[WEEK 1] ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB'S LAW

ELECTRIC CHARGE
• We can trace all electrical effects to electrons and protons
inside every atom.
o This is because these particles have a property called
electric charge.
• The electrons are negative and surround a dense, positive
nucleus.
• Positive protons and neutrons reside in this nucleus
• Neutrons are neutral and do not participate in electrostatic
interactions

• Just like mass, the charge is a fundamental property of

subatomic particles.
• The smallest amount of charge is called the elementary
charge, indicated universally by the symbol e.
• The elementary charge has a magnitude of:

UNIT C
• stands for coulomb, named after French physicist Charles
Agustin Coulomb.
• An atom normally contains the same number of electrons
and protons CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR
o So, the overall negative charge is just balanced by the
overall positive charge. CONDUCTORS
▪ The resulting charge is zero, and thus, the atom is • In certain materials such as aluminum, copper, and other
neutral. metals the outermost or valence electrons are free to move
• And just like mass, the charge is conserved. around the entire material.
o This means that charges are neither created nor o Such materials are classified as conductors.
destroyed.
o There is the same amount of charge in the universe
now as there has always been.

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 NOTES: WEEK 1

INSULATORS BY TOUCHING
• In other materials, such as glass and wood • When a charged object comes into contact with another
o the electrons are more tightly bound to the atom that object, electrons are transferred
they do not easily move around. o thereby charging the second object.

• Imagine you have an uncharged metal sphere from an

insulated stand.
NOTE:
o We bring a negatively charged rubber rod to the ball,
• Good conductors are poor insulators and by simply touching it,
• poor conductors are good insulators. ▪ electrons from the rod transfer to the ball.
• Most metals are conductors while most nonmetals are o Now the ball and the rod are both negatively charged
insulators. so they repel each other.
▪ This is also called charging by conduction.
BY INDUCTION
• In this method, there is no actual contact between the
charged object and that which is being charged.
• In this way, the object does not lose its charge to the object
that gets charged in the process.

• In a conductor, the outermost electrons are farther away

from the nucleus than they are more weakly bound to it.
FREE ELECTRONS
• When atoms of a conductor form a bulk material,
o their outer electrons are no longer bound to the atoms
but are free to float over the material.
WHEN ENERGY IS APPLIED TO THESE ELECTRONS,
• they can move in a more organized way, producing an
electric current.
CHARGING
• Free electrons can also be moved from one material to
another in a process
• Removing an electron from an atom creates a positive ion.
• In general, a material can be given a net charge by adding
or removing an electron.
o There are several ways of doing this:
USING FRICTION
• By rubbing things together,
electrons can peel off one material
and remain in the other.
o When you walk, your shoes
lose a little bit of material to the
ground.
▪ Electrons can be
transferred in this way.
• A rubber rod is charged by rubbing
it on a fur cloth.
o In the process, the cloth loses its electrons to the rod
resulting in both the rod and the cloth being charged.
▪ The same happens when you comb your hair.
o In rubbing the wool cloth on a rubber rod, the rod
acquires a negative charge.
o The wool cloth becomes positively charge.

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 NOTES: WEEK 1

COULOMB’S LAW
• After discussing electric charges, we saw that like charges
repel unlike charges attract.
o This suggests the presence of an electrostatic force.
o This force is either a force of attraction between a
positive and a negative charge or a force of repulsion
between two like charges.
• Electrostatic force holds the atom together.
o The positive nucleus attracts the negative electrons
around it
▪ in a similar way that the Earth and the other
planets are held in orbit around the Sun by gravity.
o And this is not where the similarity ends.
• Recall that the force of gravity between two masses ml
and is given by the equation:

o In which G is the gravitational constant and r is the

distance between the centers of the masses.
• The electrostatic force between two charges QI and Q2
is given by a very similar equation. The magnitude of the
electrostatic force Fe is:

• This equation is called Coulomb's Law.

o It tells us that the force in newton (N) between two
charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
NOTE TWO THINGS IN COULOMB'S LAW:
• The absolute value sign means that the result is always
positive.
o This is, after all, the magnitude of the force, so it has to
be positive.
o Then, we see a constant k, this is the electrostatic
constant.
▪ It is related to some fundamental constants of
nature as follow:

• The constant is called the permittivity of free space

and is equal to 8.85 x 10^-12
o The permittivity of a medium is a measure of its ability
to store electric energy.
▪ Substitute the constants needed to get the value
of k, we get approximately value of:

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 NOTES: WEEK 1
DIRECTION OF ELECTROSTATIC
• The calculation we made in Example Problem # 3 does not
tell us in any way whether the force is directed toward the
north, south, west, or east.
o The only way to find out is to sketch the problem out.
• Let us assume that we are given a positive charge Q1 and
a negative charge Q2
o separated by a distance r on a horizontal line.
▪ We already know that the force between them is
attractive.
▪ Also, the attraction is mutual.
• This means that Q1 pulls on Q2, and at the same time, Q2
also pulls on Q1 with the same amount (or magnitude) of
force.
o This implies that there are two forces present.
• Opposite charges attract each other (negative to positive).
Like charges repel each other
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GENERALIZATION
• The charge (magnitude) of an electron and a proton is
called the elementary charge e.
o It is a fundamental constant equal to 1.6 x 10-19 C.
o It is a conserved quantity.
• Conductors are materials with free electrons that can carry
electrical energy.
o The material can be charged by transferring charge
carriers from one object to another.
▪ This can be achieved either by rubbing, by
conduction, or by induction.
• Coulomb's law describes the force between two-point
charges.
o It states that the electrostatic force between two
charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
• The electrostatic force may be attractive (between unlike
charges) or repulsive (between like charges In symbols,
Coulomb's law is:
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 [WEEK 2] SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

• Coulomb's law describes the interaction of two-point
charges.
• If there are more than two charges,
o the force exerted on one charge as a result of all the
other charges must be calculated.
• Coulomb's law alone does not provide the solution.
• The principle of superposition explains how multiple
charges interact with one another.
ACCORDING TO THIS SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
• the total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector
sum of forces exerted on it by all the other charges

• The development of electric circuits is perhaps one of the

most useful yet taken-for-granted achievements of the
recent centuries.
• The flow of charge through wires enables us to cook our
food, light our homes, air-condition our work and living
spaces, watch movies and listen to music, and even drive
safely to work or school.
• We will investigate why charge flows through wires in
electric circuits, as well as the variables that influence the
rate at which it flows.
• The method by which moving charge delivers electrical
energy to appliances in order for them to operate will be
thoroughly discussed.
ELECTRIC FIELD
• is a vector quantity whose direction is defined as the
direction that a positive test charge would be pushed when
placed in the field.
• Thus, the electric field direction about a positive source
charge is always directed away from the positive source.
• And the electric field direction about a negative source
charge is always directed toward the negative source.
REPRESENTING ELECTRIC FIELDS
• The strength and direction of an electric field at a point can
be represented.
• Making use of electric field lines.
• This is analogous to using magnetic field lines to represent
magnetic fields around magnets

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 NOTES: WEEK 2
POSITIVE CHARGE ACTING ON A TEST CHARGE
• Coulomb's law governs the magnitude of the force
experienced by a test charge as a result of another charge.
• In the diagram below, we calculate the force that:
o a positive test charge, +q, would experience at each
point around the positive charge, +Q, and represent
this force (a vector) with an arrow.
• The force vectors for some points around +Q are depicted
in the diagram, as is the positive test charge +q (in red)
located at one of the points.
NEGATIVE CHARGE ACTING ON A TEST CHARGE
• For a negative charge, −Q, and a positive test charge, +q,
the force vectors would look like:
• It is worth noting that it is nearly identical to the positive
charge case.
o Because the absolute magnitude of the charge and the
magnitude of the test charge are the same, the arrows
are the same lengths as in the previous diagram.
o As a result, the magnitude of the force is the same at
all points in space.
▪ The arrows, however, point in the opposite
direction because the charges now have opposite
signs and are attracted to each other.
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ELECTRIC FIELDS AROUND ISOLATED CHARGES
• To make things easier, we draw continuous lines that are
tangential to the force experienced by a test charge at each
point.
• Where the field is stronger, the field lines are closer
together.
• Look at the diagram below: the field lines are close together
near the central charges.
o The electric field is strongest here.
• The field lines are more spread out from each other as one
moves away from the central charges, where the electric
field is weaker.
NOTE:
• Arrows on the field lines indicate the field's direction,
o ie. the direction a positive test charge would move if
placed in the field.
• Electric field lines point away from positive charges and
toward negative charges (like charges repel) (unlike
charges attract).
• Where the field is stronger, field lines are drawn closer
together.
• Field lines do not intersect or touch.
• Field lines are drawn perpendicular to a charged surface or
charge.
• The stronger the electric field, the greater the magnitude of
the charge.
o This is represented by drawing more field lines around
the larger charge than around the smaller charge.
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Every point in space that contains a charge has an electric
field.
• Field lines are only a representation; they do not exist in
reality.
o When we draw them, we simply choose convenient
locations in space to represent the field.
• Field lines exist in three dimensions, not just two, as we've
drawn them.
• The number of field lines that pass through a surface is
proportional to the charge contained within it
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 NOTES: WEEK 2

ELECTRIC FIELDS AROUND DIFFERENT CHARGE ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO LIKE CHARGES
CONFIGURATIONS (BOTH POSITIVE)
• We've seen what the electric fields look like around isolated • Things look a little different in the case of two positive
positive and negative charges. Now we will study what the charges of the same magnitude, Q1 and Q2.
electric fields look like around combinations of charges • We can't just turn the arrows around like we used to.
placed close together. • In this case, both charges repel the positive test charge.
ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO UNLIKE CHARGES • In isolation, the electric fields around each charge look like
• We'll begin by examining the electric field created by a this
positive and negative charge placed next to each other.
• We will sketch the electric field one step at a time using the
rules for drawing electric field lines.
• The sum of the fields from each charge yields the net
resulting field.
• To begin, draw the electric fields for each of the charges
separately.

• When the charges are placed next to each other, we can

now examine the resulting electric field.
o Let us begin by sandwiching a positive test charge
between the two charges.
• We can calculate the resultant force by drawing the forces
exerted on the test charge as a result of Q1Q1 and Q2Q2.

• A positive test charge (red dots) placed in different positions

• The force F1 (in orange) exerted on the test charge (red
directly between the two charges would be pushed away
dot) by the charge Q1 is equal in magnitude
from the positive charge (orange force arrows) and pulled
o but opposite in direction to the force F2 (in blue)
towards the negative charge (blue force arrows) in a straight
exerted on the test charge by Q2.
line.
• As a result, they cancel each other out, and no resultant
• For clarity, the orange and blue force arrows have been
force exists.
drawn slightly offset from the dots. In reality, they'd be piled
o This means that in the middle, the electric field directly
on top of each other.
between the charges cancels out.
TAKE NOTE: o A test charge placed at this point would not be
• farther you are from the positive charge, the smaller the subjected to any force.
repulsive force, F+ (shorter orange arrows),
• the closer you are to the negative charge, the greater the
attractive force, F. (longer blue arrows).
• The resulting forces are depicted by red arrows.
• The electric field line is the black line that is tangential to the
resultant forces and is a straight line connecting the positive
and negative charges.

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 NOTES: WEEK 2

ELECTRIC FIELD AROUND TWO LIKE CHARGES
(BOTH NEGATIVE)
• We can take advantage of the fact that the direction of the
force is reversed for a test charge if the sign of the charge
influencing it is changed.
• When we switch to a case where both charges are negative,
we get the following result:
• From this, we can define the electric field as the force per
unit charge placed within that field:
• So given two charges in space, Q sets up an electric field E
around it.
• Then, we place a small charge q within this field, which
experiences a force Fe due to Q.
o We can write the force using Coulomb's law:

• Substituting this to the definition of the electric field, we get:

• When the magnitudes are not equal, the larger charge has
a greater influence on the direction of the field lines than
when they are equal.
o Here's an example of a configuration in which the
positive charge is significantly greater than the
negative charge.
o As can be seen, the field lines resemble those of an
isolated charge
▪ which produces a stronger field and thus
contributes a greater relative contribution to the
force on a test charge than the smaller charge
• This will cancel the q, which makes sense because the
electric field of Q does not depend on any charge placed in
its field. Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field is
given by the equation:
• From the definition of the electric field (force per unit
charge), we get its units: newton per coulomb (N/ C).
o In this equation, remember to use the absolute value
of charge so the answer is positive all the time.
TAKE NOTE OF THE FOLLOWING TERMS:
• E= electric field strength (N/C)
• Q= charge producing the fields (C)
• r = distance between charges (m)
• Fe= electric force (N)
• K= coulomb constant, 9x10^9 Nm^2 /C^2

• A small test charge q placed near a charge Q will be

subjected to a force as a result of the electric field that
surrounds Q.
• Coulomb's law describes the magnitude of the force, which
is dependent on the magnitude of the charge Q and the
distance of the test charge from Q.
o The greater the force experienced by the test charge
q, the closer it is to the charge Q.
o Furthermore, the stronger the electric field is at points
closer to the charge Q.
▪ The electric field at a point is defined as the force
per unit charge.
• Electric fields are similar to gravitational fields- both involve
action-at-a-distance forces.
o In the case of gravitational fields, the source of the field
is a massive object, and the action-at-a-distance forces
are exerted upon masses.
• The magnitude of the gravitational force on the mass is
directly proportional to the gravitational field.
o It is the same with electric fields and forces. The
magnitude of the electrostatic force Fe is proportional
to the magnitude of the electric field E.

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NOTES: WEEK 2

GENERALIZATION

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 [WEEK 3] ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS'S LAW

• Last week you have learned about electric charge, you did
know that same charges repel and opposite charges attract,
o some materials were also classified as being insulator
and conductor.
• More so, you also calculated the net electric force on a point
charge exerted by a system of point charges and had a
surface definition on electric field.
• This week, we will discuss how is electric field being
measured, how distance affect the electric potential and its
relationship with work, and some calculations that might be
used in real life scenarios.
• We all know that electric fields are important in many areas
of physics and are exploited practically in electrical
technology.
IN ATOMIC PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY,
• the electric field is used to model the attractive force holding
the atomic nucleus and electrons together in atoms.
• In addition, electric fields are being measured through
electric flux in a given surface.
o Meaning to say, electric flux is the number of electric
field lines passing through a certain area.

Some examples of electric flux calculations are given

pictorially in Figure 1.

• In electric flux we have discussed electric field lines passing

through an open surface but, as we all know electric field
lines emanate or meet from a source charge or point
charge.
• That source charge can be hypothetically imagined to be
enclosed by a closed surface.
• The relationship now of the electric field lines and electric
charge can be interpreted by Gauss's Law.

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 NOTES: WEEK 3

GAUSS'S LAW
• The law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835 but
was not published until 1867.
• Gauss's law can be used to derive Coulomb's law, and vice
versa.
• Note that since Coulomb's law only applies to stationary
charges, there is no reason to expect Gauss's law to hold
for moving charges based on this derivation alone.
• In fact, Gauss's law does hold for moving charges, and in
this respect Gauss's law is more general than Coulomb's
law.

USING GAUSS'S LAW TO FIND E+ FOR A POINT

CHARGE
• Let's first consider the familiar case of a single point charge.
• To apply Gauss's law, we must first choose the surface,
called a Gaussian surface that will be used in the flux
calculation.
• For a point charge, the electric field lines have a spherical
symmetry (Fig. 2)
o meaning that the magnitude of the electric field
depends only on the distance r from the charge and
that electric field is directed radially, either outward or
inward with respect to the central point.
• A surface that matches this symmetry is a sphere centered
on the charge as sketched in Figure 1.
o Because of the symmetry, the magnitude of E+ is the
same at all points on the sphere, and E is everywhere
perpendicular to the sphere.

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NOTES: WEEK 3

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 [WEEK 4] ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

• An object's electric potential energy is possessed by virtue

of two elements:
o the charge possessed by the object itself
o the relative position of the object with respect to other
electrically charged objects.
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• is determined by the amount of work done in moving the
object from one point to another in the presence of an
electric field.
WHEN AN OBJECT MOVES AGAINST AN ELECTRIC
FIELD,
• it gains energy, which is referred to as electric potential
energy.
THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FOR ANY CHARGE IS
CALCULATED BY:
• dividing the potential energy by the quantity of charge.
WHEN AN ELECTROSTATIC FORCE ACTS BETWEEN
TWO OR MORE CHARGED PARTICLES IN A
PARTICLE SYSTEM
• we can assign the system an electric potential energy (U).
• The electrostatic force does work (W) on the particles
o when the system's configuration changes from an initial
state (I) to a different final state (f).
▪ Then we know that the resulting change U in the
system's potential energy is

• The work done by the electrostatic force, like that of other

conservative forces, is path independent.
• Assume a charged particle in the system moves from point
i to point f while being acted on by an electrostatic force
between it and the rest of the system.
o The work W done by the force on the particle is the
same for all paths between points i and f
▪ as long as the rest of the system remains constant.
• As we have understood fully the electric field lines and its
relationship to charges we are now going to ask ourselves
how to make the charges itself move from one specific point
to another.
• Going back from the lessons in General Physics 1, work is
required to move an object of mass from one point to
another what could be its equivalence in moving a charge?
o It is what we call the electric potential.

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 NOTES: WEEK 4
POSITIVE CHARGES
• "flow" to negative charges along electric field lines.
• A positive charge is analogous to an open faucet,
NEGATIVE CHARGE
• is analogous to an open drain.
• With a flick of the wrist, anyone with a working sink can
create a crude model of an electric dipole in their kitchen or
bathroom.
• Similar analogies exist for wind, heat, and dissolved
substances
o Consider the other things that flow and what causes
them to flow for a moment.
o This is the solution to our next conceptual problem.
o Let's make a chart that compares similar phenomena.
There will always be something that flows and
something that causes the flow.
• In each case, the thing that flows can be described by a:
VECTOR FIELD
• (a quantity with magnitude and direction at any location)
o and the thing that causes the flow by a difference in a
SCALAR FIELD
• (a quantity with magnitude only at any location).
• A difference in electric potential "causes" the "flow" of the
electric field.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL/VOLTAGE
• The difference in potential energy per unit charge between
two points in an electric field
• the amount of work energy needed to move a unit of electric
charge
o from a reference point to the specific point in an electric
field with negligible acceleration of the test charge
▪ to avoid producing kinetic energy or radiation by
test charge.
WHEN A CHARGED PARTICLE MOVES THROUGH AN
ELECTRIC FIELD,
• the field exerts a force on the particle that can cause it to do
work.
o This work can be expressed in terms of electric
potential energy at all times.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
• is proportional to the position of the charged particle in the
electric field
o just as gravitational potential energy is proportional to
the height of a mass above the earth's surface.
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HOW IS ELECTRIC POTENTIAL RELATED TO
WORK?
• Equivalence of electric potential to work, electric field and
electric potential energy.
EXPLANATION:
• Mechanical energy as discussed in Mechanics are forms of
energy
o that are involved in the movement of an object from one
specific point to another
BUT AS CHARGES DO NOT INVOLVE MASS,
• electric fields and charges will be the relevant quantities in
o computing the needed energy in moving a charge from
one point to another and you call that electric potential
energy.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DECREASES AS YOU MOVE
FARTHER FROM A CHARGE DISTRIBUTION.
• First, think about more familiar gravitational potential
energy.
o If you take an object sitting on a table, and do work on
it by lifting it away from the earth,
▪ you increase the gravitational potential energy.
IN THE SAME WAY, AS YOU DO WORK ON A
CHARGE TO MOVE IT CLOSER TO ANOTHER
CHARGE OF THE SAME SIGN,
• you increase the electric potential energy.
o That's because like charges repel each other, so it
takes more and more energy to move the charges
together the closer you get.
▪ Therefore, it is important to remember that electric
potential and electric potential energy are two
different things.
▪ Electric potential is the amount of potential energy
per unit charge.
• We have defined electric potential as electric potential
energy per charge.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
• was defined as the capacity, of an object to do work,
o possessed by the object because of its position in
space.
THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
CHARGED PARTICLE
• depends on a characteristic of itself, and a characteristic of
the point in space at which it finds itself.
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 NOTES: WEEK 4

• We exploit the fact that if you know the electric potential
throughout a region in space
o you can use that knowledge to determine the electric
field in that region of space.
• Our purpose is to help you develop your ability to determine
the electric potential, as a function of position, in the vicinity
of a charge distribution—in particular, in the vicinity of a
continuous charge distribution.
WORK AND POTENTIAL ENERGY
• The ratio of force to charge on the left is called electric field
(E).
• The only thing that is changed is we are dealing with
average values right now.
• The ratio of energy to charge on the right is called electric
potential (V).

KINETIC ENERGY
• is given to a free positive charge q when it is accelerated by
an electric field (Figure 1).
• The process is analogous to an object being accelerated by
a gravitational field
o as if the charge were falling down an electrical hill and
converting its electric potential energy into kinetic
energy, though the sources of the forces are very
different.
• The electric field is the force on a test charge divided by its
charge for every location in space.
o Because it is derived from a force, it is a vector field.
The electric potential is the electric potential energy of
a test charge divided by its charge for every location in
space.
o Because it is derived from an energy, it is a scalar field.
▪ These two fields are related.
• The electric field and electric potential are related by
displacement. Field times displacement is potential...

• or field is potential over displacement if you prefer.

• An electric field is created when there is a difference in

electric potential.
• The electric field is defined as the force per charge acting
on a fictitious test charge at any point in space.
• The effort expended in putting an actual charge in an
electric field
o results in the charge having electric potential energy.
o (This is known as the work-energy theorem.)
▪ The electric potential gives rise to electric potential
energy via the transitive property,
▪ the electric potential is the energy per charge that
an imaginary test charge has at any location in
space via the reflexive property.
DERIVATION OF THE EQUATION

• When work is done against the electric force (F E),

o the electric potential energy (UE) changes.
• Remember that work equals force multiplied by
displacement (d).
o The force symbol has a bar over it to indicate that we
will be using the average value.
▪ This is one of the drawbacks of non-calculus
derivations.

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 NOTES: WEEK 4

GREEN LINES
• are used to represent locations where the electric potential
is constant.
IN TWO DIMENSIONS,
• these are known as equipotential lines
IN THREE DIMENSIONS,
• they are known as equipotential surfaces.
EQUIPOTENTIAL
• is also used as a noun to describe an equipotential line or
surface.
• A point charge's potential is the same anywhere on an
imaginary sphere of radius r surrounding the charge.

• Work is zero if force is perpendicular to motion.

• Force is in the same direction as E, so that motion along an
equipotential must be perpendicular to E.
• More precisely, work is related to the electric field by:

• It is worth noting that in the preceding equation,

o E and F represent the magnitudes of the electric field
strength and force, respectively.
▪ Because neither q, E, or d are zero, cos must be
zero, implying that the angle must be 90°.
• Motion along an equipotential, in other words, is
perpendicular to E.
• The electric field must be perpendicular to the surface of
any conductor, according to one of the rules for static
electric fields and conductors.
• In static situations, this means that a conductor is an
equipotential surface.
• Charges will flow if there is no voltage difference across the
surface of a conductor.
o One application of this fact is that a conductor can be
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE held at zero volts by connecting it to the earth with a
• is the surface that is the locus of all points with the same good conductor-a process known as grounding.
potential. ▪ Grounding can be an effective safety measure.
ON THE EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE, ▪ Grounding the metal case of an electrical
• moving a charge from one point to another requires no appliance, for example, ensures that it is at zero
work. In other words, an equipotential surface is any surface volts relative to the earth.
o that has the same electric potential at every point. SOME POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEALING WITH
ELECTRIC FIELD:
• We can draw pictures to • Electric field lines always extend from a positively charged
represent electric potentials object to a negatively charged object, from a positively
(voltages), just as we did to charged object to infinity, or from infinity to a negatively
illustrate electric fields. charged object
o The two are, of course, • Electric field lines never cross each other.
related, which depicts • Electric field lines are most dense around objects with the
an isolated positive greatest amount of charge.
point charge and its • At locations where electric field lines meet the surface of an
electric field lines. object, the lines are perpendicular to the surface.
• Electric field lines radiate from a positive charge and end on
a negative charge.
BLUE ARROWS
• are used to represent the magnitude and direction of the
electric field,
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 NOTES: WEEK 4

GENERALIZATION
• While electric potential energy has a dependency upon the
charge of the object experiencing the electric field
o electric potential is purely location dependent.
o Electric potential is the potential energy per charge.
• Potential energy was defined as the capacity, of an object
to do work, possessed by the object
o because of its position in space.
• Mathematically we can express electric potential as;

• Equipotential lines are like contour lines on a map which

trace lines of equal altitude.
• In this case the "altitude" is electric potential or voltage.
• Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to the electric
field.
• In three dimensions, the lines form equipotential surfaces.
• Movement along an equipotential surface requires no work
because such movement is always perpendicular to the
electric field.

GELAI 5
 [WEEK 5] CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRIC

CAPACITORS CAPACITANCE
• are one of the most essential electric devices in modern • is a property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors,
times o that is measured by the amount of separated electric
• these are utilized in equipment used for communication, charge that can be stored on it per unit change in
photography, and high-energy accelerators. electrical potential.
• It is a device made up of conductors that are separated by • If we are going to express, it mathematically the formula will
an insulator or a vacuum. be:
• A potential difference exists between the conductors (equal
magnitude with opposite signs).
IN ADDITION TO THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE,
• an electric field forms between the conductors.
• Capacitors store energy in the same way that mechanical
energy is stored in any physical body.
WHEN A BATTERY DRAINS,
• the stored energy is supplied to a circuit. • Capacitors are represented by the symbol:
POLARIZATION
• is produced by the presence of an insulator,
o which aids in charge dispersion inside the material. It
also raises a device's capacitance.
• The most typical capacitor is made up of two parallel
• Capacitors are devices formed from two conductors conducting plates.
separated by an insulator. o These are separated by a distance which is very small
o Examples of insulators are plastic, liquid gel, paper, in contrast with their true dimensions.
mica, ceramic, or even air. PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITORS
▪ These materials are called dielectrics. • The region between them has a uniform field and charges
• Both conductors have an equal magnitude of charges with are distributed uniformly.
opposite signs. • The formula for the capacitance of parallel plate capacitors:
o Thus, the net charge of the device is zero.
o Their ability to store energy makes it useful when it
produces potential differences across the plates.
o They act like rechargeable batteries.
▪ The insulating component of capacitors blocks the
flow of direct current.
• The presence of the electric field found between the plates
is directly proportional to the charge Q present in the
conductors.
o Therefore, the potential difference, V, is also directly
proportional to charge Q.
o The more charges present, the intensity of the electric
field between plates increases, and potential difference
increases. However, the ratio between charge and
potential difference remains the same. This ratio
represents the constant for any capacitor known as the
capacitance.

GELAI 1
 NOTES: WEEK 5

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CAPACITOR

• Because of their structure, capacitors may charge and
discharge.
• Capacitors, which have the ability to charge and discharge,
can also be utilized as a power supply.
o Camera flashes make use of this capacitor
characteristic.
o A high voltage must be applied to it immediately in
order for it to emit bright light.
• Meanwhile, the circuit does not require such a high voltage
to operate the camera.
o Then there is a capacitor structure that provides such
high light emission by immediately discharging the
electric charge stored in the capacitor.
• Aside from the aforementioned purposes, capacitors also
have the ability to maintain a specific voltage level.
• Capacitors can help to reduce voltage pulsation.
• When a high voltage is applied to the parallel circuit,
o the capacitor is charged, and when a low voltage is
applied, it is discharged.
• While most electrical circuits use alternating current, most
electronic circuits use direct current.
• As a result, AC is converted to DC via a rectifier circuit,
however the converted DC is an unstable current with
ripples at this stage.
• To deal with this, a capacitor is employed to rectify the
ripples and maintain a steady voltage.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
• Is a fundamental two-dimensional circuit representation
showing the functionality and connectivity between different
electrical components.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
• can be described in a variety of ways, whether they are
simple or complex.
• A simple description of an electric circuit is frequently used.
• Simply stating "A light bulb is linked to a D-cell" is sufficient
to illustrate a basic circuit.
• However, another way to describe a circuit is to diagram it.
• These diagrams provide a quicker mental representation of
the actual circuit.

• A final means of describing an electric circuit is by use of

conventional circuit symbols to provide a schematic
diagram of the circuit and its components.

GELAI 2
 NOTES: WEEK 5

SOME CIRCUIT SYMBOLS USED IN SCHEMATIC

DIAGRAMS ARE SHOWN BELOW.

• Schematic diagrams can be used to draw any circuit, from

the small series circuit you just created to the complicated
circuits found in houses and schools.
o They use different symbols to represent the different
parts of the circuit, such as the battery, bulb, or wire.
• Schematic diagrams can be understood by anyone who
knows about them they are like a circuit language.

• Since we are now familiar with the different schematic

symbols we are now ready to proceed with our next topic. CAPACITOR IN PARALLEL
• We have seen how a capacitor interacts and affects an • An illustration on the side shows a parallel connection of
electrical circuit but it is presented in the most basic type of three capacitors with a voltage applied.
circuit. • Here, the total capacitance is easier to find than in the
• We have to deal with the fact that circuits can be presented series case.
in such a way that it represents how it is made in our homes TO FIND THE EQUIVALENT TOTAL CAPACITANCE
and other establishments. CP
o That is why we are going to present capacitors in both • we first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V, the
series and parallel circuit. same as that of the source
CAPACITOR IN SERIES o since they are connected
• A series circuit is a circuit in which the components (e.g. directly to it through a
lights) are connected in line with one another and the wire. conductor.
• In other words, a series circuit contains components that all • Conductors are equipotential,
share the same wire. and so the voltage across the
• A series circuit does not contain any three or more wire capacitors is the same as that
junctions. across the voltage source.
o Thus, the capacitors have
the same charges on
them as they would have if connected individually to
the voltage source.
o The total charge Q is the sum of the individual charges:
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3.

• (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the

charge on each plate is Q.
• (b) An equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d.
• Series connections produce a total capacitance that is less
than that of any of the individual capacitors.
• It can be mathematically expressed as;

GELAI 3
NOTES: WEEK 5

GENERALIZATION
CAPACITANCE
• is a property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors,
that is measured by the amount of separated electric
charge
•
o that can be stored on it per unit change in electrical
potential.
• Capacitance also implies an associated storage of electrical
energy.
• If electric charge is transferred between two initially
uncharged conductors, both become equally charged
o one positively, the other negatively
o and a potential difference is established between them.
• The capacitance C is the ratio of expressed as:

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
• can be used to draw any circuit, from the small series circuit
you just created to the complicated circuits found in houses
and schools.
• They use different symbols to represent the different parts
of the circuit, such as the battery, bulb, or wire.
• Schematic diagrams can be understood by anyone who
knows about them-they are like a circuit language.
• A path through which electrical current can flow is called a
circuit.
• Essentially circuits work in the following way.
• A power source will pump electrons from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal at a faster rate, then a
device connected to the power source can drain the
electrons.
• The electrical energy provided will continue as long as the
power source does not stop.
• In the case of the circuits below, chemical reactions within
the battery pumps electrons from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal faster than the light bulb connected to the
battery can drain them.
• The battery continues to supply the required amount of
current to light the light bulbs until the chemicals within the
battery are used up.
• Once the chemical reactions cease to occur the battery is
dead and must be replaced.

GELAI 4
 NOTES: WEEK 5

• Capacitors are seen in two types of electrical circuits, first,

a capacitor in series. Second, a capacitor in parallel

GELAI 5
 [WEEK 6] ENERGY IN A CAPACITOR

TO UNDERSTAND FULLY, LET US HAVE THESE

EXAMPLES!

ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR

• When a capacitor stores charge, it also stores energy.
• In charging up a capacitor, for example a battery does work
in transferring an increment of charge from one plate of the
capacitor to the other plate.
• The work done is equal to the product of the charge
increment and the potential difference between the plates.
• However, as each increment of charge is moved, the
potential difference increase slightly, and a larger amount
of work is needed to move the next increment.
THE TOTAL WORK W DONE IN COMPLETELY
CHARGING THE CAPACITOR
• is the product of the total charge q transferred and the
average potential difference V; W=q V.
• Since the average potential difference is one-half the final
potential V, or V = 1/2V,
• the total work done by the battery is W = ½ q V.
o This work does not disappear but is stored as electric
potential energy in the capacitor, so that Energy = ½ q
V.
• In our previous week, you have learned that q = CV or
equivalently, that V=q/c.
o We can see, then, that our expression for the energy
can be cast into two additional equivalent forms by
substituting for q or for V.
• Mathematically speaking, refer to this summary of results:

GELAI 1
 NOTES: WEEK 6

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
• If a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a capacitor,
the capacitance can increase markedly
o because the way in which the dielectric alters the
electric field between the plates.
• This effect has implications for how our treatment of electric • Being a ratio of two field strengths, the dielectric constant is
fields and potentials when they occur in matter. a number without units. Moreover, since the E0, without the
• To see how this works let's consider a simple toy model - dielectric is greater that the field E inside the dielectric
putting some matter into a constant electric field. o the dielectric constant is greater than the unity.
• The easiest way we know to generate a constant electric • The value of K depends on the nature of dielectric material,
field is using two plates of equal and opposite uniform as the given table indicates.
electric charge as in our simple model of the capacitor.
Let's consider this in 4 steps as in the figure below.

ELABORATION:
IN THE FIRST STEP (FIGURE A)
• we show the electric field (close to uniform) produced
between uniformly charged sheet of positive (left) and
negative charges (right). THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE
IN THE SECOND STEP, CAPACITOR
• we introduce a block of insulating matter into the field. • The capacitance of a capacitor is affected by the geometry
• The positive charges on the left and the negative charges of the plates and the dielectric constant of the material
on the right polarize the matter between them.
o pulling negative charges to the left and positive • The image shows a parallel plate capacitor in which the
charges to the right. area of each plate is A
• Since the matter is an insulator, the charges typically don't and the separation
move very far. between the plates is d.
• In the middle of the block, the shifting charges cancel out, • When two parallel
but at the edges they don't. plates are connected
IN FIGURE C across a battery,
o the plates are
• we show the result of the charge distributions. charged and an
• In this figure we show the charge distributions on the electric field is
outside plates as well, which are not displayed in the other established
figures.) between them
• Since charges don't move very freely in the insulator, the ▪ and this setup is known as the parallel plate
amount of charge pulled to the surface is less than the capacitor.
amount of charge creating the original field. • The direction of the electric field is defined as the direction
o These charge on the surface of the insulator act like in which the positive test charge would flow.
two new parallel plates. CAPACITANCE
o They produce a uniform field between them. • is the limitation of the body to store the electric charge.
• But because of the orientation of the charges, the field is in • Every capacitor has its capacitance.
the opposite direction from the original field and not as
• The typical parallel-plate capacitor consists of two metallic
strong.
plates of area A, separated by the distance d.
THE RESULTING FIELD IS AS SHOWN IN FIGURE D.
• The resulting field is the sum of the two.
• Outside of the insulator the field is as before.
• Inside, it is reduced.
o (Remember that the field is 0 outside of two oppositely
charged parallel plates.)
• The field has the same value outside the dielectric but
becomes weaker inside the material.
• The ratio of these two fields depends on how easily charges
move in the insulator, so it is a property of the particular kind
of matter the dielectric is made of.
• The dimensionless reduction factor is called the dielectric
constant and is usually written with the Greek letter kappa
(k):

GELAI 2
NOTES: WEEK 6

ENERGY STORAGE IN ELECTRIC FIELD

GELAI 3
 NOTES: WEEK 6

GENERALIZATION
• When a capacitor stores charge, it also stores energy. In
charging up a capacitor, for example a battery does work in
transferring an increment of charge from one plate of the
capacitor to the other plate.

• A material that provides safe passage for electric charges

is a conductor. Inserting a layer of nonmetallic solid
between the plates of a capacitor increases its capacitance
while, the material placed across the plates of a capacitor
like a little nonconducting bridge is a dielectric.
o The ratio of these two fields depends on how easily
charges move in the insulator, so it is a property of the
kind of matter the dielectric is made of.
• The dimensionless reduction factor is called the dielectric
constant and is usually written with the Greek letter kappa
(K):

• The capacitance of a capacitor is affected by the geometry

of the plates and the dielectric constant of the material
between them.

• It is also possible to regard the energy as being stored in

the electric field between the plates
DERIVATION OF ENERGY GIVEN THE ELECTRIC
FIELD:

• Since the area A times the separation d is the volume

between the plates, the energy per unit volume or energy
density is:

• In the case of the electric field or capacitor, the energy

density formula is given by:

GELAI 4
 [WEEK 7] CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• Electrical wires are a staple sight beside roads. We know
that these are our connection to modern civilization and
ease of living. But what is the idea behind the establishment
of electrical cords and wires?
o That idea is the concept called current. Using the word
current in this context is to simply use it to say that
something is happening in the wires - charge is moving.
o Yet current is a physical quantity that can be measured
and expressed numerically.
• As a physical quantity, current is the rate at which charge
flows past a point on a circuit.
• As depicted in the diagram below, the current in a circuit
can be determined if the quantity of charge Q passing
through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be
measured. The current is simply the ratio of the quantity of
charge and time.
CURRENT
• is a rate quantity. In every case of a rate quantity, the
mathematical equation involves some quantity over time.
• Thus, current as a rate quantity would be expressed
mathematically as:
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
• Assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal,
through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the
source
ELECTRON FLOW
• Electrons flow out of the negative terminal, through the
circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.
We have always wanted to move with the reality that we aim to
receive the perks of being with the masses and move with
everybody. But in everything we do, there is something that
always resist us to do that. In connection to physics, even
electron in a current experience this barrier we call resistance.
So what is resistance?
GELAI
RESISTANCE
• is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical
circuit.
• Resistance is measured in ohms,
symbolized by the Greek letter
omega (Ω).
• Ohms are named after Georg
Simon Ohm (1784-1854)
o a German physicist who
studied the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance.
• All materials resist current flow to some degree. They fall
into one of two broad categories:
CONDUCTORS
• Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons
can move easily.
o Examples: silver, copper, gold and aluminum.
INSULATORS
• Materials that present high resistance and restrict the flow
of electrons.
o Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood and plastic
resistance measurements are normally taken to
indicate the condition of a component or a circuit.
THE HIGHER THE RESISTANCE, THE LOWER THE
CURRENT FLOW.
• If abnormally high, one possible cause could be damaged
conductors due to burning or corrosion.
• All conductors give off some degree of heat, SO
overheating is an issue often associated with resistance.
THE LOWER THE RESISTANCE, THE HIGHER THE
CURRENT FLOW.
• Possible causes: insulators damaged by moisture or
overheating. More resistance
RESISTANCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL WITH
TEMPERATURE.
• The more these atoms and molecules bounce around, the
harder it is for the electrons to get by. Thus, resistance
generally increases with temperature.
• For small temperature changes the resistivity varies linearly
with temperature: r=ro (1 + a DT)
o where a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
TAKE NOTE THAT, RESISTANCE DIFFERS FROM
RESISTIVITY.
1
 NOTES: WEEK 7

RESISTIVITY ALWAYS REMEMBER THAT THE VALUE OF

• Is a measure of the resistance of a given size of a specific
material to electrical conduction.
• Resistivity may also be referred to as the specific electrical
resistance, or volume resistivity
o although these terms are less widely used.
• A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows
electric current.
• Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter p.
It is mathematically expressed as:
RESISTIVITY DEPENDS ALSO ON THE
TEMPERATURE OF THE MATERIAL
• tabulations of resistivity's usually list values at 20° C.
• Resistivity of metallic conductors generally increases with a
rise in temperature; but resistivity of semiconductors, such
as carbon and silicon, generally decreases with
temperature rise.
• Furthermore, the electrical resistance of a wire would be
expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of
larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to
depend upon the material out of which the wire is made
(resistivity).
• Generally speaking, "Resistance" may sound negative,
but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
CONDUCTIVITY
• is the reciprocal of resistivity
• and it, too, characterizes materials on the basis of how well
electric current flows in them.
• The meter-kilogram-second unit of conductivity is rho per
meter, or ampere per voltmeter.
• Good electrical conductors have high conductivities and low
resistivity's.
• Good insulators, or dielectrics, have high resistivity's and
low conductivities.
• Semiconductors have intermediate values of both.
• Conductivity is mathematically expressed as:

• In simple words, we can say that electrical conductivity is

the ability of a substance to conduct electricity.
• Conductivity is important because some substance requires
to conduct electricity and some are not.
o For example, the wire conductors need to let current
flow as easily as possible.
o While, some other materials required to restrict the flow
of the current, as in the case of the resistor.
o On the other hand, some other materials are required
not to conduct electricity as in the case of the
insulators.

GELAI 2
 NOTES: WEEK 7

• In the previous lesson, we discussed the concept of

electrical potential difference or voltage, you did know that
voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power
source that pushes charged electrons through a conducting
loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.
We also knew that if there is something going through a wire
or if charge is moving there is current. More so, we also
defined resistance as the opposition of a current flow. The
voltage, current and resistance is somewhat comparable to
our lives. Obstacles (resistance) impede our movement to
achieve our goals. But someone or something (voltage) like
your family or your own determination will push you
(current) to reach them. Just like in the illustration given.

• Eventually, you'll have to be familiar with algebra to

OHM'S LAW
• States that the strength of a direct current is directly
proportional to the potential difference and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
• Ohm's principal discovery was that the amount of electric
current
o through a metal conductor in a circuit is directly
proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any
given temperature.
• Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple
equation, describing how voltage, current, and resistance
interrelate:
seriously study electricity and electronics, but this tip can
make your first calculations a little easier to remember.
• If you are comfortable with algebra, all you need to do is
commit V=IR to memory and derive the other two formulae
from that when you need them! Analyzing Simple Circuits
with Ohm's Law
• In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the
battery, on the left) and only one source of resistance to
current (the lamp, on the right).

• In this algebraic expression, voltage (V) is equal to current

(U) multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra techniques.
Ohm's Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing
electric circuits.
• It is used so often in the study of electricity and electronics
that it needs to be committed to memory by the serious o This makes it very easy to apply Ohm's Law. If we know
student. the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage,
• For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra, there's current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use
a trick to remembering how to solve for anyone quantity, Ohm's Law to determine the third.
given the other two.

GELAI 3
 NOTES: WEEK 7
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF OHM'S LAW
CONVENTIONAL DOMESTIC FANS
• We can control the speed of the fans at our homes by
moving the regulator to and fro.
• Here the current flowing through the fan is controlled by
regulating the resistance through the regulator.
o A circular knob on the component can be rotated to
achieve a variable resistance on the output terminals.
o For any specific value of the input, we can calculate the
resistance, current and thus power flowing through
Ohm's Law.
ELECTRIC KETTLES AND IRONS
• The electric kettle and irons have a lot of resistors in them.
GELAI
• There are two materials or conductors that should be
considered under Ohm's Law.
• It is the ohmic and non-ohmic materials. The diagram below
will show you their difference.
• In conclusion, both the conductors, whether ohmic and non-
ohmic, have their specific functions and purposes.
• However, ohmic conductors may lose their properties when
operated on different ranges so it becomes really important
to study their properties before application.
• Nature have always relied in the balance of everything.
• Energy will be trasferred if this would not be achieved.
Electrons, though how small they are, are subject to this
principle.
• A force will be needed to achieve the gap for neutrality. As
it is continually achieved, less and less energy is needed to
balance all out.
• The greatest example of this is our battery operated devices
which is called Electromotive force or EMF.
• The electromotive force is the total voltage induce by the
source. In other words, it is the amount of energy supplied
by the source to each coulomb of charge. It is measured in
volts and represented by the symbol ε (epsilon).
4
 NOTES: WEEK 7
THE EMF
• is the maximum voltage that can be attained by the circuit.
• Naturally, it is generated when the fluctuation occurs in the
magnetic field.
• The emf is expressed by the formula shown below.
• Since we know that the EMF depends upon the internal
resistance of the battery
WE SHOULD REPLACE THE RESISTANCE WITH THE
SUM OF THE RESISTANCE AND THE INTERNAL
RESISTANCE. THUS, EQUATION BECOMES:
NOW, EXPANDING THE AFOREMENTIONED
FORMULA:
• This shows that we can calculate the EMF if we know the
voltage across the terminals, the current flowing and the
internal resistance of the cell.
• Let's try to use the different formula presented in solving
problems involving Electromotive Force.
• The electromotive force might have a similarity with the
electric potential difference.
GELAI
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTROMOTIVE
FORCE AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• The electromotive force is the measure of energy that it
gives to each coulomb of charge, whereas the potential
difference is the amount of energy used by the one coulomb
of charge.
• The electromotive force is represented by the symbol e
whereas the symbol V represents the potential difference.
• The electromotive force does not depend on the internal
resistance of the circuit whereas the potential difference is
directly proportional to the resistance of the circuit.
• The electromotive force transfers the energy in the whole of
the circuit. The potential difference is the measure of energy
between any two points on the circuit.
• The magnitude of the electromotive force is always greater
than the potential difference when the circuit is unchanged
but when the circuit is fully charged the magnitude of the
potential difference is equal to the emf of the circuit.
• The magnitude of emf has always remained constant,
whereas the magnitude of the potential difference varies.
The electromotive force is the cause of the potential
difference, whereas the potential difference is the effect of
the potential difference.
• The emf force exists in the circuit even when the current
does not flow in the circuit whereas the potential difference
does not exist in the circuit when the magnitude of current
remains zero.
• The EMF is the maximum voltage that the battery can
deliver whereas the magnitude of the potential difference is
always less than the maximum possible value of emf.
• The emf force gains the electrical energy in the circuit
whereas the potential difference loss the electrical energy
in the circuit.
• The electromotive force is induced in the electric, magnetic
and gravitational field, whereas the potential difference is
generated only in an electric field.
• The emf meter is used for measuring the electromotive
force, whereas the voltmeter is used for measuring the
potential difference.
5
 [WEEK 8] ENERGY AND POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
POWER
• is associated by many people with electricity. Knowing that
power is the rate of energy use or energy conversion, what
is the expression for electric power?
o Consider a lamp connected to a pair of batteries as
shown in figure1, treat the connecting wires as ideal
conductors with no resistance and so virtually no
potential difference across them
▪ but full potential difference of the battery appears
across the lamp.
▪ The magnitude
of the current in
the circuit is
constant, the
condition
known as direct
current.
• As the current passes through the lamp, charges are
moving from a higher potential to a lower one.
ENERGY
• is being lost from the battery and converted in the filament
of the lamp into heat and light.
o The amount of energy released by a charge q as it falls
through the potential V across the lamp is W = qV.
▪ Since the potential is constant, the rate at which
energy is released, or the power P is
GELAI
IN A RESISTOR, THE ENERGY DISSIPATED
APPEARS AS THERMAL ENERGY.
• This effect is used in appliances such as electric stoves,
hair dryers and heaters.
• In an incandescent lamp, the energy delivered to the
filament raises its temperature so high that light is emitted.
IN OTHER CIRCUIT ELEMENTS, THE ENERGY MAY
TAKE ON DIFFERENT FORMS.
• For example, the energy may appear as mechanical work
done by a motor, as sound from a loudspeaker, or as stored
chemical energy in a battery when the battery is being
recharged.
CONVERSION FROM ELECTRICAL TO MECHANICAL
IS NEVER 100% EFFICIENT.
• The difference appears as heat.
• When an electric current pass through a resistor, electrical
energy is irreversibly transformed to thermal energy.
o And so, we can write another equation for power that
is known as Joule's Law.
JOULE'S LAW
• In electricity, mathematical description of the rate at which
resistance in a circuit converts electric energy into heat
energy.
o The English physicist James Prescott Joule discovered
in 1840 that the amount of heat per second that
develops in a wire carrying a current is proportional to
the electrical resistance of the wire and the square of
the current.
o He determined that the heat evolved per second is
equivalent to the electric power absorbed, or the power
loss.
• A quantitative form of Joule's law is that the heat evolved
per second, or the electric power loss, P, equals the current
I squared times the resistance R, or P= I^2R.
o The power P has units of watts, or joules per second,
▪ when the current is expressed in amperes and the
resistance in ohms.
• Another equation relating power to the resistance and
voltage across an electric device is P= V/R
1
 NOTES: WEEK 8

• klji

THE COST OF ELECTRICITY

• The more electric appliances you use and the longer they
are left on, the higher your electric bill.
o This familiar fact is based on the relationship between
energy and power.
• Power can also be calculated using P = E/t when energy is
given
o we see that the energy dissipated in a circuit is the
product of the power and time, E = Pt and the energy
used by a device using power P for a time interval t.
• For example, the lighter bulbs burning, the greater P used;
the longer they are on, the greater t is.
• The energy unit on electric bills is the kilowatt-hour (kW•h),
consistent with the relationship E= Pt.
o It is easy to estimate the cost of operating electric
appliances if you have some idea of their power
consumption rate in watts or kilowatts
o the time they are on in hours, and the cost per kilowatt-
hour for your electric utility.
▪ Study the example below on how energy is
dissipated in the different appliances at home.

GELAI 2
 NOTES: WEEK 8

• Electric appliances are taking over our modern-day lifestyle So, touching a live wet conductor can lead to fatal
from all directions. As being aware of these is now more consequences.
important than ever. Safety is now a place where you can 5. OVERLOADED PINS
afford to cut corners. Rather it's better if you let go of your • Overloaded sockets will draw more electricity from an outlet
procrastination and spend on the best possible materials to than its supplying capacity.
avoid hazards. • Transferring more electricity through a wire will overheat it
and cause the wire to melt.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY o This can melt the insulation and be responsible for
• First thing you need to know about electricity to save shock or even fires.
yourself from hazards is to keep a clear and concise idea of REMEMBER:
the Properties of electricity. In simple words, it is the flow of • Safety practices that will help avoid hazards.
electric charge through a conducting wire. Compliances use
• A few preventive steps to avoid electrical hazards in your
electricity to function. We use electricity in our homes to
home are:
convert the energy with the help of appliances. It helps us
o Inspect Cords and Plugs for defects on a regular basis
in a variety of chores at our homes. So, any type of
o Check whether the grounding is okay in your outlets
irregularity has the potential to cause havoc.
o Go through and abide by the user manual
1. SHOCKS FROM CONTACTING LIVE PARTS o Maintain the relevant warning signs
• There are several scientific reasons why people get shocks o Always grab the plug while pulling it out and not the
from touching objects. cord
o Electric shocks are very common in cold and dry o Keep sockets above the reach of children
environments. o Use covers or shutters in sockets
o But this mainly occurs due to the exposure of a current o Keep appropriate scope or air ventilation so heat from
to any conductive surface. devices can pass freely
▪ So, when anybody touches the surface, he also o Use surge protectors in case you are in an area with
experiences a shock. high surge activity
• Touching a live wire (when you are grounded) Being in o Be cautious while using
contact with two wires with different voltage • Electricity is something that is very difficult to observe so, it
• The chances of you receiving a shock increases even more is important that necessary technology is developed to help
if you stand in a puddle of water, us quantitatively perceive electricity and its corresponding
o You can also get contracted by touching a person who properties and variables.
is experiencing shock WHAT DO YOU THINK ARE THESE DEVICES
o You can also get shocked from a defective live electric
DEVELOPED OVER DECADES THAT HELPED US
appliance
UNDERSTAND ELECTRICITY?
2. POWER SURGE
• A power surge is a sudden spike in your home's electric
1. VOLTMETERS
current. A sudden spike in the electricity supply can
damage sensitive electric appliances. Too much current • A voltmeter as shown in figure
can even break down supply lines and cause a fire is an instrument that measures
the difference in electrical
• Power sources can originate from the electric utility
potential between two points in
company during power grid switching.
an electric circuit.
• Another common cause of power surges, especially the
• An analog voltmeter moves a
most powerful ones, is lightning.
pointer across a scale in
• Power surges can also originate inside a home when large
proportion to the circuit's
appliances like air conditioners and refrigerator motors turn
voltage
on and off.
o a digital voltmeter provides
3. FAULTY WIRING a numerical display.
• Faulty wiring is a very common scene in old urban houses. • Any measurement that can be
Technicians most of the time fix things just to make things converted to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is
work. properly calibrated
• As a result, many openings for potential hazards to strike. o such measurements include pressure, temperature,
• By faulty wiring, we mean the bad conductance of electricity and flow.
to the electrical appliances. • For a voltmeter to measure a device's voltage, it must be
• It happens from damaged electrical outlets or worn-out connected in parallel to that device. This is necessary
sockets that are not grounded. because objects in parallel experience the same potential
o Loose, frayed, cracked, or overheated wires are unable difference.
to conduct electricity safely. • For a voltmeter to measure a device's voltage, it must be
▪ This often leads to a fire breaking out. connected in parallel to that device.
4. EFFECTS OF DAMP AND WETNESS o This is necessary because objects in parallel
• Water and electricity are a match that has brought several experience the same potential difference.
tragic consequences.
• Moisture is a good conductor of electricity. So, any exposed
wire in contact with a wet and damp environment can be
hazardous.
• Damp walls with plugs or any other electrical installation
pose a serious risk of electrocution, short circuit, and fire.

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 NOTES: WEEK 8

• For an ammeter to measure a device's current, it must be

connected in series to that device.
o This is necessary
because objects in
series experience the
same current.
o They must not be
connected to a voltage
source - ammeters are
designed to work under
a minimal burden
▪ (Which refers to the voltage drop across the
ammeter, typically a small fraction of a volt).

GENERALIZATION
• Power is associated by many people with electricity
o As the current passes through the lamp, charges are
moving from a higher potential to a lower one.
• Energy is being lost from the battery and converted in the
filament of the lamp into heat and light.
o The amount of energy released by a charge q as it falls
through the potential V across the lamp is W = qV.
• The more electric appliances you use and the longer they
are left on, the higher your electric bill.
2. AMMETERS o This familiar fact is based on the relationship between
• An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. energy and power.
• The name is derived from the name for the SI unit for o Power can also be calculated using P = E/t when
energy is given,
electric current, amperes (A).
o we see that the energy dissipated in a circuit is the
• There are two kinds of ammeter
product of the power and time, E = Pt and the energy
o a is the analog ammeter
used by a device using power P for a time interval t.
o b is the digital ammeter.
▪ For example, the lighter bulbs burning, the greater
P used; the longer they are on, the greater t is.

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