Poisson and Laplace's Equations

Recall Gauss's law and Faraday's law (under electrostatic conditions) in differential form:

( )
v
= = D E

=0 = E E

Substituting E into Gauss's law yields

( )
v
.

Assuming that the permittivity is a constant throughout the given region (i.e. the medium
is homogeneous), then can be taken out of the divergence operation. Thus,

( )
v

.

Substituting for the del operator in rectangular coordinates,

2 2 2
2 2 2
2

,
x y z x y z
x y z
j \ j \
+ + + +
, ( , (

( , ( ,

+ +


x y z x y z


we obtain Poisson's equation:



2

v
.


The operator
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
x y z

+ +

in rectangular coordinates and is referred to as the
Laplacian operator. In cylindrical coordinates, it is



3/26/03
Poisson's Equation
free charge

2 2
2
2 2 2
1 1
z

j \
+ +
, (

( ,


and in spherical coordinates is

2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
sin
sin sin
r
r r r r r

j \ j \
+ +
, ( , (

( , ( ,
.


Poissons equation reduces to Laplace's equation in a region in which there are no
volume sources. That is, letting
v
0 in Poisson's equation yields


2
0


It is important to recognize that the solution for the potential is obtained by solving these
equations with the correct sources and subject to the appropriate boundary conditions.


EXAMPLE: Parallel-Plate Capacitor





Since the region between the two conductors can be considered source free ( ) 0
v
,
Laplace's equation,

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
0,
x y z

+ +




can be applied to solve for the potential at any point between the conducting plates.

Laplace's Equation
V
o

s

-
s

h

z
x
At this point the analysis can be simplified by assuming that the conductors are infinite in
both the ! z and ! y directions and, consequently, that the potential does not vary in these
directions ( ) 0 z y . Thus, Laplaces equation becomes
( )
2
2
0
d x
d x

.

Note that the derivatives are written above as ordinary rather than partial derivatives
since is assumed to depend only on the single variable x . Integrating the above
differential equation twice with respect to x, the general solution for the potential is given
by

+ C x C
1 2
.

Enforcing the boundary conditions, ( ) 0 0 x and ( )
o
x d V , the constants C
1

and C
2
are obtained. This results in
( )
o
V
x x
d


for the final solution of the potential between the conducting plates of the parallel-plate
capacitor.

Recall that the capacitance of a parallel-
plate capacitor was previously found by
using Gauss's law to compute the electric
field between the conductors. Having
derived the potential function between the
conducting plates, the electric field can also be determined using E . Thus,


o
V
x d

E x x

and, consequently, the electric flux density is given by

D E x = =
-

V
d
o
! .

Next, the surface charge density is found by applying ( )
1 2 s
= D D n (with
2
, D 0 n x ) to the top conductor (referenced at positive V
o
volts). This results in

s
o
V
d


and ultimately, a parallel-plate capacitance of
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+ + + + + + + + + +
x d
0 x
x
o
V

C
Q
V
A
V
A
d
s
o


.

Note that this is consistent with the capacitance expression derived previously.




EXAMPLE: Coaxial Line:


Neglecting fringing at the ends of the coaxial line, we may
assume that the equipotential surfaces are are the
constant surfaces. Thus, is assumed to vary only with
( ) : . Since there is no volume charge between the
conductors, Laplaces equation in cylindrical coordinates
applies:

2
1
0
d d
d d

j \

, (
( ,
.

This differential equation may be solved by integrating twice to obtain


ln A B + .

Applying the boundary conditions shown in the figure at a and b yields


0
ln
[V],
ln
b
V a b
b
a

< < .
Hence the electric field between the conductors is


0
[V/m],
ln
V d
a b
b
d
a

< < E .

The (positive) surface charge density on the inner conductor is therefore


2 0
[C/m ]
ln
Sa
a
V
D
b
a
a

a
b
0
V
0
and hence the total charge on an inner conductor of length " is


0
2
2 [C]
ln
Sa
V
Q a
b
a


"
.

The total line capacitance is therefore


0
2
[F]
ln
Q
C
b
V
a


"



and the capacitance per unit length is


2
[F/m]
ln
C
C
b
a


"
"
.

Method of Images

Oftentimes practical electrostatic problems involve charges located near planar
conductors. For example, consider the situation below.














According to the previous discussion, to find the potential in the upper half-space, it is
necessary to solve the Poisson equation in the region z>0 and then enforce the boundary
conditions 0 at z 0 and 0 as r . Recall the solution for the potential of
a point charge in free-space:


( )
2
2 2
4
q
x y z h

+ +




PEC
q
d
z
x
Although this potential function satisfies Poisson's equation in the upper half-space, it
does not satisfy the necessary boundary conditions at 0 x . Thus, it is not a valid
solution to the scenario presented above.

Rather than solve Poisson's equation directly, consider the following situation using
"image charges".














Notice that in this problem the conducting plane has been removed and a charge q
'
has
been placed at z d . Thus, the potential in the upper half plane can be written as


( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
, , [V]
4 4
o o
q q
x y z
x y z d x y z d

+
+ + + + +



Notice that 0 as r and that if the charge q
'
is selected such that q q then
0 at z 0 . This latter condition makes the plane 0 z an equipotential surface,
which in turn ensures that the tangential component of the electric field vanishes there.
In addition, it is important to recognize that this solution, constructed from known
potential functions for point charges, automatically satisfy Poisson's equation
everywhere. Note that the new potential is only valid in the region z > 0 . (The potential
for 0 z < is zero! Why?) Thus, all conditions imposed on the original problem (charge
near a conducting ground plane) are satisfied by this potential function.


According to the uniqueness theorem, which will not be proven here, a solution that
satisfies Poisson's equation and satisfies the given set of boundary conditions is the only
possible solution. This holds true irrespective of the method by which the solution is
obtained. Although the method of images was presently used to arrive at the correct
solution for the potential function of a point charge over a ground plane, a solution
obtained by using educated guesses would have been equally valid.

Using the potential function given above, the electric field in the region z 0 is given by
q
d
q
'
d


z
x


( )
( )
( )
( )
2
3/ 2 3/ 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
+ + + +
[V/m ]
4
x y z d x y z d
q
x y z d x y z d

, ]
+
, ]

, ]
, ] , ]
+ + + + +
, ]
] ] ]
x y z x y z
E

and the surface charge density on the ground plane by

( )
2
0 0 2 2 2
0
2
[C/m ]
4
s z z
z z
z
qd
D E
z x y d

+ +



Notice that the total charge on the ground plane (charge in Coulombs) is calculated using


3/ 2
2 2 2
2
GrdPlane
qd
Q dx dy
x y d

, ] + +
]


which, in turn, results in

Q q
GrdPlane
.

Thus, as expected, the original charge q induces equal and opposite charge on the ground
plane.