PHY205 Electromagnetism Lecture 17

Lecture 17 Maxwell’s equations and the displacement current

Introduction
By studying the physical properties of electric (E-field) and magnetic (B-field) fields we
have been able to describe these properties by four, relatively simple, equations
(Maxwell’s equations) plus some additional subsidiary information.

We will see in the next lecture how these equations correctly predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves. However, first, we show that one of the equations is still
incomplete.

Maxwell’s equations
These four equations can be expressed in both an integral and differential form

a) ∫ D ⋅ dS = ∑ Q f = ∫ ρ f dτ or ∇iD = ρ f
S τ
τ
this result arises from Coulomb’s and Gauss’s laws and states that free charges act as
sources or sinks of D.

b) ∫ S
B ⋅ dS = 0 or ∇ ⋅ B = 0
this result arises from the application of Gauss’s law to magnetic fields and the non-
existence of magnetic monopoles. There are no sources or sinks of B.

∂Φ S ⎛ ∂B ⎞ ∂B
c)
L ∫ ∂t
= ∫ ⎜−
E ⋅ dL = −
S ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠
⋅ dS or ∇ × E = −
∂t
this equation describes Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. An electromotance is
produced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the circuit changes.

d) ∫ H ⋅ dL = ∑ I c = ∫ J c ⋅ dS or ∇ × H = J c
L S
S
this result describes Ampère’s circuital law (which is derived from the Biot-Savart law). A
conduction current produces an H-field.

Subsidiary information is provided by

(a) the relationships between E and D and B and H

D=ε0E+P or D=ε0εrE

H=B/µ0-M or H=B/(µ0µr)

(b) the total electric and magnetic force on a charged particle

F=Q(E+v×B)

From this equation the magnetic force on a current carrying element may be derived.

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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lecture 17

(c) the relationship between current and charge which can be expressed by the following
equation

∂
∫ ∂t ∫τ
J ⋅ dS = −∂Q / ∂t = − ρ f dτ
S

The total current outwards through a closed surface equals the rate at which the total
charge enclosed within that surface decreases. The final term simply states that the total
charge contained within the surface is given by the integral of the free charge density ρf
over the appropriate volume τ.

Displacement current
Are the Maxwell’s equations as stated in the previous section and the subsidiary
information mutually consistent in all situations?

Writing the equations again in their differential form

∇⋅D = ρf ∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × E = −∂B / ∂t ∇ × H = J c

As they stand the equations appear to be some what asymmetric. In particular we have a
term ∂B/∂t in the third equation for curl E but no corresponding ∂E/∂t in the fourth equation
for curl H.

Although this lack of symmetry does not prove that the above equations are inconsistent,
by considering the following situation we will see that an additional term must be added to
the equation for curl H.

S1
D
+Q Ic
Ic

-Q

L S2

Consider the above circuit element which consists of two wires connected to the plates of
a parallel plate capacitor. If a current Ic flows in the wires then the charge on the plates of
the capacitor must change Ic=dQ/dt.

We now apply the circuital law for H to the above circuit.

z L
H ⋅ dL = I c

In words this equation states that the line integral of H around a closed path L equals the
conduction currents encircled by L.
By encircled we mean passing through a surface S bounded by L.
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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lecture 17

However in the above circuit for the path L there are two choices of surface S.

• Surface S1 passes through one of the wires and hence gives a contribution Ic to the
circuital law.

• Surface S2 passes through the space between the capacitor plates. It does not pass
through any conductor and hence does not give a contribution to the circuital law as it
presently stands.

The circuital law for the path L and the two surfaces S1 and S2 is hence

(a) z L
H ⋅ dL = I c for S1

(b) z L
H ⋅ dL = 0 for S2
However this result should be independent of the surface chosen as they are both
bounded by the same path L.

(a) must be correct as we can move a long distance away from the capacitor where its
effects can be neglected. Hence we need to modify the circuital law so that (b), even
though S2 does not pass through any conduction currents, gives the same result as (a).

Although S2 does not have a conduction current passing through it, it does have a time
varying flux of D due to the charge on the plates of the capacitor.

For a parallel plate capacitor of plate area A

E=Q/(ε0A) ⇒ D=Q/A as D=Eε0 ⇒ Q=DA

Now Ic=dQ/dt so Ic=d(DA)/dt

We hence define a new quantity, known as the displacement current Id, which is given in
the present case by

Id=d(DA)/dt

If the circuital law is now written in a modified form to include both conduction and
displacement currents we obtain

z L
H ⋅ dL = I c + I d

With this modification both surfaces S1 and S2 in the capacitor problem give the same
result.

Modification of the circuital law

For the special case considered above the displacement current is given by Id=d(DA)/dt
from which we can define a more general result
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PHY205 Electromagnetism Lecture 17

∂ ∂D
Id =
∂t ∫S
D ⋅ dS = ∫
S ∂t
⋅ dS = ∫ J d ⋅ dS
S

Jd=∂D/∂t is the displacement current density.

Modification of Maxwell’s equation

The circuital law in the presence of both conduction and displacement currents becomes

z L
H ⋅ dL = I c + I d
∂D
Integral form

∇ × H = Jc + Jd = Jc + Differential form
∂t

Although the modification to these equations has been derived from consideration of a
special system it can be shown that it is valid in all situations.

Final form of Maxwell’s equations

In differential form

∇⋅D = ρf Coulomb-Gauss’s laws - free charges are sinks/sources of D-fields

∇⋅B = 0 No sinks/sources of B-fields – no magnetic monopoles
∇ × E = −∂B / ∂t Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
∇ × H = J c + ∂D / ∂t Ampère’s law with the addition of displacement currents.

In terms of B and E (using D=ε0εrE and H=B/(µ0µr) to eliminate D and E.

∇ ⋅ E = ρ f / ε 0ε r ∇ × E = −∂B / ∂t
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ × B = µ0 µ r J c + ε 0ε r µ 0 µ r ∂E / ∂t

Finally in vacuo Jc=ρf=0 and µr=εr=1

∇ ⋅ E = 0 ∇ × E = −∂B / ∂t
∇ ⋅ B = 0 ∇ × B = ε 0 µ 0 ∂E / ∂t

Conclusions
• Maxwell’s equations and subsidiary information derived from studies of electrostatics
and magnetism
• Inconsistency of Maxwell’s equation for ∇×H in its initial form
• Requirement for the inclusion of the displacement current Id (or in terms of
displacement current density Jd=∂D/∂t).
• Final form of Maxwell’s equations for E, D, B and H (integral and differential forms)
• Maxwell’s equations in terms of E and B
• Maxwell’s equations in vacuo.