Phyics IGCSE Notes

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1
Part 2
Notes
contains
Unit 3:
Unit 4:
Unit 6:
Unit 7:
Unit 1: Mechanics
Unit 1 Topic 0: Measurements and Basics …………………………………..…………………….. 4
Unit 1 Topic 1: Kinematics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
Unit 1 Topic 2: Forces ……………………………………………………………..………………………….. 17
Unit 1 Topic 3: Moments ………………………………………………………..….……………………….. 30
Unit 1 Topic 4: Pressure ………………………………………….……………..………………………….. 36
Unit 1 Topic 5: Work, Energy and Power ………………………………..…………………………. 39
Unit 1 Topic 6: Momentum ………………………………………………………..……………………….. 51
Unit 2: Thermal Physics
Unit 2 Topic 1: Kinetic Theory ……………………………………………………..….……………….. 57
Unit 2 Topic 3: Thermal Expansion ………………………….………………..……………………. 64
Unit 2 Topic 4: Heat Transmission ……………………….…………………..…………………… 68
Unit 2 Topic 5: Heat Capacity …………………………………………………...………………….... 78
Unit 3: Electricity
Unit 3 Topic 1: Electrostatics ……………………………………..……………………..……….…….. 83
Unit 3 Topic 2: Electric Circuits ……………………………………..………………………….…….. 88
Unit 3 Topic 3: Home installation …………………………………..…….…………………….……. 103
Unit 3 Topic 4: Circuit components……………………………………..………………………….... 109
Unit 4: Electromagnetism
Unit 4 Topic 1: Magnetism……………………………………..……….……………………….………... 114
Unit 4 Topic 2: Electric Motor…………………………………..…….……………………….………... 126
Unit 4 Topic 3: Electromagnetic induction (A.C. generator).……………….………... 139
Unit 4 Topic 4: Electromagnetic induction (Transformers) …………………………...147
Unit 5: Nuclear Physics
Unit 5 Topic 1: Atomic Structure………………………………..……………….…….…………….. 156
Unit 5 Topic 2: Alpha, Beta and Gamma ………………………..……………….…………….. 160
Unit 5 Topic 3: Half Life ………………………….………………………..…………………..……..…. 168
Unit 6: Waves
Unit 6 Topic 1: Water Waves …………………………………………..………………..……….…….. 175
Unit 6 Topic 2: Sound waves …………………………………………..…….………………….…….. 180
Unit 6 Topic 3: Light Reflection ……………………………………..….…………………….……. 186
Unit 6 Topic 4: Light Refraction ……………………….……………..…………………….……… 192
Unit 6 Topic 5: Light Dispersion ………………………………………..………………………….... 201
Unit 6 Topic 6: Lenses …………………………………….…………………..…………………….……... 208
Unit 7: Astronomy
Unit 7 Topic 1: Earth and moon ……………………………..……….……………………….………... 216
Unit 7 Topic 2: Solar system ………………………….………..…….……………………….………... 219
Unit 7 Topic 3: Stars and galaxies ……………………………….…….……………….……..…... 225
Unit 7 Topic 4: Universe and big bang ………………………………………….…………………...232
2
Unit 3 Topic 1: Electrostatics
Unit 3 Topic 2: Electric quantities and circuits
Unit 3 Topic 3: Home installation
Unit 3 Topic 4: Circuit components diode
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1
• All objects contain electrons on their surfaces whether they are

conductors or insulators.
•When two surfaces are rubbed together, electron transfer takes

place between the two surfaces.
• One of the objects lose electrons and the other gains electrons.
• The one that lost electrons is now .
• The one that gained electrons is now .
• A charged body attracts light objects like dust, small pieces of paper.
• Like charges repel and unlike charges

attract.
The force between charges increases if:

1. The amount of charge in any one of the two bodies increases
2. Decreasing the distance between the charges
Electrostatics
83
2
• are materials that have free moving

electrons.
• Free electrons also make metals very good conductors of heat and electricity
• Examples: (copper, iron, lead, all metals . . .)
• Graphite is a good conductor of electricity even it is a non-metal but it has free moving
electrons.
• do not have free moving electrons.
• Examples: (glass, wood, rubber, plastic, . . .)
• An insulator should be dry, moisture can destroy the insulation by conducting electric
charges.
• When an object is negatively charged, this means that it has more electrons than protons.
• When a negatively charged object is connected to earth, extra electrons escape to earth
leaving the object electrically neutral.
• This discharging process is known as
• When an object is positively charged, this means that it has less electrons than protons.
• When a positively charged object is connected to earth, electrons are sent from earth up
to the object to compensate the lack of electrons.
• Unlike electrons, protons do not move within the object.
Note:
• Conductors lose their charge more easily than insulators by
earthing because electrons are free to move in a conductor.
Electrostatics
84
3
• When a polythene rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, electrons

are removed from woolen cloth and deposited on polythene
rod.
• Woolen cloth becomes positively charged,
• Polythene rod becomes negatively charged.
• When a Perspex rod is rubbed with a dry cloth

• Electrons are removed from Perspex rod and deposited on
woolen cloth
• Perspex becomes positively charged,
• Woolen cloth becomes negatively charged.
• When a charged body touches an uncharged object, the

two bodies will share the charge.
• This kind of charging is observed in conductors.
• It is very slow and hardly observed with bad
conductors.
85
Electrostatics
4
• Normally the charge should be measured in a unit (electron),

• But since the electron is a very small quantity of charge it is replaced by a bigger unit, the
(Coulomb)
It is the region in space in which the object, it experiences a force produced

effect of the electric charge by the field of the object
appears, this appears as lines of
This force can be attractive or
electric field.
repulsive depending on the charge on
There is an electric field produced the charged body
by a charged body in the space
The field is stronger where the lines
around it,
are close to each other
If a small positive test charge is
The field lines are out from a positive
placed in the field of the charged
charge and go in a negative charge.
Electric field
It is the region around a charge where it experiences force on other charges.
Electric field direction

It is the direction of force on a positive charge.
Electrostatics
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5
Electric field of a Electric field between two parallel Electric field of a
positive point charge oppositely charged plates negative point charge
A moving charge will be affected by any electric field so that it will be repelled from a
plate of a similar charge and attracted towards the plate with an opposite charge.
The moving charge will move in a curved path only between the plates
87
Electrostatics
1
• The battery gives the Coulomb some electric

potential energy.
• The Coulomb moves towards the Bulb.
• The Bulb takes the electric potential energy
carried by the Coulomb.
• The Coulomb moves back to the battery.
•
Voltage of 0the battery
The energy given to each coulomb passing through the battery.
The work done by battery to drive the coulomb through the whole circuit.
Voltage of the resistor

The energy taken from each coulomb passing through the resistor.
• V : Voltage (Volts (V))

• E : Energy (Joules (J))
• Q : Charge (Coulombs (C))
88
Electric Quantities (Calculations)
2
Other names of voltage:

• of battery, potential difference of a resistor,
• (e.m.f) of a battery,
• You cannot say electromotive force (e.m.f) of a resistor,
Volt:
• Potential difference is measure in volts,
• It is defined as 1 joule per 1 coulomb (J/C),
• 3 V bulb means each coulomb pass through the bulb gives it 3 joules of electric potential
energy (3V = 3 J/C),
• 3 V battery means each coulomb pass through the battery is given 3 joules of electric
potential energy(3V = 3 J/C),
Voltmeter:
• Voltmeters are used to measure the voltage (potential difference) of any
component in the circuit,
• Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
component to be measured.
• Voltmeters have very high Resistance.
• Voltmeter must be in correct polarity with
the battery +ve to +ve and -ve to –ve.
Voltage in multiple component circuits:

Two components in series Two components in parallel
Total voltage of the battery is Total voltage of the battery equals

divided between components, the voltage of each components,
Not necessarily be equally divided Must be equal on each component
(see series connection), (see parallel connection),

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3
Current intensity
The electric current intensity (I) in a
battery: is the amount of charge in
coulombs passing the battery in 1 second.
Definition:
Rule:
• I : Current intensity (Amperes (A))
• t : time (seconds (s))
• Q : Charge (Coulombs (C))
Ampere:
• It is the current when 1 coulomb of charge pass in 1 second,
• Ampere = Coloumb / second (A = C/s)
• 6 A of current in battery means 6 coulomb pass each second, 6A = 6C/s,
• 6 A of current in bulb means 6 coulomb pass each second, 6A = 6 C/s,
Ammeter:
• Ammeter is connected in series with the
component to be measured.
• Ammeter must be in correct polarity with the
battery +ve to +ve and -ve to -ve
• Ammeters have very low Resistance.
Current in multiple component circuits:
Total current of the battery equals Total current of the battery is

the current in each components, divided between components,

90
4
Current at a junction
The sum of the currents into a junction is the same as the sum of the
current out of the junction
General:
• There is electric resistance in conductors due to the collisions between
moving electrons and vibrating atoms (ions) in the metal.
Any component in the circuit like bulbs, resistors and

motors for example are obstacles for the current so
they are said to have resistance,
Ohm It is the unit of resistance symbol is (Ω)

Rule:
• R : Resistance (Ohms (Ω))

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5
Resistance in multiple component circuits:

Rt = R1 + R2 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +……

so for only 2 resistors we can use
Rt = product / sum
Rt = 3 + 6 = 9 Ω Rt = (2 X 4) / (2 + 4) = 1.33 Ω
Series connection increases the Parallel connection decreases the
resistance resistance
More about series and potential dividing

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6
Resistance (R) is
directly proportional
to length (L). If length doubles
resistance doubles
Resistance (R) is
inversely proportional
to cross section area
If area doubles,
(A).
resistance halves.
Resistance (R) is
inversely proportional
to square of the
If diameter doubles,
diameter (d2).
resistance quarters.
Resistance depends
on type of the wire.
These relationships can be summarized as
Rule:
• ρ : Resistivity (ohm.meter Ω.m)
• L : length (meter (m))
• A : Area (meter square (m2))
The brightness of a lamp, the speed

of rotation of an electric motor, the
strength of an electromagnet, the
amount of heat given by an electric
heater, all these features are
determined by electric power.

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7
The power of an electric device depends on

both the number of coulombs passing each
second (Current intensity) and the amount of
energy carried by each coulomb (Voltage).
Rule:
• P : Power (Watts (W))
Power
It is the amount of energy consumed or produced in 1 second.
Other forms:
P = IV = I2R = V2/R
• For a battery or a supply it is the total energy given by this source,

• For any other component (e.g bulb) it is the total energy taken by this
component(e.g bulb),
Rule:
• E : Electric Energy (Joules (J))
Other forms:
E = IV t = I2R t = (V2/R) t

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Series Parallel
Voltage
Total voltage of the battery is Total voltage of the battery

divided between components, equals each voltage on each
components,
The bigger the Resistance No matter what the resistance is,

consumes larger voltage with ratio both resistors in parallel will have
of resistance, the same voltage,
Current intensity
Total current of the battery equals the Total current of the battery is divided
current in each components, between components,
No matter what resistance is both The bigger the Resistance will have the
resistors in series will have the same smaller current with inverse ratio of
current, resistance,

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9
Series Parallel
Resistance
Rt = R1 + R2 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +……

so for only 2 resistors we can use
Rt = product / sum
Rt = 3 + 6 = 9 Ω Rt = (2 X 4) / (2 + 4) = 1.33 Ω
Series connection increases the Parallel connection decreases the
resistance resistance
E Q 2 2
V=
Q
I= P = IV = IR = V /R
t
2 2
V = IR E = Pt E = IV t = I R t = (V / R) t
Rt = product / sum
Rt = R1 + R 2
= (R1 . R2) / (R1 + R2)
Vt = V 1 + V 2 Vt = V 1 = V 2
It = I1 = I 2 I t= I1 + I2
Quantity (symbol) Unit (symbol) Quantity (symbol) Unit (symbol)

Voltage (V) Volt (V) Power (P) Watt (W)
Current Intensity (I) Ampere (A) Energy (E) Joules (J)
Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) Charge (Q) Coulombs (C)
Time (t) Seconds (s)

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1
Nature of Electricity
It is the flow of electrons repelled from negative pole and attracted to
positive pole.
Conventional Current
The direction of electric current is opposite to the direction of
electrons and it is from positive to negative.
• When applying any rule in electricity like right hand grip rule or Fleming
left or right hand rules, the direction of the conventional current is from
positive to negative not the direction of electrons.
Electric Quantities (Theoretical)
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2
• Heating and lighting effect: Electric current

causes the filament of bulb to heat and glow,
Magnetic effect: Electric current causes a magnetic

field around the wire.
• Chemical effect: Electric current causes

chemical changes to some compounds.
D.C. (direct current):

• Direct current flows in one direction, from positive to negative,
• Direct current is produced by cells, batteries, solar cells and D.C.
power supplies.
A.C. (Alternating current):

• Alternating current: flows in both direction, it’s a current that has
positive and negative values.
• Alternating current is produced by A.C. Generators.

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3
Variable resistor has a slider that can move on

a coil to change resistance
of the circuit, so current
can be controlled.
Low resistance and high current high resistance and low current
Short length of wire Long wire
Component Symbol Component Symbol

cell Switch
Battery of Earth or ground

cells
Battery of Electric bell
cells
Power supply Buzzer
a.c. power Microphone

supply

99
4

Junction of loudspeaker
conductors
lamp motor
Fixed Generator
resistor
Variable ammeter
resistor
Thermistor voltmeter

Light galvanometer
dependent
resistor
heater oscilloscope
Potential diode
divider
Relay coil Light emitting
diode
transformer fuse

AND Gate OR gate
NAND gate NOR gate
Not gate
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5

circuit used:
• Connect the circuit as shown.
• Move the slider of the variable resistor to
adjust the current.
• Take the corresponding readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter.
• Move the slider of the variable resistor again
to readjust the current to a newer value and
read the voltmeter and ammeter again,
• Repeat what you did several times and
tabulate your results in a table.
Exp Voltage Current

(V) (A)
1 6 3
2 5 2.5
3 4 2
… … …
Which resistor has higher resistance?

Simply the resistor which line is nearer to the voltage axis has the higher
resistance
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6
Ohm’s Law
Current intensity is directly proportional to the voltage at constant
temperature.
• Resistors that show this relationship are called Ohmic resistors,

• The circuit shown can also be used to find the resistance of a resistor.
Ohms law and filament bulbs:
• Slope is decreasing: this means
resistance is increasing,
• Because, as current increases,
the filament heats up causing more
vibration of the atoms so resistance
increases.
• Note: when the line curves near to the voltage axis this means that the
resistance increases.
• Potentiometer: varies the voltage across the voltmeter according to

the position of the slider.
• In the following example, the reading of the voltmeter can have any value
between 0 and 4 V according to where the slider is positioned.

102
1
• Electricity is supplied to our homes through cables that mainly contain

two wires, the live (L) and the neutral (N) (there is a third safety wire).
• When the plug is inserted into the socket, the circuit is closed between
the appliance and the mains electricity.
• Live wire: carries electric energy from the power station, It is brown,
it has a high voltage of 240 V or 110 V in some countries.
• Neutral wire: closes the circuit, between appliance and power station.
Its color is blue
Home installation
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2
1. If current increases.
2. If live wire touches the metal casing.
Fuses:
• Fuse: is a safety
electric component
that is connected
to the live wire in
the plug
• Fuse: contains thin
metal (tin) wire
that melts when current increases as it heats up,
• Fuse value: A fuse value is the maximum current that can be
carried by the fuse before it melts.
• This
value should be higher
than but close to the
maximum current used
by an appliance
• so that the fuse
melts if this current is
just exceeded.
• Fuses are usually made with certain values (e.g.) 1 A, 3 A, 5 A ...
Home installation
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3
• If live wire touches the

metal casing this will cause
the casing to be live, and
this increases the risk of
getting an electric shock if
any one touches the metal
casing and closes the circuit with earth.
• Earth wire: is a safety wire connected between the third pin
in the plug and the metal casing.
• Earth wire: is connected
to earth from the other
side.
• Earth wire: is connected

so that if live wire touches
the metal casing this allows
current from the live wire to flow to
earth through earth wire,
• Instead of flowing through human body as our bodies have
very high resistance,
• Earth wire: has low

resistance.
• Earth wire: allows large
current to flow due to its
low resistance so the fuse
heats up and blows (melts),
and the current cuts.
105
Home installation
4
Trip switch
• If too large a current flows in a circuit a switch opens
making the circuit incomplete.
• Trip switch uses magnetic effect unlike fuses that
work by the heating effect.
• Once the fault in the circuit has been repaired, the
switch is reset, usually by pressing a reset button.
• There is no need for the trip switch to be replaced,
but fuses need to be replaced when broken.
Double insulation:
• Some modern appliances now use casings made of an
insulator such as plastic rather than metal.
• Double insulation involves
1. Insulated live parts.
2. Insulated (plastic) casing.
• If all the electrical parts of an appliance are
insulated this way, so that they
cannot be touched by the user,
the appliance is said to have
double insulation. Appliances that
have double insulation use a two-
wire flex. There is no need for an earth wire.
• Appliances and lamps are connected in parallel not in series with the
supply,
parallel connection series connection
All appliances get the same voltage as the Voltage is divided
mains
Allows each appliance to operate All appliance will operate together

independent of all other appliances.
Each appliance will operate at its normal power used by each appliance is less than
power. its normal operating value
Home installation
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5
• Electric shocks can be produced due to

damaged insulation of connecting wires,
• A fire can be produced if extremely high

currents pass in the wires thus producing
overheating of wires
• Electric Damp conditions reduce

resistance of insulators causing them
to conduct. This may cause electric
shock if touched carelessly
• We can calculate the amount of energy

transferred electrically in joules (J).
• but it is much more convenient to use kWh.
• This is because 1 kW = 1000 W and 1 h = 3600 s,
• so 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600s = 3.6 x 106 J
• 1 kWh is sometimes called a unit of electricity.
• Worked Example (1):

Marcus switches on a water heater for two hours. The power of the heater is 3.5 kW. How
much energy is transferred in kWh (units)?
• Answer
Step 1 Start by writing down what you know, and what you want to know.
• power = 3.5 kW
• time = 2 hours
107
Home installation
6
• energy transferred (kWh) = ?

Step 2: Now write down the equation for energy transferred in kWh.
• energy transferred (kWh) = power (kW) x time (hours)
Step 3: Substitute the values of the quantities on the right-hand side and
calculate the answer.
energy transferred (kWh) = 3.5 kWx 2hours = 7kWh
Worked Example (2):
Zara checks her electricity bill for a three month period. The meter reading at the start was
2531 kWh and at the end it was 2647 kWh. Electricity costs 16p per unit. What is her bill
for electricity?
• Answer
Step 1: Start by writing down what you know, and what you want to know,
• metre reading at start = 2531 kWh
• meter reading at end = 2647 kWh
• cost per unit = 16p
• units used = ?
• total cost of electricity = ?
Step 2: Work out how many units were used.
• Units used = 2647 kWh - 2531 kWh = 116kWh
Step 3: Now write down the equation for the total cost of electricity.
• total cost of electricity = number of units x cost per unit
Step 4: Substitute the values of the quantities on the right-hand side and
work out the answer.
• total cost of electricity = 116kWhx 16p = £18.56
108
Home installation
1
Diode
A circuit component that allows the passage of current in one direction
but not the opposite,
• The flow of current causes the bulb to

light, regardless the direction of the
battery connection.
The semiconductor diode: allows the passage If the arrow of the current points in the same
the current in one direction but not the direction of the arrow of the diode this is
opposite; known as forward bias and the
Because in the forward direction it has a low diode allows the current flow.
resistance, but in If the arrow of
backward direction the current points
it has a very high in the opposite
resistance; direction of the
arrow of the
As mentioned in diode this is
electric quantities known as reverse bias and the diode
chapter, current flows from positive pole of blocks current flow.
the battery through the circuit towards the
negative pole of the battery.
• it is made of a semiconductor like silicon or germanium
109
Circuit Components
2
• In forward bias, if voltage increases (more cells are added), current will also increase and
the lamp becomes brighter, but not directly proportional
• In reverse bias, if voltage increases (more cells

are added), current will always be zero and no
current flows as long as the diode did not break
down.
• This can be represented by the shown I-V graph
• A.C. current is a current that flows alternatively in opposite

directions.
• When a diode is added to the circuit, it allows one direction of

the current and blocks the opposite direction.
This kind of circuit that changes a.c. to d.c. is known as rectification circuit, that’s
why the diode is also known as diode rectifier.
110
Circuit Components
3
Rectification: changing a.c. to d.c.
Cells and batteries produce d.c., Any charger contains a diode. The
so they can only be recharged diode must be oriented in a way
from a d.c. source. that allows charging current to flow
to the battery to be charged and
The home mains supply is a.c., so
blockes any current that may leak
how can a charger charge a d.c.
from battery during the charging
battery using the normal a.c. at
process as shown in the diagram.
homes.
Importance of diode in chargers:
1- The diode is used to change a.c. to d.c
2- To avoid discharge of the battery during the charging process.
It is simply a diode that lights up in forward

connection when current is passing through it
and no light is produced in reverse connection
when current is not allowed to flow.
111
Circuit Components
4
For any conductor wire if

temperature increases also its
resistance will increase, but for the
Thermistor:
It is the light dependent resistor (

resistor that depends on light
intensity),
Circuit Components
112
Unit 5 Topic 1: Magnetism.
Unit 5 Topic 2: Electric D.C. Motor.
Unit 5 Topic 3: Electromagnetic induction.
113
1
• A bar magnet is simply an iron bar,

• Due to a special arrangement in its metallic ionic structure, it has the ability
to attract other objects that are made of iron, steel, cobalt and nickel,
• are materials that are attracted to
magnets and can be magnetized
Magnetism
114
2
• are the ends of a bar magnet and occur in

pairs of equal strength
• A magnet has 2 poles one is N- north pole and the other is S –
south pole
• If a magnet is hanged freely its north will point to the

north of the earth and its south will point to south,
• That is why a compass needle is a small magnet.
• Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

• The force between magnetic poles decreases
as their separation increases,
• When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece becomes a new

magnet having its own north and south poles.
• Chains of small iron nails and steel paper clips

can be hung from a magnet
115
Magnetism
3
• A strong magnet is shown,

• A soft iron rod is attracted to it,
• The soft iron rod will acquire the magnetic property with the shown
polarity,
• It can attract iron fillings strongly
• Also steel will acquire the magnetic property with the

same polarity as soft iron,
• But steel acquires weaker magnetism and attracts less
amount of iron fillings,
• After removing the

strong magnet soft iron loses
all the magnetic property,
• But steel keeps its magnetic property,
• Soft iron: is soft magnetic substance, as it acquires
magnetic property easily and lose it easily,
• Steel: is hard magnetic substance, it acquires magnetic
property hardly and lose it hardly.
• Soft iron: is used in making electromagnets

• Steel: is used in making permanent magnets
Magnetism
116
4
• The steel bar is stroked by a magnet using the same

pole in the same direction,
• The pole produced at the first end is similar to the
stroking pole and the pole at the other end is the opposite,
• Card board tube is shown,

• The card board is placed inside a solenoid
of copper wire,
• An iron rod is placed inside the card board
tube,
• Connect the wire to a d.c. battery or
supply.
• Approach some iron fillings to the rod,

• Iron fillings are attracted to the rod
• Now this is an electromagnet,
• If the battery is removed iron fillings will fall,
• The polarity of the magnet is given by

,
• When the right hand fingers show the
direction of the current; the thumb will point
to the North Pole
117
Magnetism
5
Strength of electromagnet is increased by:
1- Larger value of the current
2- Increase number of turnings of the solenoid.
Note:
• Turnings of the solenoid must not touch each other. So the wire must be insulated to
avoid short circuit.
• The wire must not touch the rod.
118
Magnetism
6
• Magnetic effect is limited by a certain space
around the magnet
• This space is named (magnetic field)
• It is discovered that the magnetic field is not a
whole area,
• It is formed of specific well arranged lines.
• These lines are named magnetic field lines or
magnetic flux lines.
• Several experiments can be conducted to trace the magnetic field lines of a magnet.
• Put a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet

• Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly on to the
paper,
• Tap the paper gently with a finger and

the filings should form patterns of lines,
• These lines are named the magnetic field lines or

magnetic flux lines of the magnet,
• This experiment does not show the direction of the
magnetic field, only the shape.
1- Put a bar magnet on top of a sheet of 5- Repeat steps 3 and 4 until you reach
paper the other pole
2- Put a compass next to the north pole, 6- Connect the dots you have drawn
3- Mark a dot where the compass points, 7- Repeat the whole experiment for other
4- Put the compass next to the marked dot, lines
Magnetism
119
7
1 -2 3 4 5
6-7
This experiment gives the shape and the direction of the magnetic field lines
• We use a piece of cork to help a small magnet float on

the surface of water as shown.
• Another strong magnet is placed as shown in the
diagram
• Put the light magnet with cork on the surface of water with
its north pole to the top and as close as possible to the north pole of
the strong magnet.
Magnetism
120
8
• The floating magnet moves in circular uniform path repelled

from same pole attracted to opposite pole following a magnetic
field lines.
1. Magnetic field of bar magnet
2. Magnetic field between unlike poles
3. Magnetic field
between like
poles
Properties of magnetic field lines

• Magnetic flux is a vector quantity
• Lines go from North to South Pole
• The lines never cross
• When the lines are close this means strong magnetic field
• When the lines are apart, this means weak magnetic field
• Magnetic force is strong near the poles and weakens going towards the middle of the
magnet.
Uniform magnetic field:
When magnetic field lines are
1. Parallel,
Magnetism
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9
2. Equally spaced.
• The compass consists of a very small and light weight magnetic needle that is free to
rotate inside a frame with glass cover.
• The compass is affected by any nearby magnetic field.
• If no magnetic field is nearby the north of the compass needle points towards the direction
of the north of the earth.
• Fig shows a bar magnet and four plotting compasses A,B,C and D
• You can see how the magnetic needler of the compass aligns itself to the magnetic field
line and points with the direction of the magnetic field line.
• The head of the arrow of the compass is the north of the magnetic needle.
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• A (normally open) reed switch contains two

iron reeds
• The two iron reeds are normally not connected
so the circuit is open and no current flows and lamp is
off.
• When a bar magnet is brought close to the reeds,
the reeds become magnetized by induction with
the shown polarity.
• The iron reeds attract each other and this closes
the circuit so current flows and the bulb lights.
• A (normally closed) reed switch contains two

iron reeds and a third copper (non magnetic
conductor) reed
• One iron reed and the non magnetic reed are
normally connected so the circuit is closed, current
flows and lamp is on
• When a bar magnet is brought near to the

reeds, the reeds become magnetized by
induction with the shown polarity.
• The iron reeds attract each other, this opens
the circuit so current stops flowing and the
bulb turns off.
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11
• Basically the reed relay looks like a

normally open reed switch
• But instead of using a magnet to switch it on,

we use a solenoid that acts as an electromagnet.
• When switch S1 is on, current flows in the
solenoid (the blue circuit.
• This current creates a magnetic field that is
similar to the magnetic field of a bar magnet.
• The reeds become magnetized by
induction with the shown polarity.
• The iron reeds attract each other and
this closes the circuit so current flows
and the bulb lights.
• Note: The Relay is used to control large
current in a large circuit (the circuit
with the bulb), from a small current in
another circuit (the solenoid).
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12
• This relay is also used to control large current in a large

circuit (the circuit with the bulb), from a small current in
another circuit (the solenoid).
• The main circuit contains the bulb or

any other electric component and it is open
so no current is flowing and the bulb is off.
• When switch S1 is on, current

flows in the solenoid, so it becomes
an electromagnet.
• The electromagnet attracts the
armature that closes the contact
C1.
• Current flows in the main circuit
and the bulb lights
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• Put a compass next to an open electric circuit (no

electric current).
• Switch on the circuit and notice that the compass

needle will deflect and points to a new direction.
• If the current is switched off the needle will return to
its original direction
• This is because the compass is affected by a magnetic field that just exists during the flow
of electric current and disappears when current stops flowing
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Fact:
Any wire with an electric current, has a magnetic field.
1. Straight wire:
Magnetic field of current in a straight wire is represented by
circles that are perpendicular to the wire.
2. solenoid:
Magnetic field of a solenoid is represented
by lines as shown in figure.
Other straight wires Other solenoid
Circular flat coil (

A wire with current out of A wire with current
Horizontal wire a solenoid with
the page into the page
one turn)
1. Right hand grip rule with a

Straight wire:
If the thumb points with the direction of the current
in the wire then the rest of your fingers show the
direction of the magnetic field.
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2. Right hand grip rule with a solenoid:
Even though the rule is the same, in the case of the solenoid right hand grip rule is applied
differently.
If your right hand finger are in the direction of the current in the solenoid, the thumb will
point with the direction of the magnetic field.
Note: Magnetic field of a solenoid resembles the

magnetic field of a bar magnet. A solenoid has two poles.
1. Increasing the strength of magnetic field

increases the strength of the magnetic
field.
A stronger magnetic field has it’s magnetic field lines closer to
each other.
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of the
solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field.
2. Reversing the direction of magnetic field:

If direction of electric current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field will reverse.
Fact: If any wire with an electric current is placed in a

magnetic field, this wire will move.
A wire with an electric current is pushed if it is located in a magnetic field.
• Because, magnetic field due to current in the wire, interacts with

magnetic field of the magnet,
• causing force on the wire
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Fleming’s left hand rule is used to know the

direction of pushing force on wire when it
interacts with a magnetic field
wire will be pushed upwards wire will be pushed downwards
wire will be pushed out of the page wire will be pushed out of the page
wire will be pushed to the right wire will be pushed to the left
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If the direction of the magnetic field (first finger) is unchanged but the direction of the
current (second finger) is reversed, then the direction of force (thumb) will also reverse.
If the direction of the current (second finger) is unchanged but the direction of the magnetic
field (first finger) is reversed, then the direction of force (thumb) will also reverse.
Note: If both current and magnetic field are reversed,

the force will be unchanged and the pushing will be in the
same direction
Reversing the current only reverses the force

Reversing the magnetic field only reverses the force
Reversing both current and magnetic field doesn’t change the force direction.
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1. Increase number of turning of the coil.
2. Use stronger magnet.
3. Increase the current intensity.
4. Bring the poles closer.
If the electric current in the wire and the

magnetic field of the magnet are parallel
to each other there will be no force on the
wire
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Fleming’s left hand rule also applies for moving positively charged particles like alpha particles
If an alpha particle is moving to the right according to Fleming’s left hand rule the alpha
particle will be pushed upwards.
If you are given a question about deflection of beta particle or any negatively charged particle,
you can apply Fleming’s left hand rule just as you did with alpha particles, but do not forget to
reverse the final answer. So if your thumb shows that the force is upwards simply your answer
will be the opposite (downwards).
Note: Fleming’s left hand rule applies for a wire and

moving alpha particles the same way.
For beta, particles do not forget to reverse
the final answer so if the thumb points upwards this
means beta will go downwards. If the answer is to the left
this means beta will deflect to the right
\
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Now it’s time to study the electric d.c. motor. In this part, you will study three points:
1. How to draw a labelled diagram.
2. Predict whether a given motor will rotate clockwise or anti clockwise direction.
3. What is the commutator?
5 parts need to be clearly labelled on your diagram:

1. D.C. power supply.
2. Coil.
3. Magnet.
4. Carbon brush.
5. Commutator (split rings).
For simplicity, you can draw it as a 2d diagram.
To predict the direction of rotation of a coil of

an electric motor you need to know the direction
of the current in the two sides of the coil.
Most of the electromagnetic force that causes the
rotation of the coil is applied on the two sides of
the coil.
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You only need to apply Flemings left hand rule to one of

the sides, not the two sides of the coil.
According to Fleming’s left hand rule the shown side of
the coil is pushed downwards.
If this side of the coil is pushed downwards, by applying

Fleming’s left hand rule to the other side of the coil it
shows that the other side of the coil will be pushed
upwards.
And this causes the coil to rotate in clockwise directon
The turning effect of the coil can be increased by:
• Increasing the current in the coil.

• Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
• Using a soft iron core for the coil to concentrate the lines of the magnetic field.
To understand the role of the commutator you need to

focus only on one side of the coil. So let us study this
side of the coil.
The different color is just to distinguish between the
two sides of the coil, so that one appears to be
colored and the other side is not colored.
The coil will complete a whole cycle when any

side of the coil is pushed up for the first half
of the cycle and then pushed down for the
second half of the cycle.
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Image and : According to the direction of electric current in the coil and the direction of
the magnetic field, the colored side of the coil is pushed upwards.
By applying Fleming’s left hand rule to the colored side of the coil, magnetic field from left to
right, electric current out of the page so the force on the colored side is to the top of the page.
Image : At this point the colored side of the coil reached the top and now the coil completed a
half cycle.
To complete the second halfcycle, now the colored side of the coil need to be pushed down.
To do this the current needs to reverse it’s direction otherwise the colored side will stay at the top
and the cycle will not complete.
Image : electric current is reversed, and it is now into of the page (remember in image 1 and 2
current direction was out of the page),
The direction of motion (force) is now downwards so the coil can complete the second half cycle.
Image : the colored side is still pushed downwards.
Image : the coil begins its cycle in image 1 and ends the cycle in image 6.
Now the current needs to reverse again in the coil to start a new cycle.
Note: For a complete cycle of the coil, current in the coil

needs to reverse each half cycle so the pushing force on the
sides reverses each half cycle so the cycle completes.
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The commutator: swaps positions on carbon brushes each half cycle so it reverses the current
in the coil each half cycle.
Let’s understand that through images:
Again, this time we tried to give the commutators different colors to help you easily understand
what happens.
Notice that the silvery gray half ring (commutator) is sliding on the –ve carbon brush (connected
to the –ve pole of the battery.
At this point both half rings in the coil at this moment, but the
(commutator) are not coil continues to rotate by inertia
connected to the carbon (previous push)
brushes and hence no current
Now the silvery gray half ring (commutator) is sliding on the +ve carbon brush (connected to the
+ve pole of the battery.
The role of the commutator in the rotation of the coil in D.C. Motor
• Commutators swap positions on carbon brushes each half cycle,

• This reverses the current in the coil each half cycle,
• So reverses the pushing force on the coil each half cycle,
• So rotation continues.
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• Figure shows a loudspeaker.

• This creates a sound wave in the air due to the vibrating paper cone.
• The cone is attached to a coil of copper wire which fits loosely over the centre of a
cylindrical magnet.
• The coil is, therefore, a conductor which is free to move in a magnetic field.
• When a current flows in the coil, the coil and cone will move.
• The current input varies with the sound being produced - a varying signal is received from a
microphone, MP3 player or similar.
• The changing current causes the coil and cone to move to and fro and produce a sound
wave.
D.C. Motor
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In the previous lesson – electromagnetic force – (Electric motor) you learned how a wire that
carries an electric current is pushed in the presence of a magnetic field.
In this lesson, you will learn how to generate electric current in a wire by moving it in the
presence of a magnetic field.
Electromagnetic force Electromagnetic induction

(Motor Effect)
If you move a wire between the poles of a magnet,

an electric voltage is generated across the wire and
current flows in the wire during its motion between
the poles of the magnet. This voltage is named
(induced voltage and the current is named induced
current).
An induced current is generated in a wire when it moves between the two

poles of a magnet.
• Metallic wire conductor,

• cuts the magnetic field lines of the magnet,
• • this generates an induced voltage the causes an induced current.
Electromagnetic Induction (Generator)

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Image : the wire is not moving yet and the galvanometer give no reading.
Image and : the wire is pushed downwards and is cutting the magnetic field lines, this causes
an induced voltage across the wire and an induced electric current is now flowing so the
galvanometer pointer deflects giving a reading and the pointer deflects to the right.
Image : now the wire at this point induced voltage is

reached the bottom and stops zero, no induced current is
moving so the wire is not detected by the galvanometer
cutting any magnetic field lines, and the pointer returns to zero.
Image , and : the wire is now pushed upwards (the opposite direction) and is cutting the
magnetic field lines from the opposite direction, this causes a reverse induced voltage and the
induced current will flow in the wire in the opposite direction. Notice that the deflection of the
galvanometer pointer is now to the left.
Image : now the wire at this point induced voltage is

reached the top and again it zero, no induced current is
stops moving so the wire is not detected by the galvanometer
cutting any magnetic field lines, and the pointer returns to zero.

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3
1. Coil.
2. Magnet
3. Slip rings
4. Carbon brushes
5. Galvanometer.
D.C motor A.C. Generator

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1st Half Cycle
2nd Half Cycle

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Current and voltage from an a.c. generator

is described as being:
1. Reversing.
2. Variable.
Reversing:
• To understand the reason for this you need to see and follow the motion of the red side of
the coil during 1 complete rotation in the previous page.
• A.C. current flows in both directions,
• It has positive and negative values,
• This is because each side of the coil reverses the direction of motion in the magnetic field
each half cycle,
• So the direction of cutting magnetic field lines reverses each half cycle,
Variable:
• A.C. current varies smoothly between a maximum value and a minimum value, having all the
values in-between.
• Let us first study possibilities of wire motion in magnetic field.
• Now let’s apply these cases to the sides of the coil in the A.C. generator

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1st Half Cycle
2nd Half Cycle

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• As you can see, the direction

that the red part of the coil
cuts the magnetic field lines of
the magnet changes during 1
complete cycle. This causes the
induced voltage (induced
current) vary continuously
between zero current to
maximum current then zero
current again then another
maximum of current but in the
opposite direction and finally
the cycle completes and current
returns to zero.
• When the wire moves parallel to the magnetic field lines current is zero.
• When the wire cuts the magnetic field lines with an angle 90o current is max.
When the sides of the coil are midway When the sides of the coil are close to the
between the poles current is zero pole current is max
A.C current graph and coil orientation:

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producing larger current:

• Increase number of turning of the coil
• Using stronger magnet.
• Using iron core.
• Rotate the coilfaster
Moving the coil faster

• Actually if you rotate the coil faster, the amount of induced current will increase and the
frequency of the a.c. current will increase as well.
• This is because the coil will make a complete cycle in shorter time.
Faster rotation of the coil

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1
In the previous lesson we moved a wire

between two poles of a magnet so an
induced voltage is generated that
produced an induced current.
This was explained as:
• cuts the magnetic field lines
of the magnet,
• This generates an induced
voltage the causes an
induced current.
But what if we move the magnet and not the wire?

If a magnet is moved near
a wire or a coil, the same
effect will be observed.
An induced current will be
produced in the coil due to
cutting the magnetic field
lines of the magnet.
But another explanation would be
as follows:
An induced current is generated in a coil when a magnet is moved nearby.

• is exposed to a changing magnetic field.
• this generates an induced voltage the causes an induced current.
Now you know two ways to produce induced current.

1- moving the wire beside a magnet 2- moving the magnet beside the wire.
There are several method to get a larger induced voltage (or induced current) when you move the
magnet near a coil:
Electromagnetic Induction (Transformers)

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2
1. Increase number of turnings of
the coil:
This increases the length of wire that cuts the
magnetic field lines or in other words increases the
length of wire that is exposed to the variable
magnetic field.
2. Use a stronger magnet:

Stronger magnetic field means the wire cuts
more magnetic field lines.
3. move the magnet faster:

When you move the magnet faster, the
magnetic field on the coil changes more
rapidly or in other words the coil cuts the
magnetic field lines with faster rate
The simplest way to get a changing magnetic field in a school laboratory to demonstrate
electromagnetic induction is by moving a bar magnet near by a coil.
If you move the magnet into the coil, this is a

changing magnetic field and it generates induced
current in the coil
If you move the magnet out of the coil, this is a

current in the coil.
If you rotate the magnet beside the coil, this is a

current in the coil.
Fact:
If any wire or coil is exposed to a changing magnetic
field, this changing magnetic field will cause an induced
current in the wire or coil.

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3
• Surprisingly you can get a changing magnetic field without even using any magnet.
• Coil 2 with the bulb has no any power supply or batteries.
• Coil 1 is connected to an A.C. power supply.
• The A.C. current in coil 1 creates an alternating (changing) magnetic field.
• When coil 2 is linked to the alternating magnetic field created by coil 1 an induced voltage is
created across coil and induced current flows causing the bulb to light.
• Note that there is no touch or any electrical connections between coil 1 and coil 2.
• This is the basic idea of making Transformers.
1-Primary coil:
• A.C. current (voltage) causes a
constantly changing magnetic field
2- Iron Core:
• The constantly changing magnetic
field is transferred from primary
to secondary coil,
3- Secondary coil:
• The alternating magnetic field that
reached the secondary coil causes
an induced voltage that is related to the number of turnings of the coils.
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4
Note: There is no electric current in the iron core

from the primary coil, and there is no touch or electric
connection between primary coil, iron core and secondary
coil. Iron core transfers the alternating magnetic field to
the secondary coil and not electric current.
• Transformers are used to step up or step down the voltage.

• This is according to the number of turnings in both primary and secondary coil.
• In a step up transformer, the number of turnings in primary coil is less than the number of
turnings in secondary coil.
• In a step down transformer, the number of turnings in primary coil is greater than the number
of turnings in secondary coil.
The ratio between a.c. voltage on primary coil to the a.c. voltage on the secondary coil is ruled
by the following relationship:
N in :number of turnings on primary coil,
N out : number of turnings on secondary.
V in :Voltage on primary coil,
V out : voltage on secondary coil
Number of turnings of the primary coil of a transformer is 100 turning

and its secondary coil has 25 turnings, the input voltage is 200 V.
calculate the output voltage.

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Does that mean we can increase the voltage?
Of course, we can increase the A.C. voltage by using a step-up transformer with more turnings
on secondary coil then primary.
Does increasing voltage mean that we can get larger amount of
electric power for more electric appliance to work?
increasing voltage by a transformer
does not mean that the transformer can
generate more power.
If we have a 100% efficient transformer
that does not lose any form of energy, for
this transformer the input power is just equal to the output power.
So, as P = IV, this means that we get another formula:
A step-up transformer has 50V and 8 A on the primary coil the output
voltage is 500V. Calculate the current on the secondary coil.
• Notice that even the step up transformer mentioned in the example increases the voltage by
10 times, the current is reduced by a factor of 1/10.
• Therefore, a step up transformer increases the voltage but decreases the current.
• So the amount of electric energy and electric power are unchanged in other words
• You just change the voltage and the current. If voltage increases, current will decrease.
Transformer does not work on D.C. on primary coil, only A.C.
• D.C. current does not produce an alternating (changing) magnetic

field so no voltage will be induced on the secondary coil.

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What is a 100% efficient transformer?
In fact, this type of transformer does not exist. But in most of the calculations it is assumed
that:
1. Pin = Pout
2. No energy or power loss
3. The transformer does not heat up
4. All magnetic field from primary reaches the secondary
5. No Eddy current
Eddy current is a type of current that causes the transformer core to heat up. Details about
eddy current are not required by the syllabus.
Transmitting electricity from power stations to homes for long distances is one of the most
important life applications that uses transformers.
The problem
You may think that electricity is transmitted for long distances just by connecting cables.
One problem that arises from transmitting electricity that all these long cables are heating up
because of their resistance.
This causes most of the electric power that is produced by the power station to be lost in the
cables as heat. So the electric power delivered to homes will be a small percentage of the total
power produced by the power station.
The power loss in cables as heat is given by the formula
Note: If current or resistance of cables is decreased,

power lost in the cables as heat will decrease.
we can not decrease the Resistance:

To decrease the resistance we need to use thicker cables which are heavier so this will also
need to replace the pylons. This approach is expensive.

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we will decrease the Current:
Decreasing the current of transmitting electricity in the cables is the most reasonable solution for
the problem of power loss in cables as heat to do that we use:
is added after power station and before transmission:
It increases the voltage and decreases the current so reduces the power loss I2R due to the
resistance of the cables,
is added after transmission and before home use:
It decreases the voltage and increases the current to suitable value for home use.
Disadvantages of high voltage transmission:

1- Difficulty of insulation.
2- Contact may be lethal.
3- Cost of transformers.
4- Overhead cables must be high above ground, tall pylons are expensive.
5- Underground cables are very expensive, difficult to maintain.
Now let us get back to the coil and the variable magnetic field.
Fact: The coil is unhappy with the changing magnetic field.
As we explained before, any moving

magnet is considered a changing
magnetic field.
When a coil is exposed to a changing magnetic field this causes
an induced current in the coil.
This current will oppose the effect of the magnet to resist its
motion.

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8
Lenz’s Law The induced current will oppose the

effect of the changing magnetic field that created it
The magnet is moving towards the coil

with its north pole. The induced
current in the coil will flow in a
direction that creates a north on the
left to repel the magnet and oppose
its motion towards the coil.
The magnet is moving towards the
coil with its south pole. The induced
direction that creates a south on the
left to repel the magnet and oppose
its motion towards the coil.
The magnet is moving away from the

coil with its south pole. The induced
direction that creates a south on the
left to attract the magnet and oppose
its motion away from the coil.
The magnet is moving away from the

coil with its north pole. The induced
direction that creates a north on the
left to attract the magnet and oppose
its motion away from the coil.

154
Unit 7 Topic 1: Water Waves.
Unit 7 Topic 2: Sound Waves.
Unit 7 Topic 3: Light Reflection.
Unit 7 Topic 4: Light Refraction.
Unit 7 Topic 5: Light Dispersion.
Unit 7 Topic 6: Lenses.
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1
In general, waves can be classified according to two different criteria.

They are classified according to their need of medium to travel through and according to
the disturbance (vibration of particles), they cause when they travel through a medium.
Needs medium Travels in vacuum Vibration parallel to Vibration

direction of wave perpendicular to
direction of wave
1- Sound waves, 1- Light waves, 1- Sound waves, 1- Light waves,

2- Water waves. 2- Seismic P-waves 2- Water waves.
(primary) 3- Seismic S-waves
(secondary)
is the transfere of energy and information without the transfer
of particles
it is the wave were particles

vibrate parallel to direction of
the wave propagation,
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Water Waves
2
it is the wave were particles vibrate perpendicular to direction

of the wave propagation.
it is part of transverse wave and it is the maximum displacement the particles of

the medium can make upwards.
it is part of transverse wave and it is the maximum displacement the particles
of the medium can make downwards.
is part of a longitudinal wave where particles of the medium are close
to each other.
is part of a longitudinal wave where particles of the medium are far
apart from each other.
1- Amplitude, 2- Wavelength, 3- Frequency, 4- Periodic time, 5- Wave speed.
is the maximum displacement

of particles about its original position.
Distance
between two successive crests or troughs.
Distance
between centers of two successive

compressions or rarefactions.
Water Waves
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3
Number of complete waves in 1second, Unit is (Hertz),Symbol

(Hz).
Time of 1
complete waves (s).
If a wave has a frequency 5 Hz, this
means that 5 waves are produced in 1 s.
So each wave takes 1/5 s.
We say that the periodic time of this wave
is 1/5 s.
f = 1 /T and T=1/f
Distance travelled by
wave in 1 second,
Wave speed can be calculated by multiplying
it’s wavelength by it’s frequency.
• Different behaviours of water waves are studied in physics

lab by the ripple tank.
• A movable arm that moves up and down on the surface of
water generates a train of water waves.
• Water waves can be studied by looking to the side

of the ripple tank (side view).
• In this view, you can observe the crests and trough
of the waves.
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Water Waves
4
• Water waves can also be studied by looking at

the top of the ripple tank (Top view).
• In this case you can see parallel equally spaced
lines and they move in a direction that is
perpendicular to all the lines
• These lines are known as wave fronts.
• The distance between two successive wave fronts
is also the wavelength.
• When a train of water waves is directed to the side of the ripple tank it hits the
side of the ripple tank and reflects.
• Angle of incidence: is
the angle between incident ray and
normal,
• Angle of reflection: is
the angle between reflected ray
and normal,
• Law of reflection:
Angle of incidence = Angle of
reflection,
• Reflection does not affect: Wavelength, wave speed or frequency, just the direction,
• When a wave passes through a gap it spreads away after the gap this is
diffraction.
• Diffraction through a small gap less than

or equal to wavelength
• Diffraction through a large gap greater

than wavelength
• Diffraction does not affect: Wavelength, wave speed or frequency

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Water Waves
5
• Diffraction just affects: Wave shape.

• is when wavelength equal the gap width.
• When water wave travels from a deep region (fast medium) to a shallow
region (slow medium) or the opposite, its wavelength changes, its wave speed
changes and also its direction. Frequency is the only property that remain unchanged.
Wavelength, Decreases Increases,

wave speed, Decreases Increases,
Frequency, No change No change
Bends. Towards normal. Away from normal.
Water Waves
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1
•Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
•Sound waves are mechanical waves.

• A mechanical wave needs medium to travel,
• A mechanical wave needs medium to travel,
• If we pump out air from the vacuum jar
• The sound of the ringing electric bell becomes
quieter,
• No sound is heard, if air is completely removed,
even the bell is still working.
• Astronauts need communication devices because they can not bear each other in
space, because sound does not travel in space.
•Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
• is a series of compressions and rarefactions where air

molecules vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.
• is the region where air molecules are close to
each other, the ((high pressure region)).
• is the region where air molecules are far apart
from each other, the ((low pressure region)).
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Sound Waves
2
•Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids than in gas.
Material Air(0°C) Water Concrete Steel
Speed/(m/s) 330 1400 5000 6000
• Sound speed increases as temperature increases.

• Sounds with frequencies between 20 and 20000 Hz are heard and
this range is named audible range.
Sound has the same behaviour of other waves: reflection, refraction and diffraction.
• Sound waves are reflected well from hard, flat

surfaces such as walls or cliffs
• Sound reflection obey the same laws of
reflection of light and water waves.
• The reflected sound causes the echo.
• Reflection of sound does not affect
wavelength, wave speed or frequency.
• Reflection just affects the direction of sound.
The captain hears the echo after 9

seconds from original sound of foghorn …
what is the distance between the mountain
and the ship?
Speed of sound 330 m/s
Sound took nine s to travel to the mountain and reflect back, this means it took only 4.5 s
to the mountain
181
Sound Waves
3
• Audible sounds have wavelengths from about 1.5

centimeters and diffracts by small size gaps, e.g.
a doorway 1 meter wide.
• This explains why we hear sound round corners.
• Low frequency (longer wavelength) notes are
diffracted more than higher frequencies (shorter
wavelengths).
• Sound also undergoes refraction the same ways

water waves does.
• If sound is travelling out of a solid medium to a
gaseous medium, we can apply the same rules of
diffraction of water waves considering solid is
a fast medium (like deep in water) and gas as
the slow medium (like shallow in water.
Wavelength, Decreases Increases,

wave speed, Decreases Increases,
Frequency, No change No change
Bends. Towards normal. Away from normal.
indicates the sound energy

reaching the ear. Louder sound has larger
wave amplitude.
indicates the sharpness of sound and

depends on its frequency.
Sharp sound has high frequency and consequently
high pitch.
Sound Waves
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4
• When the observer sees the flash, he starts the

stopwatch and when he hears the bang, he stops
the stopwatch.
• Using a stopwatch measure the time between
seeing the flash and hearing the sound this is the
time taken by sound from the cannon to the
observer.
• A man stands at
distance d from a wall
(at least 50 m).
• He claps two wooden
sticks,
• Time between clapping
the sticks and hearing
the echo is recorded.
• Time is divided by 2, and this is to get the time

taken by sound to travel one way, from the man
to the wall.
Sound Waves
183
5
• Sonar is a method used to

measure the depth of water or
to locate an underwater
object.
• Figure shows how this works.
• A pulse of ultrasound is sent
down from a boat and reflects
from the seabed.
• The time taken for the
reflected pulse to be received is measured.
• This is used, with the speed of sound in water to calculate the depth of the water.
A ship sends out an ultrasound pulse and receives the echo after 3
seconds. The speed of sound in water is 1500m/s. Calculate the depth of
the water.
Step 1: Calculate the distance travelled by the pulse:

distance = speed x time
= 1500m/s x 3s
= 4500 m
Step 2: Halve this to get the depth. Remember the pulse goes down and
back up again.
4500 𝑚
depth = = 2250 m
2
Sound Waves
184
6
• Ultrasound can be used to detect flaws

inside materials.
• A small crack in a metal girder could
cause a building to collapse.
• Figure shows ultrasound being passed
through uncracked (A) and cracked
(B) metal.
• The original and reflected pulses are
shown on oscilloscope
• Ultrasonic waves are partially reflected from boundaries

between different materials, such as the chambers of a
patient's heart, or a fetus.
• Computer analysis of the reflected waves produces an
image.
185
Sound Waves
1
• You can see an object only if light from it enters your eyes.
• Some objects such as the Sun, electric lamps and candles make their own light. We call
these luminous sources.
• Most things are non-luminous objects; they do not make their own light but reflect light
from a luminous source.
• Light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves that travel in vacuum with speed
(3x108 m/s).
Speed of light = Wavelength x Frequency
v = λf
• Light travels in straight lines so it can produce shadows and inverted images.
• An inverted image of the tree is

formed in a dark box because light
travels in straight line through the hole.
• Shadows are formed for two reasons.

1. First, because some objects, which are said to be
opaque, do not allow light to pass through them.
2. Second, because light travels in straight lines.
Light Reflection
186
2
• Proof that light travels very much faster than sound is provided by a thunderstorm.
• The flash of lightning is seen before the thunder is heard.
• Its speed is about 1 million times greater than that of sound
• The perpendicular to the mirror at the

point where the incident ray strikes it is
called the normal.
• Note that the angle of incidence i is the
angle between the incident ray and the
normal;
• similarly the angle of reflection r is the
angle between the reflected ray and the
normal.
1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of

reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal all lie in the same plane. (This means that
they can all.
Ray diagrams explain how light travel during reflection so you can see the image of an
object inside the mirror.
Draw a ray diagram to find the position of the image made by a plane mirror.
187
Light Reflection
3
Draw the first incident light ray Reflect the light ray so that the angle
(anywhere) on the mirror. of incidence = the angle of reflection
Draw another incident light ray Reflect the second light ray so that
(anywhere) on the mirror. angle of incidence = the angle of
reflection
Now draw extensions for the the image is drown on the intersection of
reflected rays behind the mirror. the extensions and an eye as shown
If your diagram is accurate, you will find that the

distance between object and mirror equals the
distance between image and mirror.
188
Light Reflection
4
1. Virtual.
2. Erect.
3. Same size of object.
4. Behind the mirror.
5. Inverted.
You will study several cases of real images in lenses topic.

To put it simply, the image formed by a projector on a screen in your class room is a real
image and your image in a mirror is a virtual image.
Real image Virtual image
• Is formed by intersection of real rays. • Is formed by intersection of extensions

of rays the real rays do not intersect.
• Can be captured on a screen. • Cannot be captured on a screen.
• Previously you learned how to draw a

ray diagram to find the position of
the image formed in a plane mirror.
• In this experiment, you will find the
position of the image of an object
practically in the physics lab.
Light Reflection
189
5
Put a uniform object in front of a Stand 20 cm to the right of the object

plane mirror. and look at the image in the mirror
Align two thin pins with your line of Repeat step 2 and 3, by standing 20
sight to the image. cm to the left of the object.
Draw (x) in places of pins and draw a line in place of mirror.

Complete the diagram as shown and you will find that the distance between object
and mirror equals to the distance between image and mirror.
Light Reflection
190
6
• A simple periscope consists of a tube

containing two plane mirrors, fixed parallel
to and facing one another.
• Each makes an angle of 45° with the line
joining them.
• Light from the object is reflected through
90° at each reflection and an observer is
able to see over a crowd, or over the top
of an obstacle
• In other periscopes like those used in
submarines, prisms replace mirrors. These
kinds of periscopes will be studied in details next topic (light refraction).
Light Reflection
191
1
The bending of light when it passes

from one medium to another is called
of Light.
A pencil placed in water appears to
be broken due to refraction.
Lines
and angles
Angle of incidence: is the angle between
incident ray and normal.
Angle of refraction: is the angle between
refracted ray and normal.
From rare to dense, the ray bends towards the

normal.
Light Reflection
192
2
From dense to rare, the ray bends away from the

normal
If light ray falls perpendicular to the surface it

passes undeviated,
as angle of incidence= angle of refraction = 0
• At point (a) the ray approaches the normal as it falls

from rare to dense
• at point (b) the ray bends away from the normal as it
falls from dense to rare,
Light Reflection
193
3
• At point (a) the ray approaches the normal as it falls

from rare to dense,
• At point (b) the ray falls perpendicular to the surface so
it passes undeviated,
• At point (a) the ray falls perpendicular to the surface so

it passes undeviated,
• At point (b) the ray bends away from the normal as it
travels from dense to rare,
• At point (a) the ray approaches the normal as it

travels from rare to dense,
• At point (b) the ray bends away from the normal
as it travels from dense to rare,
An object placed in water appear higher

than its real position due to refraction.
Draw a ray diagram showing the
formation of image of an object under
water so it appears higher than its real
position.
Light Reflection
194
4
This is the object in placed in a Draw the first incident ray out of
beaker of water. the object to the surface of water.
Bend the ray away from normal as it Repeat 2 and 3 with a second ray
is going from dense to rare. and bend it with a greater angle.
Draw extensions to both refracted The point of intersection of the two

rays in to water. extensions is the image.
• Different refraction in
different transparent
materials.
• This refraction effect is
measured numerically by a
physical quantity named
.
Light Reflection
195
5
• Diamond has the

greater refractive
index and this means
that diamond bends
light rays more
towards the normal.
• Diamonds causes
the greater
decrease in wave
speed and
wavelength.
Put a rectangular glass block and two Stand on a side of the block so both pins
pins on a sheet of paper. are on the other side.
Observe the images of the two pins Change the angle of your sight line to see
from the side of the block. the images of pins as one image
Light Reflection
196
6
Place two pins P3 and P4 to appear in This is a top view of the experiment now
one line with the images of P1 and P2
Draw an outline of the block and draw Draw lines and measure the angles of
(x) in place of each pin incidence and refraction
Use the following rule to calculate the refractive index.
The previous experiment can be conducted using a ray box in a

dark room and just follow the path of a narrow beam of light as
it travels from air to glass and out.
• This case concerns about

light coming from dense to
rare.
• The lamp peroduce light rays
in all directions with
different angles.
Light Reflection
197
7
• Normally when light rays travel from water (dense) to air (rare), light rays bend
away from normal.
• As you can see, when angle of incidence increases the ray bends mor away from
normal with bigger angle of refraction.
• The angle of incidence increases until a special angle where the light ray bends along
the surface of water, we name this angle of incidence the .
• When angle of incidence becomes bigger than the critical angle the light ray does not
go into air (no refraction occurs) instead it reflects back into water.
• This phenomena is given a name ( ).
is the angle of incidence from denser medium that
causes angle of refraction 90o,
causes the maximum possible refraction,
causes the refracted ray to pass along the surface,
• The relationship between critical
angle of a medium and refractive
index of this medium is given by:
1. If angle of incidence < critical angle,

the ray will bend away from the normal.
2. If angle of incidence = critical angle,
the ray will bend along the surface.
3. If angle of incidence > critical angle,
total internal reflection occurs and no
refraction to air.
critical angle of
water is 42o complete the path of
rays after they hit the boundary
between water and air.
Light Reflection
198
8
• At point (a) the ray falls

perpendicular to the surface
so it passes undeviated,
• Critical angle of this
type of glass is 42o
• At (b) the angle of
incidense is 45o
• 45o > 42o so angle of incidence is greater than
critical angle of glass so total internalk reflection
occurs,
• At point (c) the ray falls perpendicular to the
surface so it passes undeviated.
• The same thing happens to light rays in the other prism.
• Optical fibers are very thin flexible rod (not tubes) that have transparent bodies.
• They look like wires but transparent.
• They are bendable due to their high flexibility (like wires).
• An optical fiber can simply transmit light entering one end to the other end with
minimum loss in light intensity.
• As light enters the flexible transparent body of the optical fiber it undergoes
multiple total internal reflections until it reaches the other end, no matter how long
the optical fiber is or how bended it is.
1. Telecommunication,
2. Medical use (Endoscope).
3. Decoration.
Light Reflection
199
9
One of the main uses of optical fibers is in transmittiing data. It is much faster than
copper cabbles as they light is much faster than electricity.
1. Digital signals are encoded as
pulses of light and are sent by
a transmitter.
2. light pulses travel through
optical fiber cable as they
undergo multiple total internal
reflections in the optical fiber
cable.
3. The light signal is then
decoded by a receiver at the far end of the optical fiber.
Light Reflection
200
1
• White light is composed of seven different colours.

• Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
indigo, Violet.
• When sunlight (white light) falls on a
triangular glass prism, a band of colours
called a is obtained
• The effect is termed dispersion.
• is the separation of white light into its
component colours by using a prism to form a spectrum.
• Different colours travel with the same speed in air or vacuum but travel with different
speeds in the prism.
• This causes each color to bend
inside the prism with different
angles causing the dispersion of
light.
o Red has the highest speed
in prism while Violet has
the lowest speed.
o Red has the lowest
refractive index (least refraction) while Violet has the highest.
Light Despersion
201
2
• Light of one colour, one wavelength and

specific frequency is called
.
• :
It contains different colours where the
wavelength continuously changing from
one colour to another.
• Other colors like gray, brown, pink, turquoise and other colors we can see are not
included in the spectrum of sun light.
• These colors are mixtures of other colors so they are not monochromatic.
• Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, indigo, Violet are colors with specific frequency
and wavelength they are monochromatic lights.
• Pink brown and other colors we see that are not included in the white light spectrum
are not monochromatic they are mixtures of colors and do not have specific frequency
or wavelength.
• Therefore, we have monochromatic lights, which includes

original colors that are produced from the sun.
• We have mixture of lights that result from mixing original
monochromatic lights.
• We also have lights that are unseen.
• Among these lights are infrared and ultraviolet.
• These are two forms of light that are produced from the
sun but our eyes are unable to detect them.
• Infrared is actually the heat radiation.
Light Despersion
202
3
• The electromagnetic spectrum is made of a group of electromagnetic waves which all

have the following common properties:
o They are transverse waves, which transfer energy as they propagate.
o They consist of combination of electric and magnetic fields.
o They travel in air or vacuum with the same speed of light (3x108 m/s).
• Components of electromagnetic spectrum have same speed but have different
wavelength and frequency.
• Gamma rays has the greatest frequency.
• Radio waves has the greatest wavelength.
• They all obey the equation:
Speed = Wavelength x Frequency
V= λ X f
Light Despersion
203
4
Uses harms
• long-, medium-and short-wave radio,
• TV (UHF)
Radio waves • Astronomy
• Radio frequency identification (RFID)
• Mobile phone
Internal heating of
Microwaves • Satellite communication, body tissue
• Cooking (microwave ovens)
• Infra-red cookers and heaters,
• Remote controls,
Infra-red • Night vision (Thermal imaging) Skin burns
• Intruder alarms.
• Optical fibers.
• Seeing,
Visible light • Communication (optical fibers),
• Photography
• Security marking.
Damage to surface
Ultraviolet (UV) • Detecting fake banknotes. cells and blindness
• Sterilizing water
• X-radiography to observe the internal
structure of objects, including human
X-rays bodies (medical scanning.
• Security scanners. Cancer and mutation.
• Sterilizing medical equipment and food,
Gamma rays • Detecting cancer and treatment)
radiotherapy
Light Despersion
204
5
• Earth has many artificial satellites, many of which are used in the transmission of
information carried by electromagnetic waves.
• Most artificial satellite communication uses microwaves.
• Some of the satellites used for communication are in geostationary orbits.
• This means that they orbit at the same rate as the Earth turns and so they stay
above one point on the Earth's surface.
• They are about 35000 km above the Earth's surface and are positioned above the
Equator.
• These satellites are powerful and can transmit large amounts of data.
• This makes them suitable for satellite television and some satellite phones.
• The waves travel a long distance to the satellite, meaning there is a slight delay, making
it more difficult to have a conversation.
• Low Earth orbits are much closer. They can be as low as 2000 km above the
Earth's surface.
• This means there is no delay in
conversation.
• These satellites orbit the Earth in
as little as two hours.
• A lot more of these are needed
than for geostationary orbits as
they only cover a small area of the
Earths surface (see Figure 15.15).
• They cannot transmit data as fast
as geostationary satellites and so
are not suitable for television
transmission.
Light Despersion
205
6
• Mobile phones and wireless internet use

microwaves, because they can pass through
most walls and only a small aerial is needed.
• Bluetooth - used for short range communication - uses

radio waves. The signal is weakened when it passes through
walls. This short range signal is useful for communication
between electronic devices such as in hands-free mobile phone
systems.
• Optical fibres (for cable television and high

speed internet) use infrared radiation and
visible light.
• Optical fibres are made of glass which is
transparent to light and infrared radiation. These
waves have a higher frequency and can carry more
data.
• This is vital for high speed broadband connections.
Light Despersion
206
7
Electricity is used as power, like electricity for operating different appliances. or in transferring
data like internet and phone calls. Electric voltage used to transfer data is known as signals
Analogue signal Digital signal

voltage that vary continuously with Signals that have only discrete values
Definition
time between maximum and minimum High and Low
Graph
• Analogue meters • Switches

e.g. pointer ammeters, voltmeters, • Digital meterse.g. digital ammeters,
• Variable resistors voltmeters,
examples
• Digital thermometers
• CD players
• Telecommunication
Any signal becomes distorted when it transferred a long distance.
• Clearer
• Can be reproduced (regenerated),
• Less prone to interference,
Advantages • Carries more data,
• Easily repaired,
• Easily processed and can deal with
computers,
Light Despersion
207
1
• is a lens, which has the action of

refracting rays, falling on it to collect them at a point.
• of the lens: the point at the centre of the lens (P).
• of the lens: the line passing through the optical centre and
perpendicular to the lens surface.
• This is the point on the principal axis to which parallel

rays converge after being refracted by the lens (F).
• This is the distance between the principal focus of the
lens and its optical centre.
• that each lens has two principal foci at equal distances from P, one on each
side of the lens.
Lenses
208
2
• A ray passing through P passes

undeviated.
• A ray passing parallel to the principal axis

is refracted through the principal focus.
• A ray passing through the principal focus

is refracted parallel to the principal axis.
• This part explains how to draw ray

diagrams to find the image formed by a
convex lens.
• Case1: object is further from 2F.
• Case2: object is exactly on 2F.
• Case3: object is between 2F and F.
• Case4: object closer to lens than F.
Lenses
209
3
Object beyond 2F Object at 2F
Object between F and 2F Object between F and lens
Draw a ray from the top of the From the point the ray meets the
object to the lens and parallel to the centerline of the lens break the ray so it
principal axis. passes through the focus F.
Draw a second ray from the top of Draw the image as another arrow from
the object that passes through the the principal axis to the point of
optical center and continue it unbroken. intersection between the two rays.
Lenses
210
4
• You need only two rays from the top of the object to locate the image so you can also
draw your diagram as follows.
or
Draw a ray from the top of the From the point the ray meets the
object to the lens and parallel to the centerline of the lens break the ray so
principal axis. it passes through the focus F.
Draw a second ray from the top of The two rays will not meet so draw
the object that passes through the dotted extension lines for the rays until
optical center and continue it unbroken. the extensions meet behind the lens.
Draw the image as another arrow Draw the observer’s eye in the other
from the principal axis to the point of side of the lens looking at the
intersection of the two extensions. refracted rays.
Lenses
211
5
Case number 4 where object is between the principle focus F and the lens is widely used
in many life applications:
• Magnifying glass.
• Eyepieces.
• Microscopes.
• Telescopes.
As you can see, case 4 is used in different applications to see objects bigger than their
real size.
Different lenses can magnify objects with different power.
is the ratio between the height of the image to the

height of the object.
Lenses
212
6
• Our eyes contain converging lenses

which form an image on the retina
at the back of the eye.
• The lenses in our eyes are flexible
and muscles can change the shape
and strength of the lens.
• This allows us to focus on objects
at different distances.
• The light from the closer object is
diverging so the lens needs to be
thicker and stronger to form an
image on the retina.
• Figure a: Parallel light from a
distant object is focused by a weak
lens, b: Diverging light from a close
object needs a stronger lens.
• Some eyes are unable to change
their strength enough to focus on either close or distant objects.
• An extra lens, worn as spectacles or contact lenses, can work with the eye lens to let it
focus as needed.
• A person with short sight can see close up

objects clearly, but cannot form a clear image
of distant objects.
• The image is formed in front of the retina.
• This is usually because the eyeball is slightly
too long so that the rays meet in front of the
retina.
• To correct this, a diverging lens is used to
make the rays from the distant object diverge.
• The eye lens is then able to form a focused
image.
• Figure shows the problem and how it is
corrected.
Lenses
213
7
• A longsighted eye can focus on

distant objects but not close objects.
• This can be because the eyeball is too
short, or the lens cannot become
strong enough so the rays from a
close object cannot be converged
enough to a form an image on the
retina.
• A converging lens causes the rays to
converge, allowing the eye lens to
form a focused image of close
objects, as shown in Figure.
• Figure a: With long sight, the image is
formed behind the retina,
• Figure b: A converging lens works with
the lens in the eye to form an image
on the retina.
Lenses
214
1
Unit 7 Topic 1: Earth and moon.

Unit 7 Topic 2: Solar system.
Unit 7 Topic 3: Stars and galaxies.
Unit 7 Topic 4: Universe.
Earth and moon

215
1
• Day and night phenomena is caused by the

Earth spinning on its axis (the imaginary
line between the poles).
• The side of the Earth facing the Sun
experiences daylight whilst the other side is
in darkness.
• At sunrise at a particular spot on Earth,
the Sun is just visible on the eastern horizon.
• As the Earth turns, the spot moves into the
full glare of the Sun so the Sun appears
directly overhead at midday.
• As the Earth continues to turn, the spot moves out of the direct sunlight until, at sunset, the
Sun appears to slip below the western horizon.
• We know the Moon is a rocky sphere which we only see when it reflects light from the Sun.
• The Moon orbits Earth every 27.5 days.
• Its position relative to Earth changes the way it appears to us as different parts of it are
illuminated by the Sun.
• This causes the changes called the phases of the Moon.
• As the Moon orbits the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up by the
Sun. As the Moon moves, the shape of the light part, which can be seen from the Earth,
changes. The outer circle of Moon diagrams shows how the Moon looks to an observer on
Earth.
Earth and moon

216
2
• The Earth orbits the Sun.

• It takes just over 365 days to complete one orbit.
• The seasons occur because of the tilt of the Earth's axis.
• Figure shows how the seasons change as the Earth orbits the Sun.
• Consider a country in the northern hemisphere (the half of the Earth north of the
Equator).
• In Figure a, due to the tilt of the Earth, it is tipped away from the Sun and the energy
from the Sun's rays is more spread out, making it colder.
• This means that area receives fewer hours of sunlight. These countries are experiencing
winter.
• In Figure c, the northern hemisphere is tipped towards the Sun, so it receives longer hours of
more direct sunlight. These countries are experiencing summer.
Earth and moon

217
3
Axis the imaginary line between the Earth's North

and South poles
Orbit the path of an object as it moves around a

larger object.
hemisphere half of a sphere; the Earth can be considered

to be made of two hemispheres divided by the Equator.
Equator an imaginary line drawn round the Earth

halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole.
Earth and moon

218
1
• the Sun which is our star, and all the objects which orbit it. It includes the following:
• There are eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune.
• There are minor planets, such as Pluto and Eris. In 2014, the International Astronomical
Union recognized five dwarf planets but it is believed there are more than 200 in all.
• Moons that orbit planets and dwarf planets.
• Millions of asteroids and meteoroids: these are rocky objects which are smaller than
planets. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter.
• Smaller solar system bodies like comets, which are often described as giant snowballs, orbit
the Sun in very irregular orbits.
• The force needed to keep the planets orbiting the Sun comes from the gravitational
attraction of the Sun.
• The Solar System began as a nebula, which is a huge swirling ball of dust and gas.
• Most of this gas was hydrogen, but there were also other elements formed by fusion in other
stars, which had exploded at the end of their life cycle, sending their contents out into the
clouds of interstellar gas.
• As gravity pulled this mass together, the
centre formed a star. You will learn more
detail about this in next chapter
(universe).
• The planets formed from the materials of
the nebula which were not pulled into the Sun.
• The spinning motion of the dust and gas formed a flat, spinning ring disc known as an
accretion disc.
• Gravity pulled dust and gas together so they joined to make rocks which then join to make
larger rocks.
• The process of the dust and gas being pulled together by gravity is called accretion and
it led to the formation of the inner, rocky planets.
• The intense heat forced some of the lighter materials further away and these formed the
outer planets - the gas giants.
• The four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars,
• are small and rocky. After Mars there is the asteroid belt. This is made up of left-over
pieces of rock. The outer four planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are
huge balls of gases. These planets are much bigger than the inner planets.
Solar System
219
2
Planet
a large spherical object that orbits the Sun
without another similar object close to it
Minor planet
an object which orbits the Sun but is not large
enough or far enough from another object to be defined as a planet
Asteroids and Meteoroids

lumps of rock which orbit the Sun
Comet
A ball of ice, dust and gas which orbits the Sun
in a highly elliptical orbit
Accretion disc
A rotating disc of matter formed by accretion
Accretion
A the coming together of matter under
the influence of gravity to form larger bodies
Solar System
220
3
• Distances in the Solar System are almost unimaginably big.

• The Earth is approximately 150 million kilometres from the Sun.
• Distances are often expressed in terms of how long it takes light to travel;
• one light-year is the distance travelled by light in a year.
• You will learn more about light-years in next chapter (universe).
•
•
•
•
Calculate the time for light from the Sun to travel the 150000000 km to
•
•
Earth. Give your answer in minutes.
•
•
•
Step 1: Write down what you know:
speed of light = 300 000 000 m/s
distance travelled = 150000000 km
Step 2: Convert distance to metres, so units are consistent.
150 000 000 km = 150 000 000 000 m
Step 3: Write the equation down and calculate the time taken:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
time taken =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
150 000 000 000 𝑚

=
300 000 000 𝑚/𝑠
= 500 seconds
Step 4: Convert to minutes
500 ÷ 60 = 8.3 minutes
Solar System
221
4
• Although the planets are small compared to the Sun, they are very massive objects.
• The more massive the planet, the greater the gravitational force experienced by objects at
its surface.
• On Earth we experience a force of l0 N/kg.
• On Earth a 60 kg student has a weight of 600 N.
• On Mercury, where gravity is 4 N/kg, the same student would weigh 240 N.
• The gravitational pull of planets is enough to cause moons to orbit them.
• The orbits of the planets are not

completely circular.
• The orbits are described as
elliptical.
• The amount the orbit is squashed is
called its eccentricity.
• Comets have very eccentric orbits.
• Comets travel far from the Sun
and then return close to it.
• Imagine an object moving past the Sun at high speed.

• As it passes near the Sun the gravitational force of the Sun starts to act on the
object and to pull it towards the Sun.
• This force also causes it to accelerate.
• This means the mass speeds up and its kinetic energy carries it slightly further out to the
furthest point of the orbit.
• The object slows down and is pulled in again towards the Sun.
• The Sun is not quite at the centre of a planet's elliptical orbit.
• There is a point close to the centre of an ellipse called the focus.
• The Sun is at the focus of the elliptical path of each of the planets.
• The planet moves closer to, and further away, from the Sun during each orbit.
• The Sun's gravity pulls the object in, speeds it up and then the speed carries it on to the
furthest part of the orbit.
• The object's orbital speed is therefore greatest when it is nearest to the Sun and slowest
when it is furthest from the Sun.
• Comets, which have the most elliptical orbits of any body in the Solar System accelerate
greatly as they approach the Sun and are slung back at high speed to the far reaches of
their orbits.
• A planet orbiting in space does not experience any friction or air resistance, so its energy
remains the same throughout its orbit. It has two types of energy:
• kinetic energy
• gravitational potential energy.
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222
5
• When it is nearest the Sun, a planet has its

minimum gravitational potential
energy and is moving at its fastest so has its
maximum kinetic energy.
• When it is at its furthest from the Sun, it
has maximum gravitational potential
and minimum kinetic energy.
At point A, it is closest from the Sun, travelling at its fastest speed but with least potential
energy.
At point B, it is furthest from the Sun, travelling at its slowest speed but with most potential
energy.
• The speed of a planet in orbit round a star is called its orbital speed (v).
• As the planets' orbits are almost circular, the distance they travel can be calculated if we
know the average orbital radius, which is the average distance of the planet from the Sun,
or the average radius of the orbit.
• The distance travelled by the planet is the circumference of its orbit.
Circumference of a circle = 2πr
• If we also know the time for the planet to orbit the Sun - known as its orbital period (T)
we can calculate the speed:
• So, the average orbital speed v, can be calculated from its orbital period, T, and its average
orbital radius r,
• using the equation:
Orbital radius
the average distance of the planet from the Sun
Orbital period
the time taken for a planet to complete one full orbit of the Sun
Solar System
223
6
•
•
•
•
•
Calculate the orbital speed of earth
•
•
•
Step 1: Write down what you know:

r = 150 000 000 km
T = 1 year
Step 2: Convert T to seconds
1 year = 1 x 365 = 365 days
365 days = 365 x 24 = 8760 hours
8760 hours = 8760 X 60 x 60 = 31 536000
Step 3: Substitute values for Tand r into the equation and calculate v.
2𝜋𝑟
v=
𝑇
2 𝜋 𝑥 150 000 000

=
31 536 000
= 30 Km/s
• Plotting data on a scatter graph can give

a clear indication of whether there is a
correlation between two sets of data.
• For example, a graph of density against
distance from the Sun shows that there is
not a clear correlation between the two.
• However, it is clear that the four inner
rocky planets are more dense than the
outer gas giants.
Solar System
224
1
• The Sun is an average or medium mass star

• and is made up of about 75% hydrogen
• and about 24% helium.
• The rest (about 1%) is made up of other elements, such
as oxygen and carbon.
• The glowing hydrogen at the surface of the

Sun radiates energy.
• About 40% of this energy is visible light,
• about50% is infrared radiation,
• and the remaining 10% is ultraviolet.
• Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that ` release energy.

• Stable stars like our Sun are powered by the nuclear fusion (or thermonuclear fusion) of
hydrogen into helium.
• This makes the Sun shine. It is so hot inside the Sun that matter exists as plasma (positive
ions and electrons).
• In addition, because the energy is spread over a big surface (called the photosphere) the
temperature is lower at the Sun s surface (about 5800 K compared to a core
temperature of about 15 000000 K).
• The Earth orbits the Sun at a distance
of about 150 million kilometres,
which is within the habitable zone.
• This is the zone where water can exist
in liquid form (an essential requirement
for life as we know it).
• If it was hotter, the water vapour would never condense; if it was colder, ice would never
melt.
• The Sun has a mass of 2 x 1030 kg.
• This is referred to as the solar mass as it provides a simple way of comparing the
mass of other stars to the mass of our Sun.
• For example, a star with eight solar masses would have eight times the mass of the Sun.
• The Sun contains over 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System so it exerts a big
gravitational force on the planets and causes them to follow nearly circular orbits.
Stars and galaxies
225
2
Stable star a star that is not collapsing or expanding because

the inward force of gravity is balanced by radiation pressure, which
pushes outwards
Plasma: a completely ionised gas in which the

temperature is too high for neutral atoms to exist so it consists of
electrons and positively-charged atomic nuclei
Solar mass:
equal to the mass of the Sun (2x 1030 kg)
• When you look into the night sky, the light `that you see from the stars has been travelling
for many years.
• Astronomers use this idea as a way of measuring vast distances.
• A light-year is a measure of distance (not time).
• It is the distance that light travels through space in one year.
• Light travels at a constant speed of 3 x 108 m/s through a vacuum.
• One light-year is the distance that light travels in one year.
• distance = speed x time
• one light-year = (3 x 108m/s) x (365.25 days x 24 hours x 60 min x 60 seconds)
• one light-year = 9.5 x I0l5m.
Light-year: the distance travelled in space by light in one

year (it is equivalent to about 9.5 x 1015 m)
• The force of gravity pulls stars together in groups called galaxies.

• Our Sun is one of many billions of stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way.
• There might be 200 billion (2 X 109) stars in the Milky Way, about 20 stars for every
person on Earth.
• The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy with a central bulge (see Figure).
Stars and galaxies

226
3
• It has a diameter of 100 000

light-years and the disc is about
2000 light-years thick.
• Our Solar System is located
about 30 000 light-years from
the galactic centre, two-thirds
of the way along a spiral arm.
• The Milky Way is spinning and
it takes our Solar System about
225 million years to travel once
around the galaxy.
• The Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies, that make up the Universe.
• A protostar is the first step in star formation.

• Stars form from interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contain hydrogen called
molecular clouds, which are both cold and dense enough for star formation.
• The collapse of a clump of molecular cloud due to gravitational attraction starts a
series of energy transfers.
• As the force of gravity pulls the hydrogen gas molecules closer together, their
gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy.
• As the molecules collide, their kinetic energy
` is transferred into thermal energy.
• The clump contracts into a spinning sphere of super-hot gas known as a protester.
• A protostar continues to grow by pulling in more material from the molecular cloud.
• Its final mass determines what happens to it.
• A protostar becomes stable when the inward force of gravitational attraction is
balanced by an outward force due to the high temperature of a star caused by
nuclear fusion.
A protostar: is a very young star that is still gathering mass

from its parent molecular cloud
Interstellar cloud:
A cloud of gas and dust that occupies the space between stars.
Molecular cloud: is a cloud of interstellar gas that consists

mostly of molecular hydrogen and is cold and dense enough to
collapse to form stars.
Stars and galaxies
4
• Hot bodies radiate heat and this

radiation exerts a force called
radiation pressure.
• The hotter the object is, the higher
the radiation pressure.
• The very high temperature of a star
leads to a radiation pressure that
acts outwards, making the star
expand.
• This acts in the opposite direction to
the force of gravity pulling the star
inwards, making the star contract.
• When these forces are balanced, the
star is stable and stays the same size
as shown in Figure.
• An increase in the core temperature of a star increases the radiation pressure and the
star increases in size.
• A star shrinks when its core temperature falls.
Raiation pressure: `
the outward force due to the high temperature of the star
• Like all stars, it begins life as a protostar before entering a stable period.
• Once the star starts running out of hydrogen, nuclear reactions slow down.
• This reduces the radiation pressure so the star contracts.
• This turns some gravitational potential energy into thermal energy, which raises the
temperature of both the core of the star and the outer shell of hydrogen.
• The core becomes hot enough for the fusion of helium.
• Helium needs a higher temperature to fuse because there is a bigger electrostatic repulsion
between the helium nuclei.
• Heating the outer shell causes it to expand and then cool (turning it red).
• Therefore, the star becomes a red giant, which is a bigger star with a cooler surface.
• Our Sun is 4.6 billion years old and is half-way through its time as a stable main sequence
star.
• It will become a red giant in about 5 billion years from now when it will expand beyond
Earth's orbit.
• Eventually, the core collapses into a white dwarf star.
Stars and galaxies
228
5
• A white dwarf cannot exceed a mass of

about 1.4 solar masses and typically has a
radius of 1000 km.
• When the Sun becomes a white dwarf, its
radius will be about 1% of its present radius,
which means it will shrink to about the size of
the Earth.
• Though it has a white hot surface (hence the
colour), it is not hot enough inside to fuse
heavier elements, so it will cool to become a
black dwarf.
• Radiation pressure blows away its outer shell to create a planetary nebula like (Figure).
Red Giant: is a star that began with fewer than

eight solar masses and is burning helium in its core; its shell of
hydrogen has expanded and cooled
Main sequence: a stable` star that is burning hydrogen in

its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes onto
another stage of its life cycle
White dwarf:
the final stage of a star that started
with fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuelhas been used up
Planetary nebula:
a bubble of gas surrounding a white dwarf
star that used to be the outer shell of a red giant from which it
collapsed
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229
6
• Like all stars, it begins life as a

protostar before a entering a stable
period.
• The core of more massive stars gets
so hot that the nuclei of heavier
elements can fuse.
• The star is hot enough for the fusion
of lighter elements to continue in
shells further from the core, as
shown in Figure.
• The outer shell expands into a red
supergiant.
• However, it is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by nuclear fusion so a star
with at least eight times the mass of the Sun ends its cycle of nuclear reactions with iron
at its core surrounded by shells of progressively lighter elements.
• Once all the fuel has run out, the star collapses one final time and then explodes as a
supernova.
• This provides the energy required to create
elements
` heavier than iron and push them into space
as a nebula, along with lighter elements (including
hydrogen).
• The nebula provides the building blocks for
possible future stars and solar systems.
• A supernova will briefly outshine its galaxy.
• What happens after a supernova depends on
the mass of the core that remains. If the core is
less than about three solar masses, a neutron star
forms.
• The force of gravity is so strong that electrons and protons are forced together to create
neutrons.
• An even more massive core will continue collapsing until it becomes so dense that not even
light can escape and the star becomes a black hole.
Red supergiant: is similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least eight times the mass of the Sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen continues in the
outer shells
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230
7
Supernova:
is an exploding star that began life with
more than eight solar masses and has run out of fuel
Neotron star: is a collapsed star composed almost

entirely of neutrons which forms when a star with more than eight
solar masses reaches the end of its life
Black Hole:
is the final stage in the life cycle of a star
that started with more than eight solar masses; it has enough mass
left over after exploding as a supernova to collapse to a point where
gravity is so strong that not even light can escape
• All stars begin as a protostar but the future path of a star is determined by its mass when
it moves onto the main sequence, a stage in` its life when it is stable and burning hydrogen.
• Stars that are more massive spend less time on the main sequence as they have a higher
core temperature and use up their fuel more quickly.
• Figure: The life cycle of a star depends on its initial (starting) mass. All stars begin as
protostars in molecular clouds before joining the main sequence. Stars with a starting mass
of fewer than eight solar masses follow the top row while heavier stars move along the
bottom row and explode as supernovae. After the supernova stage, the lighter stars
become neutron stars while the rest become black holes.
Stars and galaxies

231
1
Spectroscopy
learning about stars from their starlight
• It is remarkable what starlight can tell us about a star.

• Spectroscopy, or the scientific study of spectra, began with Isaac Newton in 1666.
• He discovered that a prism (a triangular block of glass) disperses white light into the colours
of the visible spectrum as covered in Chapter 13.
• In 1814, Joseph Fraunhofer noticed that many dark lines cross the spectrum of sunlight.
• These dark lines are the wavelengths of light missing from the sunlight because the cool gas in
the Sun's atmosphere absorbs them.
• A spectrum with these absorption lines `
is known as an absorption
spectrum.
• For reasons that are beyond this
course, each element has a unique set
of lines (sometimes known as a spectral
fingerprint) similar to a barcode.
• These lines allow astronomers to work
out what elements are inside a star.
• Figure 25.11a: An absorption spectrum found in an experiment on Earth, b: The redshifted
spectrum observed from a distant galaxy.
• The spectrum for hydrogen and other elements has been found in experiments on Earth.
• However, when astronomers looked for the same spectra in distant galaxies, they discovered
that they are redshifted (shifted towards the red end of the spectrum).
• It means light shifts towards longer wavelengths because the wave is stretched out and the
wavelength is increased.
• For example, as can be seen in Figure 25.11, absorption lines that are normally in the blue part
of the spectrum can shift into the green part of the spectrum.
Absorption spectrum:
dark lines in a spectrum that are
produced when light passing through cooler gas is absorbed
Stars and galaxies
232
2
Redshift: an increase in the observed wavelength of

electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) from a star or
galaxy because it is moving away from us
• You may already have noticed the Doppler effect.

• As a very fast vehicle passes
you, the volume of the sound
rises and falls.
• However, the pitch also
increases as the vehicle
approaches and decreases as it
recedes (moves away).
• The sound wave is compressed in front of the vehicle as it approaches.
• The sound wave is stretched out behind the vehicle as it moves away.
• Figure: This diagram shows wavefront of a sound wave modified by the Doppler effect, with
the wave compressed ahead of the ambulance (so person A hears a higher pitch) and
redshifted behind (so person B hears a lower pitch).
• The Doppler effect is a property of all waves,` including light.
• Light from galaxies that are moving away from us is redshifted.
• This turned out to be the first important clue that the Universe is expanding and suggested
that the galaxies must have been closer together in the past.
• This led to the theory that the Universe had a beginning: the Big Bang theory.
• This is the idea that the Universe (space, time, matter, energy) was created at a single point
13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever since.
Big bang theory: the Universe (space, time, matter,

energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion years ago and
has been expanding and cooling ever since
• Astronomers use the Doppler effect to work out how

fast galaxies are moving away from us (or towards
us).
• The speed of the galaxies is directly proportional to the
amount of redshift.
• In 1921, Edwin Hubble plotted the recession speed of
galaxies (how fast they are moving away) against their
distance from us.
Stars and galaxies
233
3
• He got a graph like Figure.

• It shows that the speed at which galaxies are moving away from us is directly proportional to
their distance from us.
• The shown plot is a typical Hubble plot that shows that the velocity of galaxies and clusters is
directly proportional to their distance from us.
• His line of best fit is Hubble's law:
v = H0 d
o v is the recession speed of galaxies (how fast they are moving away
from us),
o d is their distance from us,
• The graph confirms that the further away the galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from
us.
• The Hubble constant H0, is the gradient of this graph and it is the ratio of the speed at
which galaxies are moving away from Earth to their distance from Earth:
• Estimate for the age of the Universe `
• The current estimate for H„ is 2.2 x 10-18 per second.

• The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as Hubble time because it can be
used to work out the age of the Universe.
• From the equation that links distance, speed and time, we know that:
Use Hubble constant to estimate the age of the universe
𝑑 1
t universe = =
𝑣 𝐻0
Therefore the age of the universe is:
1 1
t universe = = = 4.5 x 1017 s
𝐻0 2.2 𝑥 10−18
= 14.4 x 109 years
Stars and galaxies
234
4
• The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity) about 14.5 billion years ago.
Hubble’s Law: the distant galaxies are moving away

from Earth with a speed, v, that is proportional to their distance,
d, from Earth; v = H0d where H0 is the Hubble constant
Hubble’s Constant:
the slope of a graph of galaxy speed against distance
Hubble’s time: the inverse of the Hubble constant,

which gives an estimate for the age of the Universe
`
• The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
• Our best knowledge at the moment is that the Universe began as a hot big bang from a tiny
point smaller than a pinhead (called a singularity) about 13.8 billion years ago.
• The Universe was unimaginably hot and dense but it has been expanding and cooling ever since.
• The early Universe was so hot that neutral atoms could not form. They would instantly ionize.
• Light was continuously scattered off the charged particles (ions and electrons).
• By analogy, light is scattered in fog, which is why you cannot see very far into it.
• Once the Universe was about 379 000 years old, and about the size of the Milky Way, the
temperature dropped to 3000 K and neutral atoms formed.
• Light was no longer scattered and the Universe became transparent.
• It was like the fog suddenly lifted (disappeared) and the air became clear.
• However, the continued expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength of this light to
redshift over time.
• The wavelength of this light, in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, was
predicted in 1948.
• In 1964, the US scientists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson built a radio telescope but
struggled to eliminate noise (unwanted signal).
• It did not matter where in the sky they pointed their telescope, the noise was constant, and so
they assumed that it was a problem with their equipment.
• However, it turned out that they had accidentally discovered microwave radiation.
Stars and galaxies

235
5
• They were looking at light that had left the surface of last scattering when the universe was
only 379000 years old (almost 14 billion years ago) and had been redshifted so that its
wavelength was now more than 1000 times longer.
• This microwave radiation, called cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR).
• Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1978 for their accidental
discovery.
• Despite the name, the Big Bang was not an explosion.
• It is the expansion of the space between the galaxies.
• Imagine your universe is the two-dimensional surface of a balloon.
• Everything inside or outside of the balloon does not exist.
• As space expands (that is, the balloon inflates), clusters of galaxies move further apart with
their recession speeds increasing with distance.
• No matter the direction we look, galaxies appear to be moving away from us, suggesting we
are at the centre of the Universe.
• Actually, the Universe does not have a centre or an edge. Do not worry if you (find this idea
impossible to imagine because nobody can.
• The best we can do is to present models.
• Having found evidence that the Universe is expanding, scientists are now asking what will
happen to the Universe in the future. `
• Observations in 1998 of type 1a supernovae in a very distant galaxy suggest that the
expansion of the Universe is accelerating.
• Type 1a supernovae occur when a white dwarf star in a binary star system (when two stars
orbit each other) pulls in material from its companion star until it reaches a certain mass and
then explodes.
• The important point is that these supernovae always have the same luminosity (output power)
therefore they act as a 'standard candle'.
• By recording how bright the supernova appears to be and knowing how bright it really is, it is
possible to work out how far away it is.
• Scientists are still not able to explain why the expansion of the Universe is speeding up, but
they have suggested that something called 'dark energy' is responsible.
• If you continue to study physics you will learn more about this.
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Study I.G.C.S.E. Physics with more than

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