Electrostatics-

Electric Flux

Course- Field Theory (ENEL2FT) (2023)

Course Lecturer- Dr P Kumar
Email- kumarp@ukzn.ac.za
1
 Electric flux and electric flux density
⇒Michael Faraday performed an experiment (around in 1837)
on two concentric metallic spheres. His experiment was
based upon the following steps:
1. The inner sphere was given a known positive charge.
2. The hemispheres were then clamped together around the
charged sphere.
3. The outer sphere was discharged by connecting it to the
ground.
4. The outer sphere was separated carefully, and the negative
induced charge on each hemisphere was measured and the
magnitude of negative charge was same as of positive
charge of inner sphere.
⇒It was concluded that there was some sort of displacement
from inner sphere to the outer sphere and named as Fig. The electric flux in the region between a
‘displacement’, ‘displacement flux’, or simply ‘electric flux pair of charged concentric spheres
(𝜓𝜓 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝))’.
⇒If the charge on the inner sphere is 𝑄𝑄, then 𝜓𝜓 = 𝑄𝑄. Electric
flux is measured in Coulombs.
2
 Electric flux and electric flux density (cont.)
⇒The electric field intensity is dependent on the medium in which charge is placed.
⇒Let us define a vector field, 𝐷𝐷, as:

D = εE
where 𝜀𝜀 is the electrical permittivity of the medium.
⇒𝐷𝐷 is independent of the medium.  The electric flux, 𝜓𝜓, is defined interns of 𝐷𝐷 as:
Ψ = ∫ D.dS

⇒The vector 𝐷𝐷 is called the electric flux density, measured in C/m2.

⇒Thus all formulas derived for 𝐸𝐸 from Coulomb’s law can be used in calculating 𝐷𝐷,
except we have to multiply those results by 𝜀𝜀.
⇒𝜀𝜀 = 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 𝜀𝜀0 , where 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 is the dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the medium.
⇒ 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 = 1 for free space => 𝜀𝜀 = 𝜀𝜀0 (for free space)

3
 Gauss’s law
⇒Gauss’s law is the generalization of Faraday’s experiment.
⇒Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux, 𝜓𝜓, passing through any closed surface 𝑆𝑆
equals to the total charge enclosed
 by
 that surface.
Ψ = Qenc ⇒ Ψ = ∫S D.dS = Qenc
where 𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =total charge enclosed.
 
Q = ∫ ρvdv ⇒ ∫ D.dS = ∫ ρvdv (integral form of Gauss’s law)
v s v
⇒Gauss’s law provides an easy means of finding 𝐸𝐸 or 𝐷𝐷 for symmetrical charge
distributions such as a point charge, an infinite line charge, an infinite surface charge,
and a spherical charge distribution.
⇒From divergence theorem: ∮𝑆𝑆 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=∫𝑣𝑣 𝛻𝛻. 𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑;
using these equations:
𝛻𝛻. 𝐷𝐷=𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 (differential form of Gauss’s law, Maxwell’s first equation)
⇒Gauss’s law is another form of Coulomb's law. Application of divergence theorem to the
Coulomb’s law gives Gauss’s law.
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 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Example: Given a 60 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 point charge located at the origin, find the total electric
𝜋𝜋
flux through: (a) that portion of a sphere 𝑟𝑟 = 26 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 bounded by 0 < 𝜃𝜃 < and
𝜋𝜋 2
0 < 𝜙𝜙 < , (b) the closed surface defined by 𝜌𝜌 = 26 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and 𝑧𝑧 = ±26 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, (c) the
2
plane 𝑧𝑧 = 26 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

5
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Solution:
𝜋𝜋⁄ 𝜋𝜋⁄ 𝑄𝑄 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 7.5 × 10−6 𝐶𝐶 = 7.5 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
(a) 𝜓𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 2
∫0 2
𝑟𝑟
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
(b) 𝜓𝜓 = 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 60 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
(c) 𝜓𝜓 = half flux (since z=26 cm plane covers the entire upper hemisphere flux)=
𝑄𝑄
= 30𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
2

6
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Example: Given the electric flux density 𝐷𝐷 = 0.3𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟̂ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛/𝑚𝑚2 in free space. Find (a)
𝐸𝐸 at point 𝑃𝑃 𝑟𝑟 = 2, 𝜃𝜃 = 25𝑜𝑜 , ∅ = 90𝑜𝑜 , (b)the total charge within the sphere 𝑟𝑟 =
3, (c) the total electric flux leaving the sphere 𝑟𝑟 = 4.

7
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Solution:
𝐷𝐷 1.2×10−9 𝑟𝑟̂
(a) 𝐷𝐷 = 𝜀𝜀0 𝐸𝐸; 𝐸𝐸 = = = 135.59𝑟𝑟̂ V/m
𝜀𝜀0 8.85×10−12

(b)𝐷𝐷(at r=3)=0.3x9𝑟𝑟=2.7
̂ 𝑟𝑟̂ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛/𝑚𝑚2
2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝜓𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2.7 × 10−9 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠=305.2 nC
2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
(c) 𝜓𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.3 × 16 × 10−9 ∫0 ∫0 16𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 964.6 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

8
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to a point charge:
• Suppose that a point charge 𝑄𝑄 is located at the origin.
• To determine the flux density 𝐷𝐷 at a point 𝑃𝑃, it is seen that choosing a spherical
surface containing 𝑃𝑃 will satisfy symmetry conditions. Thus a spherical surface
centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface in this case, as shown below.
• Applying Gauss’s law, with a spherical surface as the Gaussian surface, we have:
  
Q = ∫ D.dS = ∫ Dr rˆ.dS

dS = rˆ rdθ  r sinθdϕ 
π  2π 2 
∴Q = Dr ∫  ∫ r dϕ  sinθdθ = Dr 4πr 2
0  0 


∴D = rˆ Q
4πr 2
   Q
D = ε o E ⇒ E = rˆ
4ε oπr 2 9
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to a line charge:
• Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 C/m lies along the 𝑧𝑧-axis.
• To determine 𝐷𝐷 at a point 𝑃𝑃 a distance 𝜌𝜌 from the line, we choose a cylindrical surface
containing 𝑃𝑃 to satisfy symmetry conditions as shown in the figure below.
 
Qenc = ρ L = ∫ D.dS
 L
dS = ρˆ  ρdϕdz 
∴Qenc = ρ L = D 2ρπL
L
 ρ  ρ
∴D = ρˆ L ⇒ E = ρˆ L
2πρ 2πεo ρ

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 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to a an infinite sheet of
charge:
• Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge with
charge density 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 C/m2 lying on the 𝑧𝑧 = 0(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) plane.
• To determine 𝐷𝐷 at point 𝑃𝑃, we choose a rectangular z
box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of charge
and has two of its sides parallel to the sheet as Infinite sheet of
shown in the fig. charge, ρs C/m2

• As 𝐷𝐷 is normal to the sheet, applying Gauss’s law: 


D = zˆDz D
    P y
∫ D.dS = Q = Dz  ∫ dS + ∫ dS 
top bottom 

• Note that 𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝐷𝐷𝑦𝑦=0.

x Area A
• If the area of the top and bottom of the box is 𝐴𝐴,
then we get: Q = ρ s A = Ψ = Dz ( A + A) = 2 ADz
  Gaussian
 ρ  D ρ D
∴ D = zˆ s ⇒ E = = zˆ s 11
surface
2 ε 2ε
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to a uniformly charged sphere:
• Consider a sphere of radius 𝑎𝑎 with a uniform charge 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 C/m3.
Gaussian
• To determine 𝐷𝐷 everywhere, we construct Gaussian surfaces for cases
r≤a, and r≥a, separately. surface

• Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious that a spherical

surface is an appropriate Gaussian surface. r
• For 𝑟𝑟≤𝑎𝑎, the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius 𝑟𝑟

•
is:
2π π r 2
Qenc = ∫ ρvdv = ρv ∫ ∫ ∫ r sinθdrdθdφ
a
φ =0θ =0 r =0 r≤a
4 π r 3
Qenc = ρv
3
  2π π
Ψ = ∫ D.dS = Dr ∫ ∫ r 2 sinθdθdφ = Dr  4πr 2 
φ =0θ =0  
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 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to a uniformly charged sphere (cont.):
• Thus we have:
Gaussian
2 4π r 3
Ψ = Qenc ⇒ 4πr Dr = ρ surface
3 v
 rρ a
∴D = rˆ v , 0 ≤ r ≤ a
3
• For 𝑟𝑟≥𝑎𝑎, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is the
entire charge in this case, that is:
2π π a 2
r
3
Qenc = ∫ ρvdv = ρv ∫ ∫ ∫ r sinθdrdθdφ = 4πa ρv
φ =0θ =0 r =0 3 r≥a
  
=> Ψ = ∫ D.dS =  4πr 2 Dr
 
3 Combining these results:
4πr 2  Dr = 4πa ρv

 rρv


  3 rˆ
 , r≤a
 a3ρ
 3
v, r≥a D= 3 
⇒ D = rˆ 
a ρv
3r 2 rˆ 

, r≥a 13
3r
 2
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to determine capacitance of concentric
cylinders:
• The radius of the inner conductor is 𝑎𝑎, and the inside radius of the
outer conductor is 𝑏𝑏. Outer
• Assume a charge distribution 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 coulombs per metre on the inner Radius 𝑎𝑎
conductor, and an equal and opposite charge on the outer
conductor. Radius 𝜌𝜌
• At a position radius 𝜌𝜌, between the two cylinders, where 𝑎𝑎 < 𝜌𝜌 < Inner
𝑏𝑏, and 𝐿𝐿 is the (large) length of the line, the electric field, Radius 𝑏𝑏
potential, and capacitance are:
 ρ
E = ρˆ L
2περ
b  b ρ ρ
∴ V = ∫ E.ρˆ dρ = ∫ L dρ = L ln (b a )
a a 2 περ 2πε
Q ρL L 2πεL
∴ Capaci tan ce, C = = =
V ρL ln (b a ) ln (b a )
2πε
C 2πε
Capaci tan ce per unit length, Cl = = 14
L ln (b a )
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Example: Consider a coaxial cable of 50 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 length with inner radius of 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and
outer radius of 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. The space between conductors is assumed to be filled with
air. The total charge on the inner conductor is 30 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. Determine the surface charge
density 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 on each conductor, and the 𝐸𝐸 and 𝐷𝐷 fields.

15
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Solution
30×10−9 ×10−6
𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 2π𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎; 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = 9.55 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
2×3.14×1×10−3 ×50×10−2
−30×10−9 ×10−6 2
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = −2.39 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ⁄ 𝑚𝑚
2×3.14×4×10−3 ×50×10−2
For (𝝆𝝆<1 mm):
E =0; D=0
For (1 mm<𝝆𝝆<4 mm):
𝑄𝑄 9.55 𝐷𝐷 1079
∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄 ; 𝐷𝐷2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑄𝑄; 𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌� = 𝜌𝜌� 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 ; 𝐸𝐸 = = 𝜌𝜌� V/m
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜌𝜌 𝜀𝜀0 𝜌𝜌
For 𝝆𝝆 > 𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎:
E =0; D=0

16
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to calculate capacitance due to parallel
conductors
• Consider a long parallel pair of wires of negligible cross section,
where the wires have equal but opposite charges distributed z

along their length.

dz y
• Assume that a linear charge density ρL coulombs per meter is H
dz

distributed along wire 𝑎𝑎 and –ρL coulombs per meter is r1 r2

P
distributed along wire 𝑏𝑏. Z ra
rb
• The expression for potential 𝑉𝑉 at a distance 𝑟𝑟 for a single x

conductor is:
d

1 1 1 ρL H

V(r ) = ∫ dq = ∫ dl (line distribution )

4πεo L r 4πεo L r
• For the pair of conductors, 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏, the potential at point 𝑃𝑃 thus a b
becomes (noting that 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎 and 𝑟𝑟𝑏𝑏 are lengths on the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 plane, A pair of parallel line charges, a and b
and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is a height 𝑧𝑧 above the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 plane:
1 H  ρ ρ  ρ H  1 1 
V= ∫ L − L dz =
L ∫  − dz

4πεo −H  1 r r  2πε o r r  r = ra2 + z 2 , r = r 2 + z 2
 2 0  1 2 1 2 b
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 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Application of Gauss’s law to calculate capacitance due to parallel conductors (cont.)

  
H

ρL H   ρL  z + 2 2
ra + z 
∴V = 1 − 1 dz = ln  
2πε o ∫  2πε o 
ra2 + z 2 r2 + z2 r2 + z2 

0   z+
 b   b 0

• For long wire, 𝑧𝑧 approaches infinity, the 𝐻𝐻»𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎, and 𝐻𝐻»𝑟𝑟𝑏𝑏. Then the expression for the potential
becomes:
 
H
ρ 2 2 ρ  2H
L ln  z +
ra + z 
 
L ln ra 
V z→∞ = ≈ − ln
2πε o   2πε o  2H r 
r 2 + z 2 
z+  b
b
 0
ρ r  ρ r 
V z→∞ = − L ln a  = L ln b 
2πε o  rb  2πεo  ra 
 

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 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Example: A point charge of 0.25 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 is located at 𝑟𝑟 = 0, and uniform
surface charge densities are located as follows: 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 at 𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,
and −0.6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 at 𝑟𝑟 = 1.8 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. Calculate 𝐷𝐷 at (a) 𝑟𝑟 = 0.5 cm, (b)
𝑟𝑟 = 1.5 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚, (c) 𝑟𝑟 = 2.5 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚, (d) What uniform surface charge density
should be established at 𝑟𝑟 = 3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 to cause 𝐷𝐷 = 0 at 𝑟𝑟 = 3.5 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚.

19
 Gauss’s law (cont.)
Solution:
(a) ∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄; 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 × 0.5 × 0.5 × 10−4 = 0.25 × 10−6 ;
𝐷𝐷 =796 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
(b) Charge due to (2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) = 4 × 3.14 × 1 × 10−4 × 2 × 10−3 = 2.512 × 10−6 𝐶𝐶
Total enclosed charge=(0.25 + 2.512) × 10−6 𝐶𝐶
∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄; 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 × 1.5 × 1.5 × 10−4 = (0.25 + 2.512) × 10−6 ; 𝐷𝐷 =977.3 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
(c) Charge due to (-0.6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 ) = −4 × 3.14 × 1.8 × 1.8 × 10−4 × 0.6 × 10−3 =
− 2.44 × 10−6 𝐶𝐶
Total enclosed charge=(0.25 + 2.512 − 2.44) × 10−6 𝐶𝐶
∫ 𝐷𝐷. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄; 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 × 2.5 × 2.5 × 10−4 = (0.25 + 2.512 − 2.44) × 10−6 ; 𝐷𝐷 = 41 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟
𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝑚𝑚2
(d) 0.25 + 2.512 − 2.44 + 𝑄𝑄 = 0; 𝑄𝑄 = -0.322 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 ;
𝑄𝑄 −0.322
𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 = = ⁄ 2
−4 = -28.3 𝜇𝜇𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 4×3.14×3×3×10

20
 References
[1] M.N. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-510368-8
[2] William H. Hayt, John A. Buck: Engineering Electromagnetics,
McGraw-Hill.
[3] N.N. Rao: Elements of Engineering Electromagnetics, Prectice-Hall,
1991.

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