The Potential Field of a System of Charges:

Conservative Property
 We will now prove, that for a system of charges, the potential is
also independent of the path taken.
 Continuing the discussion, the potential field at the point r due
to a single point charge Q1 located at r1 is given by:
Q1
V (r) 
4 0 r  r1

 The field is linear with respect to charge so that superposition is

applicable. Thus, the potential arising from n point charges is:
Q1 Q2 Qn
V (r)    
4 0 r  r1 4 0 r  r2 4 0 r  rn
n
Qm
V (r )  
m 1 4 0 r  rm
 The Potential Field of a System of Charges:
Conservative Property
 If each point charge is now represented as a small element of
continuous volume charge distribution ρvΔv, then:
v (r1 )v1 v (r2 )v2 v (rn )vn
V (r)    
4 0 r  r1 4 0 r  r2 4 0 r  rn

 As the number of elements approach infinity, we obtain the

integral expression:
v (r)dv
V (r)  
vol 4 r  r
0

 If the charge distribution takes from of a line charge or a

surface charge,
L (r)dL
V (r)  
4 0 r  r
 (r)dS 
V (r)   S
S 4 r  r
0
 The Potential Field of a System of Charges:
Conservative Property
 As illustration, let us find V on the z axis for a uniform line
charge ρL in the form of a ring, ρ = a, in the z = 0 plane.
L (r)dL
V (r)  
4 0 r  r
2  L ad 

0
4 0 a 2  z 2
L a

2 0 a 2  z 2

• The potential arising from point charges

or continuous charge distribution can
be seen as the summation of potential
arising from each charge or each
differential charge.
• It is independent of the path chosen.
 The Potential Field of a System of Charges:
Conservative Property
 With zero reference at ∞, the expression for potential can be
taken generally as:
VA    E  dL
A

 Or, for potential difference:

VAB  VA  VB    E  dL
A

 Both expressions above are not

dependent on the path chosen for • Potential conservation
the line integral, regardless of the in a simple dc-circuit
problem in the form of
source of the E field. Kirchhoff’s voltage law
 For static fields, no work is done in
carrying the unit charge around any
closed path.
 E  dL  0
 Potential Gradient
 We have discussed two methods of determining potential:
directly from the electric field intensity by means of a line
integral, or from the basic charge distribution itself by a volume
integral.
 In practical problems, however, we rarely know E or ρv.
 Preliminary information is much more likely to consist a
description of two equipotential surface, and the goal is to find
the electric field intensity.
 Potential Gradient
 The general line-integral
relationship between V and E is:
V   E  dL
dV  E  dL
 For a very short element of length
ΔL, E is essentially constant:
V E  L
V  EL cos 
V
 E cos 
L
 Assuming a conservative field, for a given reference and
starting point, the result of the integration is a function of the
end point (x,y,z). We may pass to the limit and obtain:
dV
  E cos 
dL
 Potential Gradient
 From the last equation, the maximum positive increment of
potential, Δvmax, will occur when cosθ = –1, or ΔL points in the
direction opposite to E.
dV
E
dL max

 We can now conclude two characteristics of the relationship

between E and V at any point:
1. The magnitude of E is given by the maximum value of the
rate of change of V with distance L.
2. This maximum value of V is obtained when the direction of
the distance increment is opposite to E.
 Potential Gradient
 For the equipotential surfaces below,
find the direction of E at P.

E
dV
,
dL max
  180
 Potential Gradient
 Since the potential field information is more likely to be
determined first, let us describe the direction of ΔL (which leads
to a maximum increase in potential) in term of potential field.
 Let aN be a unit vector normal to the equipotential surface and
directed toward the higher potential.
 The electric field intensity is then expressed in terms of the
potential as:
dV
E= aN
dL max

 The maximum magnitude occurs when ΔL is in the aN direction.

Thus we define dN as incremental length in aN direction,
dV dV

dL max dN
dV
E= aN
dN
 Potential Gradient
 We know that the mathematical operation to find the rate of
change in a certain direction is called gradient.
 Now, the gradient of a scalar field T is defined as:
dT
Gradient of T  grad T  aN
dN

 Using the new term,

dV
E= a N = grad V
dN
 Potential Gradient
 Since V is a function of x, y, and z, the total differential is:
V V V
dV  dx  dy  dz
x y z
 But also,
dV  E  dL   Ex dx  E y dy  Ez dz

 Both expression are true for any dx, dy, and dz. Thus:
V
Ex  
x  V V V 
E   ax  ay  az 
V  x y z 
Ey  
y
V V V
V grad V  ax  ay  az
Ez   x y z
z

 Note: Gradient of a scalar is a vector.

 Potential Gradient
 Introducing the vector operator for gradient:
  
  ax  a y  az
x y z
We now can relate E and V as:
E  V

V V V
V  ax  ay  az Rectangular
x y z

V 1 V V
V  a  a  az Cylindrical
   z

V 1 V 1 V
V  ar  a  a Spherical
r r  r sin  
 Example Potential Gradient
Given the potential field, V = 2x2y–5z, and a point P(–4,3,6),
find V, E, direction of E, D, and ρv.

VP  2(4)2 (3)  5(6)  66 V

 V V V 
E  V    ax  ay  a z   4 xya x  2 x2a y  5a z
 x y z 
EP  4(4)(3)a x  2(4)2 a y  5a z  48a x  32a y  5a z V m
EP
aE ,P 
EP
DP   0EP  425a x  283.3a y  44.27a z pC m3

v  div D  div  0E  (8.854 1012 )(4 y)  35.42 y pC m3

At P, v  35.42(3) pC m3  106.26 pC m3
 The Dipole
 The dipole fields form the basis for the behavior of dielectric
materials in electric field.
 The dipole will be discussed now and will serve as an
illustration about the importance of the potential concept
presented previously.

 An electric dipole, or simply a dipole, is the name given to two

point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign, separated
by a distance which is small compared to the distance to the
point P at which we want to know the electric and potential
fields.
 The Dipole
 The distant point P is described by the spherical coordinates
r, θ, Φ = 90°.
 The positive and negative point charges have separation d and
described in rectangular coordinates (0,0, 0.5d) and
(0,0,–0.5d).
 The Dipole
 The total potential at P can be written as:
Q 1 1  Q R2  R1
V   
4 0  R1 R2  4 0 R1R2

 The plane z = 0 is the locus of points for which R1 = R2

► The potential there is zero (as also all points at ∞).
 The Dipole
 For a distant point, R1 ≈ R2 ≈ r, R2–R1 ≈ dcosθ
Qd cos 
V
4 0 r 2

 Using the gradient in spherical coordinates,

E  V
 V 1 V 1 V 
  ar  a  a 
 r r  r sin   

 Qd cos Qd sin  
E    ar  a 
 2 0 r 4 0 r
3 3


Qd
3 
E 2cos  ar  sin  a 
4 0 r
 The Dipole
 To obtain a plot of the potential
field, we choose Qd/(4πε0) = 1
and thus cosθ = Vr2. r = 2.236
 The colored lines in the figure
below indicate equipotentials for
V = 0, +0.2, +0.4, +0.6, +0.8,
and +1. r = 1.880
Plane at
zero potential
45°

Qd cos 
V
4 0 r 2
 The Dipole
 The potential field of the dipole may be simplified by making
use of the dipole moment.
 If the vector length directed from –Q to +Q is identified as d,
then the dipole moment is defined as Qd and is assigned the
symbol p.
p  Qd
 Since dar = dcosθ , we then have:
p  ar
V
4 0 r 2
1 r  r 1 1
V p • Dipole charges: V ,E
r  r
2
4 0 r  r
2 r r3
1 1
• Point charge: V ,E
r r2
 Exercise Problems
1. A charge in amount of 13.33 nC is uniformly distributed in a circular disk
form, with the radius of 2 m. Determine the potential at a point on the axis,
2 m from the disk. Compare this potential with that which results if all the
charge is at the center of the disk. (Sch.S62.E3)
Answer: 49.7 V, 60 V.

2. For the point P(3,60°,2) in cylindrical coordinates and the potential field
V = 10(ρ +1)z2cosφ V in free space, find at P: (a) V; (b) E; (c) D; (d) ρv; (e)
dV/dN; (f) aN.
+0.846az (Hay.E5.S112.23)

708az pC/m2; (d) –334 pC/m3;(e) 94.5 V/m; (f) 0.212aρ – 0.489aφ
Answer: (a) 80 V; (b) –20aρ + 46.2aφ – 80az V/m; (c) –177.1aρ + 409aφ –

3. Two opposite charges are located on the z-axis and centered on the
origin, configuring as an electric dipole is located at origin. The
distance between the two charges, each with magnitude of 1 nC, is
given by 0.1 nm. The electric potential at A(0,1,1) nm is known to be 2
V. Find out the electric potential at B(1,1,1) nm. Hint: Do not assume
that A and B are distant points. Determine E due to both charges first,
then calculate the potential difference. (EEM.Pur5.N4)
Answer: 1.855 V.