Chapter 3

Electrostatics

Electrostatics: source charges are stationary

3.1 The electric field

Coulomb’s law The force on the test charge Q (position r ) due to the source charge q (position r ′ ) -both assumed point-like
1 qQ
F = (r − r ′ ) (3.1)
4πǫ0 |r − r |3
The electric field is defined mathematically as the force per unit of charge
1 q
E (r ) = (r − r ′ ) (3.2)
4πǫ0 |r − r |3

It is defined for any r , it depends on the characteristics (position, charges) of the source charge, but not on the test charge. The
electric field is a physical system, filling the space around any charge q, and acting on a test charge Q with the force

F = QE (3.3)
′
The electric field generated in the point r , by a point-like charge q whose coordinate vector is r is
1 q
E (r ) = (r − r ′ ) (3.4)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |3
If more than one charge is present, one applies the principle of superposition; the total electric field is the sum of the fields
generated by each charge; the total force on a test charge is the sum of forces due to each system charges. For a system of N
charges qi , with the position vectors ri
1 X qi 1 X qi
E (r ) = (r − ri ), F =Q (r − ri ) (3.5)
4πǫ0 i |r − ri |3 4πǫ0 i |r − ri |3

If the charge distribution is continuous, then the sum is replaced by an integral.

X Z
→ dq, (3.6)
qi

here dq is the element of charge, which should be expressed in terms of charge density
′
)
• dq = ρ(r ′ )dτ ′ (volume density), E (r ) = 4πǫ
1
dτ ′ |rρ(r (r − r ′ )
R
0 −r ′ |3
V
′
)
′ ′ 1
da′ |rσ(r (r − r ′ )
R
• dq = σ(r )da (surface density), E (r ) = 4πǫ0 −r ′ |3
S
′
)
′ ′ 1
dl ′ |rλ(r (r − r ′ )
R
• dq = λ(r )dl (line density), E (r ) = 4πǫ0 −r ′ |3
Γ

3-1
 The density of a (system of) point like charges can be written as (3D case)
X
ρ(r ) = qi δ(r − ri ) (3.7)
i

and analogously in 2D or 1D cases.

3.2 The Gauss law; the circulation of the electric field

Consider a point like charge in the origin of the reference frame and a surface S. The flux of E through the element da of S is
q 1 q 1 q 1
dΦ = E · da = r · da = cos ∠(r , n)da = n · r̂ da (3.8)
4πǫ0 r 3 4πǫ0 r 2 4πǫ0 r 2
The element of solid angle is defined as
da⊥ 1
dΩ = = 2 n · r̂ da (3.9)
r2 r
If the surface S is closed and the charge is outside then the contributions of the opposite sides compensates and the total flux
through the surface is 0. If the charge is inside the total flux depends only on the charge
I
q q
Φ = E · a = 4π = (3.10)
4πǫ0 ǫ0
S

The result does not depend on the shape of S. For several charges we get
I X qi qtot
E · da = = (3.11)
i
ǫ 0 ǫ0

For a volume distribution

I Z
ρ(r )
E · da = dτ (3.12)
ǫ0
V

To summarize, the integral form of the Gauss law is

I
Qtot
E · da = (3.13)
ǫ0
S

where Qtot is the total charge inside the volume enclosed by S. On the other hand, from (1.61)
I Z
E · da = dτ ∇ · E (3.14)
V

and by comparing the (3.12) with (3.14) we get the differential form of Gauss law

ρ(r )
∇·E = (3.15)
ǫ0
Using the identity

1 r − r′
∇ ′
=− (3.16)
|r − r | |r − r ′ |3

and using the expression of the electric field of a point-like charge q, in the point r ′ ,

q r − r′
E (r ) = (3.17)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |3

3-2
one can write
q 1
E (r ) = −∇ (3.18)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
Then
∇ × E = 0, (3.19)
and the integral of E on any closed curve vanishes
I
E (r ) · dl = 0 (3.20)
Γ

A continuous distribution can be seen as the superposition of many infinitesimal discrete charges, so the argument should hold.
On the other hand one calculate directly the curl of E defined as
ρ(r ′ )
Z
1
E (r ) = dτ ′ (r − r ′ ) (3.21)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |3
V

and the the same result: the circulation of the static electric field is zero.

3.3 The potential of the electric field

Because ∇ × E = 0 the E could be written as the gradient of a scalar field (see the mathematical appendix). One defines the
potential of the static electric field
ZO
Φ(r ) = dl ′ · E (r ′ ) (3.22)
r

The reference point O is arbitrary (often at ∞). Changing the reference adds a constant to the potential. The potential obeys the
superposition principle.
In the case of a point-like charge in the origin
q 1
Φ(r ) = (3.23)
4πǫ0 r
A localized charge distribution ρ is a superposition of infinitesimal charges, so
ρ(r ′ )
Z
1
Φ(r ) = dτ ′ (3.24)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
In the case of a charged surface with the density σ the potential is written as
σ(r ′ )
Z
1
Φ(r ) = da′ (3.25)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
and for a line distribution with the density λ
λ(r ′ )
Z
1
Φ(r ) = dl ′ (3.26)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
Equivalent result from the Helmholtz theorem (see Sect. 1.6)
∇ · E (r ′ ) ρ(r ′ )
Z Z
1 1
E (r ) = −∇ dτ ′ ′
= −∇ dτ ′ (3.27)
4π |r − r | 4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
The units of potential:
[Φ] = [E ][l] = NM/C = J/C = V (volt) (3.28)
The potential is the solution of the Poisson equation
ρ(r )
∆Φ(r ) = − (3.29)
ǫ0
In a region in space where the charge density is zero the Poisson equation reduces to the Laplace equation
∆Φ(r ) = 0 (3.30)

3-3
3.4 Work and energy of the electrostatic field
The work to move a test charge Q from a to b is

W = Q[Φ(b) − Φ(a)] (3.31)

(conservative force: the work depends only on the end points) The potential difference between points a and b is equal to the work
per unit charge required to carry a particle from a to b. In particular, if you want to bring Q in from far away and stick it at point
r , the work you must do is

W = Q[Φ(r ) − Φ(∞)] = QΦ(r ) (3.32)

(we assume the reference point Φ = 0 is at infinity.)

The energy of a point-like charge distribution (N charges qi in ri ) is derived from the previous formula, considering the case
when one brings the charges one by one from far away.
1X 1 1 X qi qj 1X
W = qi Φ(ri ) = = qi Φ(ri )) (3.33)
2 i 4πǫ0 2 |ri − rj | 2 i
i,j,i6=j

where Φ(ri ) is the potential created in ri by all the charges except for qi . The energy of a continuous distribution

ρ(r )ρ(r ′ )
Z Z Z
1 1 1
W = dτ ρ(r )Φ(r ) = dτ dτ ′ (3.34)
2 2 4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
Can be written in the equivalent form
Z Z Z
1 1 ǫ0
W = dτ ǫ0 ∇ · E (r )Φ(r ) = − dτ ǫ0 E (r ) · ∇Φ(r ) = dτ E 2 (r ) (3.35)
2 2 2
To obtain the last form we have used an integration by parts and assumed that the electric field vanishes at infinity. The quantity
Z
ǫ0
w (r ) = dτ E 2 (r ) (3.36)
2
is the energy density of the electrostatic field.
NB: there is an important difference between the continuum and discrete case. The expression (3.35) is positive while (3.33)
could be positive or negative; the reason is that in fact the two are different, in the discrete case the energy “of interaction of a
charge with itself”, which would be divergent, is excluded from the sum, while in the continuum case, such an separation is not
made.

3.5 Basic Properties of conductors

In an insulator, each electron is “fixed”, attached to a particular atom. In a metallic conductor, by contrast, “many” electrons
are free to move. A perfect conductor would contain an unlimited supply of free charges. The basic properties of the ideal conductor
are:
• E = 0 inside a conductor. If one puts a conductor in an electric field the charges move to create another electric field opposite
to the external one. The motion stops when the total field is zero.
• the charge density ρ vanishes inside the conductor, because ρ = ∇ · E .
• The charges accumulate on the surface only.
Rb
• A conductor is equipotential. The potential difference between any point a and b can be written as Φ(a)−Φ(b) = − dl ·E =
a
0 because E = 0.
• E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a conductor; otherwise the charges would move to compensate the field.

3-4
3.6 Solutions of the Laplace/Poisson equations
If a localized charge distribution ρ(r ) is known, then the potential is
ρ(r ′ )
Z
1
Φ(r ) = dτ ′ (3.37)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
The problem could be more complicated: besides the known charge distribution, there could be other charges, unknown, producing
given fields/potentials on a certain surface. We say we have a boundary value problem, which we solve using the Green function
method.
Solve the equation
ρ(r )
∆Φ(r ) = − (3.38)
ǫ0
Solution is not unique; determined up to an arbitrary solution of the homogeneous equation. Supplementary boundary conditions
are required.
Derivation of the Green theorem Consider a volume V with the boundary S and two scalar fields, φ(r ), ψ(r ). Define the vector
field A(r ) = φ(r )∇ψ(r ). Using the Gauss theorem we get
Z I
dτ ′ ∇′ A(r ′ ) = da ′ · A(r ′ ) (3.39)
V S
Z h i I
′
dτ ∇ φ(r ) · ∇′ ψ(r ′ ) + φ(r ′ )∇′2 ψ(r ′ ) = da′ φ(r ′ )∂n ψ(r ′ )
′ ′
(3.40)
V S

write the same equation with φ ↔ ψ and take the difference.

Z h i I
dτ ′ φ(r ′ )∇′2 ψ(r ′ ) − ψ(r ′ )∇′2 φ(r ′ ) = da′ φ(r ′ )∂n ψ(r ′ ) − ψ(r ′ )∂n φ(r ′ )
 
(3.41)
V S

and obtain the Green theorem. For

1
ψ(r ′ ) = , φ(r ′ ) = Φ(r ′ ) (3.42)
|r − r ′ |
using
1 ρ(r ′ )
∆′ = −4πδ(r − r ′ ), ∆′ Φ(r ′ ) = − (3.43)
|r − r ′ | ǫ0
we get
ρ(r ′ )
Z I  
1 1 1 1
Φ(r ) = dτ ′ − da ′ · Φ(r ′ )∂n − ∂ n Φ(r ′
) (3.44)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ | 4π |r − r ′ | |r − r ′ |
V S

Notes:
• The derivation above is valid if the observation point r is inside of the volume V
• in the particular case V → R3 the integral over the surface at infinity vanishes (assume the potential vanishes fast enough at
infinity; eg for a localized charge distribution) and we are left with the known formula
ρ(r ′ )
Z
1
Φ(r ) = dτ ′ (3.45)
4πǫ0 |r − r ′ |
V

• if the charge density is zero inside the volume V the the potential is determined only the boundary conditions
I  
1 1 1
Φ(r ) = − da′ · Φ(r ′ )∂n − ∂ n Φ(r ′
) (3.46)
4π |r − r ′ | |r − r ′ |
S

According to (3.55) the potential is uniquely determined by the charge distribution inside a volume V, and its value and the
values of its derivative at the boundary of V.

3-5
Uniqueness of the solutions
• if Φ is given at the boundary we have Dirichlet boundary conditions;
• if ∂n Φ is given at the boundary we have Neumann boundary conditions.
The potential Φ(r ) is uniquely determined by giving Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions. Knowing both of them is redundant;
it is enough to know only one of them.
Proof of the uniqueness: assume we have two distinct solutions Φ1 , Φ2 , obeying the same differential equation and boundary
conditions
ρ
∆Φ1 (r ) = ∆Φ2 (r ) = − , Φ1 (r ) S = Φ2 (r ) S or ∂n Φ1 (r ) S = ∂n Φ2 (r ) S (3.47)
ǫ0
define

u(r ) = Φ1 (r ) − Φ2 (r ), ∆u(r ) = 0, u(r ) S = 0 or ∂n u(r ) S = 0 (3.48)

Write (3.40) for ψ = φ = u

Z
2
dτ ′ ∇′ u(r ′ ) = 0

(3.49)
V

i.e.

∇u(r ) = 0, ∀r ∈ V (3.50)

i.e. u(r ) = φ1 (r ) − φ2 (r ) = const. For Dirichlet boundary conditions φ1 and φ2 are identical. For Neumann boundary conditions
they differ by at most an irrelevant constant. The solution of the Poisson/Laplace equation is fixed uniquely either by Dirichlet or
Neumann conditions. If both are given the problem is overdetermined, because the depend on each other.

Green function
If only Neumann or Dirichlet conditions are provided the solution of Eq. (3.55) is not directly useful. The approach would be to
1 ′
replace the function |r −r ′ | by another one G(r , r ), obeying

∆G(r , r ′ ) = −4πδ(r − r ′ ), G(r , r ′ ) = G(r ′ , r ) (3.51)

Z I
1 1
dτ ′ ρ(r ′ )G(r , r ′ ) − da′ · Φ(r ′ )∂n G(r , r ′ ) − G(r , r ′ )∂n Φ(r ′ )
 
Φ(r ) = (3.52)
4πǫ0 4π
V S

′
Impose on G(r , r ) one of the following:
• if the original problem has Dirichlet boundary condition G(r , r ′ ) S = 0. The solution would be
Z I
1 1
dτ ′ ρ(r ′ )G(r , r ′ ) − da′ · Φ(r ′ )∂n G(r , r ′ )
 
Φ(r ) = (3.53)
4πǫ0 4π
V S

• if the original problem has Neumann boundary conditions ∂n G(r , r ′ ) S = − 4π

S
. Note that the choice ∂n G(r , r ′ ) S = 0 would
be wrong because
Z Z
da∂n G(r , r ) = ∆G(r , r ′ ) = −4π
′
(3.54)
S V

The solution would be

Z I
1 1
dτ ′ ρ(r ′ )G(r , r ′ ) + da′ · G(r , r ′ )∂n Φ(r ′ )
 
Φ(r ) = hΦiS + (3.55)
4πǫ0 4π
V S

where hΦiS is the average of S on the boundary, a constant.

3-6
 G(r , r ′ ) is the Green function of the Laplace equation. It can be written as
1
G(r , r ′ ) = + F (r , r ′ ) (3.56)
|r − r ′ |
The function F must be a solution of the Laplace equation, which is uniquely determined by the boundary conditions on G.
It describes the potential inside the volume V, if a charge was distributed outside the volume, such that, together with the
term 1/|r − r ′ | in the total Green function the required boundary conditions to be realized. Instead of directly calculating the
Green function we could just find an external fictitious charge such that the boundary conditions to be obeyed (the method
if images)

3.7 Boundary conditions

Consider a surface which separates two domains, which could carry a the charge distribution σ and a closed small surface S
crossing the surface, with two faces very close and parallel to the surface. The Gauss law
I
Q Aσ
da · E (r ) = = (3.57)
ǫ0 ǫ0
S

If the closed surface S is like a thin sandwich with the charge distribution in the middle, then the flux is due to the plane surfaces,
i.e.
above below σ
E⊥ − E⊥ = (3.58)
ǫ0
The normal component of E is discontinuous by an amount ǫσ0 at any boundary. On the other hand, the tangential component of
E , by contrast, is always continuous because if we take a small rectangular loop Γ crossing the surface, with two sides of length l
parallel to the surface above and below it,
I
dl · E = l(Ekabove − Ekbelow ) = 0 (3.59)
Γ

i.e. Ekabove − Ekbelow = 0 . Compact notations

σ
E above − E below = n (3.60)
ǫ0
Rb
The potential is always continuous across any boundary, because Φ(a) − Φ(b) = dl · E → 0 if a − b → 0.
a
∇Φ above − ∇Φ below = σ
ǫ0
n or ∂n Φ above − ∂n Φ below = − ǫσ0 Another equivalent form
σ
n × (E above − E above ) = 0, n · (E above − E above ) = (3.61)
ǫ0
Note that a more general form will be given in the case of electric fields in matter.

3.8 Conservation of the electric charge; continuity equation

Consider a system inside a domain D, of volume V and boundary surface S. The total charge inside of the domain is Q(D). If
the system is isolated the total charge is constant. If the system changes charge with the external medium then
dQ(D)
= −I(S) (3.62)
dt
The charge and current densities are defined as
Z I Z
Q(t) = dτ ρ(r , t), I(t) = da · j (r , t) = dτ ∇ · j (r , t) (3.63)
V S V

The local (differential) form of the charge conservation theorem

∂ρ(r , t)
+ ∇ · j (r , t) = 0 (3.64)
∂t

3-7
List of topics
1. The electric field of a static charge distribution; the flux and circulation of the electric field.
2. The potential of the electric field; electrostatic potential energy and energy density.
3. Solutions of the Laplace/Poisson equations
4. Boundary conditions
5. Conservation of the electric charge; continuity equation

3.9 Bibliography
[1] C. Vrejoiu, Electrodinamica si teoria relativitatii, Editura didactica si pedagogica, Bucuresti,1993, Cap. 1
[2] D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4-th ed., Pearson, 2013 Cap. 2
[3] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley; 3rd edition (August 10, 1998). Cap. 1

3-8