2 { 𝑧2 + 1} − 𝑧 or 𝑧 {1 + 𝑧2
} −𝑧
1
𝑅2 2
Applying Binomial Theorem on {1 + 𝑧2 } :
1 𝑅2 1 𝑅3 1 𝑅2
= 1+2! 𝑧2 + 3! 𝑧3 + ⋯ By neglecting higher terms we get = 1+2 𝑧2
1
1 𝑅2
Putting the value of 𝑧 {1 + 2 𝑧2 } − 𝑧 instead of (𝑅 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 − 𝑧 in Equation.1
σ 1 𝑅2 σ 𝑧𝑅2
V= 2ε˳ {𝑧 {1 + 2 𝑧2 } − 𝑧} = 2ε˳ [z+2𝑧2 − 𝑧]
σ 𝑅2 σ𝑅2 πσ𝑅2
V= = V= (Multiplying and dividing by ‘𝜋 ′ ).
2ε˳ 2𝑧 4ε˳𝑧 𝜋4ε˳𝑧

But π𝑅 2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 And ‘Aσ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑞.
q 1 𝑞
Thus: V= 𝜋4ε˳𝑧 or V=4𝜋ε˳ 𝑧 (Equation.2)

Calculating the Electric Field from The Potential:

Consider a test charge ‘q˳’, which moves from point ‘a’, where the potential is V, to a point ‘b’ where
the value of potential is V+ΔV. The electric potential energy of charge ‘q˳’ changes by a value of

ΔU= q˳ΔV (Equation.1) (change in potential energy= q˳. change in electric potential)
In terms of force, there is an electric field 𝐸⃑ that exerts a force 𝐹 =q˳𝐸⃑ on the particle. The work done
by the force as particle moves from point ‘a’ to ‘b’ is:
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 . ΔS » 𝑊 = 𝑞˳𝐸𝑠 . ΔS
Where 𝐸𝑠 and 𝐹𝑠 are components of 𝐸⃑ and 𝐹 along the distance ‘ΔS’, which represents the
displacement of particle as it travels from point ‘a’ to ‘b’. The work is also defined as:
𝑊 = −ΔU » 𝑊 = − q˳ΔV (Equation.2)
Comparing the equation.1 and equation.2.
𝛥𝑉
− q˳ΔV = 𝑞˳𝐸𝑠 . ΔS » 𝐸𝑠 = − 𝛥𝑆 (Equation.3)
This equation gives us a connection between electric field ‘E’ and electric potential ‘V’. And electric
field is negative of change in potential with distance. If ‘ΔV’ is positive, the electric field gives a force
that opposes the movement of positively charged test particle from point ‘a’ to ‘b’. And if ΔV is
negative, the electric field gives a force in the direction of the motion.
Let us choose a different geometry for this process.
Figure.3(a). shows the same process that instead of moving the test charge from ‘a’ to ‘b’ directly, we
move along two different paths. Path ‘acb’ takes the charge along x-axis from ‘a’ to ‘c’ and then along
the path from ‘c’ to ‘b’, which has been chosen so that the potential has the same value of ‘V+ΔV’
everywhere between ‘c’ and ‘b’. the work done by the electric field along ‘cb’ is zero, because the
𝑊𝑎𝑏
potential does not change as from 𝛥𝑉 = − 𝑞˳
. As when there will be no change in potential, there
will be no work done. While the work done by the electric field along the path ‘ac’ is
𝐹𝑥 . 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑞˳𝐸𝑥 . Δx

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 5 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

Because potential energy can change in any path, from 𝑊 = −ΔU we again have:
𝛥𝑉
𝑞˳𝐸𝑥 . Δx= −𝑞˳𝛥𝑉 or 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝛥𝑥 y-axis
If we move the particle on path ‘adb’, the work done is 𝐹𝑦 . 𝛥𝑦 = 𝑞˳𝐸𝑦 . Δy
along ‘ad’ and zero along db. ‘db’ is been chosen so that the potential has V+ΔV
V+ΔV
the same value V+ΔV everywhere between ‘d’ and ‘b’. because the net d
change in potential energy along adb is ΔV, we obtain: V V
𝛥𝑉 Δy b
𝑞˳𝐸𝑦 . Δy= −𝑞˳𝛥𝑉 or 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝛥𝑦
b
A similar result is obtained for 𝐸𝑧 from a three-dimensional calculation. x-axis
Δs c
a a Δx
If we take the limit as the path lengths become very small, the differences
‘Δ’ become ‘𝜕 ′ . And we can write the most general relationship between
𝐸⃑ and V as
𝜕𝑉 q˳
i. 𝐸𝑥 = − ,
𝜕𝑥 Figure.3. (a): A charged particle q ˳ moves on path ab between two
𝜕𝑉
ii. 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦, equipotentials. (b): The particle moves from a to b along either
path acb or adb.
𝜕𝑉
iii. 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧
Thus, if V (x, y, z) is known at all points in space for a particular charge distribution, then we can
find the components of 𝐸⃑ by taking partial derivative of V with respect to each of the coordinates.

Laplace and Poisson equation:

According to the definition:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘
Multiplying this equation once:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇∇= ∇2 = (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 ) (𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 )
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = + + Where ∇ is called Laplace Operator and also ‘Del squared’.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

And: divergence gradient = ∇(∇𝑉)

∇2 is a scalar operator and can be operated between scalar and vector function. If it’s
operation on a scalar function equals to some negative constant, we get Poisson equation.
From the differential form of Gauss’s Law:
𝜌
divergence E= 𝜖˳ where 𝐸 = −∇𝑉
𝜌
So, ∇𝐸 becomes: ∇𝐸 = ∇(−∇𝑉) = 𝜖˳
𝜌 𝜌
−∇2 𝑉 = Or ∇2 𝑉 = − (Equation.1) Poisson equation.
𝜖˳ 𝜖˳

It is a linear homogeneous partial differential equation for scalar function V (x, y, z) on term of source
‘P’ of this potential.
𝜌 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
− 𝜖˳ = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2

It finds application in steady flow of electrons between a plane cathode and a plane anode in
a vacuum tube diode or on surface of uniformly charge conducting sphere. In absence of source point,
the charge becomes zero. (q=0). And
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 = 0 (Equation.2) Laplace Equation.

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 6 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

Problem:
1
𝑞
Show that 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖˳ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 satisfies the Laplace equation.
Solution: We know that:
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 = 0
By taking the partial derivative of the given equation:
3 3
𝜕𝑉 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑉 𝑞
𝜕𝑥
= 4𝜋𝜖˳ [− 2 . (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 . 2𝑥] » 𝜕𝑥
= − 4𝜋𝜖˳ [𝑥. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 ] (Equation.1)
3
Taking second derivative of the equation.1 and applying product rule on 𝑥. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 .
3 5
𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞 3
So, =− [(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 . 1 + {𝑥. − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 . 2𝑥]
𝜕𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜖˳ 2
3 5
𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞
» 2= − [(𝑥 2
+ 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 + {−3𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 . ]
𝜕𝑥 4𝜋𝜖˳
5 3
𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞 2 )−2
Or 2 = [3𝑥 2 (𝑥 2
+ 𝑦 2
+ 𝑧 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 ] (Equation.2)
𝜕𝑥 4𝜋𝜖˳
Also, in partial derivative of ‘y’ and ‘z’:
5 3
𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞
𝜕𝑦 2
= 4𝜋𝜖˳ [3𝑦 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 ] (Equation.3)
5 3
𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞 − −
𝜕𝑧 2
=
4𝜋𝜖˳
[3𝑧 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2) 2 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) ] 2 (Equation.4)
Adding equation.2, equation.3 and equation.4.
5 3 5
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝑞
𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧2 = 4𝜋𝜖˳ [3𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 + 3𝑦 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 −
3 5 3 3
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 +3𝑧 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 ]. The factor (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )−2 is three
times here and when we take common 3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) from the remaining factors, we get:
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝑞 −
5
−
3
2
+ 2+ 2 = [3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )1 . (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 2 − 3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 2 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 4𝜋𝜖˳
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝑞 2 2
3
2 )−2 2 2
3
2 )−2
+ + = [3(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 4𝜋𝜖˳
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
+ + = 0. 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Types of Materials: (From chapter 29)

There are four basic types of materials on the basis of conductivity:
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semi-conductors
4. Super-conductors
1. Conductors:
Conductors are materials in which electric charges readily flow. Basically, metals’ atoms give some of
their valence electrons to the whole material and these electrons are regarded as forming a ‘gas’ of
electron which when applied voltage flow and thus they conduct. Some common examples of
conductors are Iron, Copper, Gold and Steel etc.

2. Insulators:
Insulators are materials in which electrons are bound together tightly to the atoms and are not free to
move under electric fields. Some common examples of insulators are Wood, Rubber, Plastic etc. An
insulator can carry any distribution of electrical charges on its surface or in its interior. The electric

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 7 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

field in an insulator can have nonzero values. An insulating material can often be regarded as collection
of molecules that cannot easily ionized. In such a case the electrical properties may depend on the
electric dipole moment of the molecules. Thus, some types of materials on the basis of dipole moment
in insulators are:
i. Polar Materials:
Materials in which the molecules have permanent dipole moments are called
polar materials. And electric fields can align the dipole moments of the molecules.

ii. Ferroelectric:
Materials in which the alignment of the dipoles remain even when we remove
the applied fields are called ferroelectric. Even nonpolar materials can show these effects, because the
applied electric field can induce a dipole moment in the molecules.

➢ Ionization:
The application of an electric field can remove one or more electrons from the atoms of the
material. This process is called ionization and the resulting positively charged atoms are called
ions that are deficient in electrons.
➢ Breakdown:
In insulators, sufficiently large electric field can ionize the atoms and thus electrons are available
to move through the material and can behave like a conductor. This situation is called breakdown
an requires fields typically in the range of 106 𝑉/𝑚 in the air to 107 𝑉/𝑚 in plastics and ceramics.

3. Semiconductors:
Materials in which one atom in 1010 𝑡𝑜 1012 atoms might contribute in the flow of electrons and thus
a very low current can pass through are called semiconductors. Some common examples of
semiconductors are Silicon and Germanium etc.
4. Superconductors:
Some materials conduct electric charge with no resistance at very low temperatures. This property is
called superconductivity and these types of materials are called superconductors. As some materials
conduct very poor at room temperatures but are superconductors at low temperatures. Some common
examples of superconductors are Aluminum, Niobium, Magnesium diboride etc.

Dielectrics:
-+ -+ -+ -+
A dielectric (or dielectric material) is an electrical insulator that _
+ -+ -+ -+ -+
can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric 𝐄˳ -+ -+ -+ -+
is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through -+ -+ -+ -+ Capacitor
the material as they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly
shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric 𝐄˳
polarization. In the presence of an electrical field, each dipole of Dielectric _V +
molecule of dielectric behaves like its stretched with the excess
_ _
of positive charge at one end and negative charge at the other end. + _ + _
The dielectric said to have suffered an electric strain. The charges
+ _ 𝐄′ + _
+ _ 𝐄 =𝐄 ͦ +(– 𝐄 ') + _
which make a dipole are not free but each is bound to a molecule + +
+ _ + _
lying inside or near the surface. The net charge per unit volume _ _
+ _
𝐄˳ +
_
+ +
within the rest if the dielectric is zero. The excess induced positive
and negative charges appear on the opposite face of the dielectric V +
_
slab due to the external field 𝐸˳ due to a battery. The induced
electric field E' due to induced charges opposes the external field Figure.4.(a): A dielectric is put in an electric field and
𝐸˳. Induced charges weaken external field. And the resulting dielectric has positive and negative charges separated due
field is vector sum of 𝐸˳ and –(E'). Thus, the total electric field is: to the presence of electroic field. (b): An induced field is
generated which opposes external (applied/given) field.
E=𝐸˳ +(–E')

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 8 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

The electric field is reduced by the presence of dielectric by a factor 𝑘𝑒 which is equal to:
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 |𝐄˳|
𝑘𝑒 = 𝜖𝑟 = 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 |𝐄|

Conductor in an Electric Field (Static Conditions):

Suppose we place a large rectangular slab (thick block) of a conductor such as Copper in a uniform
electric field. The electric field exerts a force:
𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸˳
For electrons to move in a direction opposite to the electric field, the electrons quickly move to the
top surface of the Copper, leaving a deficiency of electrons on the bottom surface. When we place a
conductor in an external field, the charges distribute themselves almost instantaneously after which
electrostatic conditions apply. Two surfaces of conductor can be considered a sheet of charges which
set up an electric field.
Inside the Copper, the net electric field is the vector sum of two fields, one is applied field (𝐸˳) and
the other is the induced field (𝐸′) due to the induced charges.
𝐸 = 𝐸˳ + 𝐸′
In term of magnitude, the sum becomes a difference, because the two fields (𝐸˳𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸′) are opposite
in direction. 𝐸 = 𝐸˳ − 𝐸′
The applied field 𝐸˳ must move just enough electrons to the surface to set up an electric field 𝐸′ that
has same magnitude as 𝐸˳ giving a net field of ‘zero’ inside the Copper. Outside the slab, the sheet of
charge on the two surfaces give an electric field that cancel, leaving a net field unchanged in these
regions.

𝐄˳
_ _ _ _ _𝐄˳_ _ _ ________
𝐄' 𝐄=0
+++++++ +++++++
Figure.5.(a): A slab of cunductor in a uniform electric field. Electorns in it move upward in response to
the field. (b): Electrons gather on top and leave positive ions in bottom. (c): Inside the slab, the net field
is zero.

Conductor in an Electric Field (Dynamic Condition):

As electrons move from the bottom of the slab of Copper to the top
under the action of applied electric field until the concentration of
electrons at the top of the slab creates a field that cancels the
applied field inside the Copper and prevents the flow of additional 𝐄˳
electrons. Suppose there were a mechanism to remove electrons
from the top of the slab and carry them around an external path
and re-inject them at the bottom of the slab. The continuous loop
of flowing electrons is a simple representation of electrical circuit
and flow of electrons is called electric current.
𝐄˳
A quantity of charge ‘dq’ will pass through a small surface of area A
taken as a cross-sectional area of the wire through which charge is
flowing. The electric current is defined as:
𝑑𝑞 Figure.6: The electric field 𝐄˳ moves electrons
𝑖= 𝑑𝑡
(Equation.1)
through Copper’s slab. Electrons collected at top
are transported to bottom of Copper slab.

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 9 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

For the electric current, there must be a net flow of charge across
the surface. If neutral atoms travel across the surface, no current
is flowing even though charges travel across the surface. As from
𝑖 A
the equation.1: 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (Equation.2)
The net charge passing through the surface is determined when
We integrate equation.2: j
∫ 𝑑𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 » 𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Figure.6: electrons pass through an area ‘A’.
the directions of current ‘i’ and of vector
A related vector quantity is the current density ‘j’ or current per
𝑖
current density ‘j’ are opposite to the
unit area. 𝑗̂ = 𝐴 direction of motion of elctrons.
Direction of ‘j’ is defined to be the direction of the flow of the charges.
Thus, the current passing through any surface can be determined by integrating the current density
over the surface:
̂
𝑖 = ∫ 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝐀 (Equation.2)

Current Density and Drift Speed:

The electrons moving through the Copper slab, as discussed above, they collide with the ions of lattice
and transfer energy to them. Thus, the motion of individual electrons is very irregular, consisting of a
short interval of acceleration in a direction that is opposite to the electric field, followed by a collision
with an ion that might send the electron in motion in any direction, followed by another acceleration.
The net effect is a drift of electrons in a direction opposite to the field. Electrons lose energy in collisions
with lattice. In effect, energy is transformed from the applied field to the lattice. On average, electrons
can be described as moving with a constant drift velocity 𝑣⃗𝑑 in a direction opposite to the field as
indicated in figure.7.
As current density is defined as: 𝑖 ⃑⃗ 𝐄
𝑖
𝑗̂ = 𝐴
A - - A
Consider the motion of electrons in a conductor of - -
length ‘L’. The electrons are moving with drift speed
𝑣⃗𝑑 . So, they travel the length ‘L’ in time ‘t’. And: 𝑣⃗𝑑 L 𝑗⃗
𝐿
𝑡 = 𝑣⃑⃗ Figure.7: The electric field causes electrons to drift right. The
𝑑
The conductor has a cross-sectional area ‘A’. In time conventional current (the hypothetical direction of flow of
‘t’, all of the electrons in volume (𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿)will travel positive charge) is to left. The current density 𝑗⃗ is likewise
Through the surface at the right end of conductor. If drawn as if the charge carriers were positive, so that ⃗𝐣 and 𝐄⃑⃗
density (number per unit volume) of electrons is ‘n’, are in the same direction.
then the magnitude of net charge passing the surface is:
𝑞 = 𝑒𝑛𝐴𝐿 Here ∵ 𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿
And the current density is:
𝑖 𝑞 q enAL ⃑⃗𝑑
enAL𝑣
∵ 𝐣 = 𝐴 and 𝑖 = 𝑡
thus 𝐣 = = 𝐿 » 𝐣= » ⃑⃗𝒅
𝐣 = en𝒗
At 𝐴.⃑⃗ 𝐴.𝐿
𝑣𝑑
In vector notation: 𝐣 = −en𝒗⃑⃗𝒅
The negative sign shows that the direction of current density is opposite to the motion of the
electrons.

Equation of continuity:
Let assume ′𝜌′ is the volume charge density in a volume ‘V’ bounded by a surface area inside the
conductor through which current is flowing. The total charge contained in the volume will be:

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019

 10 EMT Notes Finals (Semester-3)

𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
The rate of charge flow or current increases within the volume bounded by the surface will be:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑
𝑖= 𝑜𝑟 𝑖= ∫𝑄
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 v
𝑑 𝜕𝜌
Or 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 » 𝑖 = ∫ 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑉 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝟏)
v v
The current flowing out of surface bounded by the volume is:
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 = ∮ 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝑠 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝟐) ∵ j = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑠 » j = » 𝑖 = j. ds
s 𝐴 𝑑𝑠
Taking the outflowing current as positive and inflowing current as negative and comparing
equation.1 and equation.2:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
∮ 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑉 » ∮ 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 0
s v 𝜕𝑡 s v 𝜕𝑡
Applying divergence theorem on ∮ 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝑠:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐣̂. 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑂𝑟 ∫ (𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐣̂ + ) 𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑂𝑟 (𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐣̂ + ) = 0
v v 𝜕𝑡 v 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
Resulting in: ∇𝐣̂ + 𝜕𝑡 = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚)
Basically, this equation states that, “current flowing through a conductor is always conserved”.

Muhammad Sadiq | Department of Physics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Dated: 05/11/2019