Professional Documents
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Respiration: Chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for metabolism
Sensitivity: Ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal or external environment
Homeostasis
Excretion: Removal of the waste products of metabolism and substances more than requirements
Dichotomous keys
Used to identify organisms based on a series of questions about their features.
Example:
Classification systems
Aim to reflect evolutionary relationships.
In the past, scientists have encountered many difficulties when trying to determine the evolutionary relationships
of species based on this method. Using the physical features of species (such as color/shape/size) has many
limitations and can often lead to the wrong classification of species
Example: all mammals have bodies covered in hair, feed young from mammary glands, and have external ears
DNA sequences studies show that the more similar the base sequences in the DNA of two species, the more closely
related those two species are (and the more recent in time their common ancestor is)
Groups of organisms which share a more recent ancestor (are more closely related) have base sequences
in DNA that are more similar than those that share only a distant ancestor
Features
Main features are used to place organisms into groups within the animal kingdom.
Vertebrates
All have backbone.
Invertebrates
o often unicellular
o cells have cell walls (not made of cellulose)
and cytoplasm but no nucleus or mitochondria.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for themselves,
instead they take over a host cell’s metabolic pathways in
order to make multiple copies of themselves.
Chapter 2
Cells
The smallest units from which all organisms are made
Animal Cell
Multicellular
Contain nucleus with a distinct membrane.
Do not have cellulose cell walls.
Do not contain chloroplasts.
Feed on organic substances
Store carbohydrates as glycogen
Nervous coordination
Able to move.
Plant Cell
Multicellular
Contain nucleus with a distinct membrane.
Cell walls made from cellulose.
Cells contain chloroplasts.
They food y photosynthesis
Store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose
Do not have nervous coordination.
Bacteria Cells
They are microscopic single-celled
organisms.
Specialized cells
Those which have developed certain characteristics
to perform specific functions. Differences controlled
by genes.
Size of Specimens
Magnification = image size / actual size Image size = magnification x actual size
Actual size = image size / magnification
magnification=Image ¿ ¿ Actual ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
MAGNIFICATION IS ALWAYS WRITTEN WITH AN “X” IN
FRONT OF IT
The net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
down a concentration gradient, because of the kinetic energy of random movement of molecules and ions.
Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane.
The diffusion of gases is what makes gas exchange possible as oxygen is obtained and carbon dioxide its
released. Diffusion of solutes is what gives plant cells their proper shape and enables plants to transpire.
Limited to surface area: The bigger a cell or structure is, the smaller its surface area to volume ratio is,
slowing down the rate at which substances can move across its surface.
Temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster molecules move as they have more energy
Concentration gradients: The greater the difference in concentration either side of the membrane, the
faster movement across it will occur.
Distance: The smaller the distance molecules must travel the faster transport will occur
Osmosis
The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower
water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane (Very thin layer)
Water moves in and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.
Solution Hypertonic solution (lower water potential Isotonic solution (Equal Hypotonic solution (Higher
than that of the plant cells) water potential) water potential)
Effects This causes the cytoplasm to shrink, and thus No net movement of Plant cells have
the cell membrane gets ripped away from the water extraordinarily strong cell
cell wall. This process is called plasmolysis. walls. This holds the plant
Cells become weak and flaccid, as there isn’t This means the volume or cell intact, and as the
enough cytoplasm to support the cell and help shape of the plant cell is cytoplasm pushes outside,
it maintain its shape. unlikely to change. the cell simply swells to its
full size and becomes rigid.
This cell is turgid.
State that plants are supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.
Turgor pressure: the pressure of the water pushing outwards on a plant cell wall.
Experimentation
If the plant tissue gains mass:
Water must have moved into the plant tissue from the
solution surrounding it by osmosis.
Water must have moved out of the plant tissue into the
solution surrounding it by osmosis.
Active transport
The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a
region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration using energy from respiration.
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample.
Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
A positive test will show a color change from orange, brown to blue-black.
Importance of enzymes in all living organisms in terms of reaction speed necessary to sustain life:
Enzymes are the catalysts that alter the rates of chemical/biochemical reactions thereby enabling the
sustenance of life.
Enzymes bind reversibly with the substrates forming enzyme-substrate complex. These complexes are then
converted to the product and the enzymes are regenerated.
Enzymes operate by lowering the activation energy of the reaction by providing alternate pathway for the
reaction. This saves the energy required to overcome the high activation energy levels and increases the
rates of the reactions.
Types of enzymes:
Explain enzyme action with reference to the active site, enzyme-substrate complex,
substrate, and product.
Explain the specificity of enzymes in terms of the complementary shape and fit of the active
site with the substrate.
Each enzyme can only catalyze reactions with one type of substrate, as the shape of the enzyme is
complementary to the one of the substrates in the active site. This is described as enzyme specificity.
Explain the effect of changes in temperature on Explain the effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity
enzyme activity in terms of kinetic energy, shape and in terms of shape and fit and denaturation
fit, frequency of effective collisions and denaturation.
The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 but
Enzymes are proteins and have a specific some that are produced in acidic conditions,
shape, held in place by bonds. such as the stomach, have a lower optimum
pH (pH 2) and some that are produced in
This is extremely important around the active
alkaline conditions, such as the duodenum,
site area as the specific shape is what ensures
have a higher optimum pH (pH 8 or 9)
the substrate will fit into the active site and
enable the reaction to proceed. If the pH is too high or too low, the bonds that
hold the amino acid chain together to make
Enzymes work fastest at their ‘optimum
up the protein can be destroyed.
temperature’ – in the human body, the
optimum temperature is 37⁰C. This will change the shape of the active site,
so the substrate can no longer fit into it,
Heating to high temperatures (beyond the
reducing the rate of activity
optimum) will break the bonds that hold the
enzyme together and it will lose its shape -this Moving too far away from the optimum pH
is known as denaturation will cause the enzyme to denature and
activity will stop.
Denaturation is irreversible - once enzymes
are denatured they cannot regain their proper
shape and activity will stop
Starch solution is heated to a set Place single drops of iodine solution in rows
temperature. on the tile.
Iodine is added to wells of a spotting tile. Label a test tube with the pH to be tested.
Amylase is added to the starch solution and Use the syringe to place 2cm3 of amylase in
mixed well. the test tube.
Every minute, droplets of solution are added Add 1cm3 of buffer solution to the test tube
to a new well of iodine solution. using a syringe.
This is continued until the iodine stops Use another test tube to add 2cm3 of starch
turning blue-black (this means there is no solution to the amylase and buffer solution,
more starch left in the solution as the amylase start the stopwatch whilst mixing using a
has broken it all down) pipette
Time taken for the reaction to be completed is After 10 seconds, use a pipette to place one
recorded. drop of mixture on the first drop of iodine,
Experiment is repeated at different which should turn blue-black.
temperatures. Wait another 10 seconds and place another
The quicker the reaction is completed, the drops of mixture on the second drop of iodine
faster the enzyme is working. Repeat every 10 seconds until iodine solution
remains orange, brown.
Repeat experiment at different pH values -
the less time the iodine solution takes to
remain orange brown, the quicker all the
starch has been digested and so the better
the enzyme works at that pH
Chapter 6
Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
from light.
Word carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll
equation
Chemical 6CO2 + 6H2O light chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
Equation
Explain that chlorophyll transfers light energy into chemical energy in molecules, for the synthesis of
carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found in chloroplasts within plant cells.
It is this pigment which gives plants their characteristic green color.
Chlorophyll transfers energy from light into energy in chemicals, for the synthesis of carbohydrates
It is essential for photosynthesis to occur.
Describe the use of carbon dioxide enrichment, optimum light and optimum temperatures in glasshouses in
temperate and tropical countries
- Growers can pump CO2 into - Glass lets in sunlight - Sunlight heats up inside of glasshouse
glasshouses to increase conc. - ARTIFICAL LIGHTING for when light - Glass stops heat escaping
- Can also burn BUTANE or intensity is too low - ELECTRIC HEATERS used in cold
NATURAL GAS which: provide - BLINDS keep out very strong light weather
CO2 and heat -> raise temp. in - SHADING lowers temp. in tropical - VENTILATOR FLAPS are opened to cool
cold weather countries the glasshouse on hot days
Use hydrogen carbonate indicator solution to investigate the effect of gas exchange of an aquatic plant kept in the
light and in the dark
(Hydrogen carbonate indicator solution is RED)
1. 1st: Set up a test tube w/ 10 cm pondweed, TINFOIL (to prevent light passing) and hydrogen carbonate indicator
2nd: Set up a test tube with 10 cm pondweed and hydrogen carbonate indicator
3rd: CONTROL Set up a test tube with hydrogen carbonate indicator solution ONLY
2. Leave the test tubes near a light for 2-3 hours
*If carbon dioxide is added to the water by the plant the solution will turn YELLOW.
*If carbon dioxide is removed from the water by the plant the solution will turn PURPLE.
Leaf structure
Mineral requirements
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen but proteins, for example,
contain nitrogen as well (and certain amino acids
contain other elements too)
Plants obtain these elements in the form of mineral ions actively absorbed from the soil by root hair cells
Explain the effects of nitrate ion and magnesium iron deficiency on plant growth
Chapter 7
Human nutrition
Diet
Balanced diet for humans consists of all the food groups in the correct proportions.
Necessary food groups: Calcium: Needed for strong bones and teeth, also
involved in the clotting of blood (deficiency can
Carbohydrates: Source of energy
lead to osteoporosis later in life)
Proteins: Growth and repair
Iron: Needed to make hemoglobin, the pigment in
Lipids: Insulation and energy storage
red blood cells
Vitamins: Maintain health
Minerals: Maintain health
Dietary Fiber: Provides bulk for the intestine to
push food through.
Water: Chemical reactions in cells
Effects of scurvy:
Anemia
Exhaustion
Spontaneous bleeding
Pain in the limbs
Swelling
Gum ulcerations
Tooth loss
Effects of Rickets:
Bone pain
Lack of bone growth
Soft, weak bones
(Sometimes causing deformities)
Explain the causes and effects of protein-energy malnutrition, e.g., kwashiorkor and
marasmus.
Alimentary canal
Ingestion is the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
Mechanical digestion: the breakdown of food into Egestion: the passing out of food that has not been
smaller pieces without chemical change to the food digested or absorbed, as feces, through the anus
molecules
Diarrheal: the loss of watery feces (treatment of
Chemical digestion: the breakdown of large, insoluble diarrhoea: using oral rehydration therapy)
molecules into small, soluble molecules
Cholera: disease caused by a bacterium
Absorption: the movement of small food molecules
(The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes
and ions through the wall of the intestine into the
secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine,
blood
causing osmotic movement of water into the gut,
Assimilation: the movement of digested food causing diarrhea, dehydration and loss of salts from
molecules into the cells of the body where they are blood)
used, becoming part of the cells
Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs, limited to mouth, salivary glands,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum), pancreas, liver, gall bladder and large intestine (colon,
rectum, anus)
Chemical digestion
Producing small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed.
1. Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal and breaks down starch to maltose.
2. Maltose is broken down by maltase to glucose on the membranes of the epithelium lining the small intestine
The digestion of proteins This kills bacteria in food and gives an acid pH
for enzymes to work in the stomach.
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach
and duodenum with two main enzymes How is a low pH helpful in the stomach?
produced:
The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have
ingested as it denatures the enzymes in their
Pepsin is produced in the stomach and breaks
cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell
down protein in acidic conditions.
reactions to maintain life.
Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and
Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an
secreted into the duodenum where is breaks
example of an enzyme which has a very low
down protein in alkaline conditions.
optimum pH.
Hydrochloric Acid The hydrochloric acid produced in the
stomach ensures that conditions in the
The stomach produces several fluids which
stomach remain within the optimum range
together are known as gastric juice
for pepsin to work at its fastest rate
One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric
acid.
It is alkaline to neutralize the hydrochloric acid which comes from the stomach.
The enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum pH than those in the stomach
It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known as emulsification. The larger surface area
allows lipase to chemically break down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster.
Emulsification is the equivalent of tearing a large piece of paper into smaller pieces of paper. This is an example of mechanical
digestion, not chemical digestion – breaking something into smaller pieces does not break bonds or change the chemical
structure of the molecules which make it up, which is the definition of chemical digestion.
Absorption
Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules from the digestive system into the blood (glucose and
amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)
Absorbing Water
Water is absorbed in both the small intestine and the colon, but most absorption of water (around 80%) happens in
the small intestine.
Chapter 8
Transport in plants
Xylem and phloem
Functions of xylem and phloem:
xylem – transport water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves
phloem – transport food materials (mainly sucrose and amino acids) made by the plant from photosynthesizing
leaves to non-photosynthesising regions in the roots and stem.
Thick walls with lignin: Very strong and can support the great weight pf even a heavy tree (also waterproof)
No cell contents: Water can flow easily through the tube.
Cells joined end to end with no cross walls: form a long continuous tube for water to flow through, all the way
from the roots to the leaves
Water uptake
Root hair cells: single-celled extensions of epidermis cells in the root
Once the water gets into the xylem, it is carried up to the leaves where it enters mesophyll cells
root hair cell → root cortex cells → xylem → leaf mesophyll cells
The pathway can be investigated by placing a plant into a beaker of water that has had a stain added to it
(food colouring will work well)
After a few hours, you can see the leaves of the celery turning the same colour as the dyed water, proving
that water is being taken up by the celery
If a cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain areas of the stalk is stained the colour of the water,
showing that the water is being carried in specific vessels through the stem - these are the xylem vessels
Transpiration
Loss of water vapor from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by
diffusion of water vapor through the stomata.
Functions:
Wilting
Translocation
the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from sources to sinks.
Sinks: the parts of plants that use or store sucrose or amino acids
System of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood Supplement.
Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of pressure that was given to it by the pumping of
the heart, meaning it cannot travel as fast.
By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs its pressure can be raised again before sending it to
the body, meaning cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucose they need for respiration faster and more
frequently
Heart Structure
(Extended)
To investigate the effects of exercise on heart rate, record the pulse rate at rest for a minute.
Immediately after they do some exercise, record the pulse rate every minute until it returns to the
resting rate
This experiment will show that during exercise the heart rate increases and may take several minutes to
return to normal
Coronary heart disease
Partial blockage of the
coronary arteries creates a
restricted blood flow to the
cardiac muscle cells and results
in severe chest pains
called angina
the muscle walls of the atria compared to those of the ventricles: Thicker as it has to pump blood at high pressure
around the entire body.
The septum separates the two sides of the heart and so prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Once the right atrium has filled with blood the heart gives a little beat and the blood is pushed through
the tricuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the right ventricle
The walls of the ventricle contract and the blood is pushed into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar
valve which prevents blood flowing backwards into the heart
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past the alveoli where gas exchange takes
place (this is why there has to be low pressure on this side of the heart – blood is going directly to capillaries
which would burst under higher pressure)
Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
It passes through the bicuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the left ventricle
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract strongly to push the blood forcefully into the aorta and all
the way around the body
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood flowing back down into the heart
Blood vessel Function Structure of wall Width of lumen How structure fit’s function
Arteries Carry blood Thick and Relatively Strength and elasticity needed to
away from the strong, narrow; it varies withstand the high pressure and pulsing
heart containing with heartbeat of the blood as it is pumped through the
muscle and because the arteries by the heart
elastic tissue walls can stretch
and recoil
Capillaries Supply all cells Very thin, only Very narrow, No need for strong walls, as most of the
with their one cell thick just wide blood pressure has been lost; thin walls
requirements, enough for a red and narrow lumen bring blood into
and take away blood cell to close contact with body tissues
waste products pass through
Veins Return blood to Quite thin, Wide; contains No need for strong walls, as most of the
the heart containing far valves blood pressure has been lost; wide
less muscle and lumen offers less resistance to blood
elastic tissue flow; valves prevent backflow
than arteries
the heart
The narrow vessels that
connect capillaries to veins are
called venules
The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the liver back to the heart
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood from the gut to the liver
Blood
Components of blood:
Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body from the lungs to cells which require it for aerobic
respiration.
White blood cells defend the body against infection by pathogens by carrying
out phagocytosis and antibody production
Phagocytes
A pathogen is transmitted:
Mechanical barriers – structures that make it difficult b) By producing antibodies - which clump
for pathogens to get past them and into the body. pathogenic cells together so they cannot move as
easily (known as agglutination) and releasing
a) Skin - covers almost all parts of your body
chemicals that signal to other cells that they must be
to prevent infection from pathogens. If it is cut or
destroyed
grazed, it immediately begins to heal itself, often by
forming a scab.
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes.
Antibodies: Proteins that bind to antigens leading to direct destruction of pathogens or marking of pathogens for
destruction by phagocytes
The memory cells remain in the blood and will quickly respond
to the antigen if it is encountered again in an infection by a
‘live’ pathogen
Passive Immunity
Fast-acting, short-term defense against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual.
Importance of breast-feeding:
Antibodies pass from mother to infant via breast milk - this is important as it helps the very young to fight
off infections until they are older and stronger, and their immune system is more responsive
The body does not make its own antibodies or memory cells in passive immunity, hence the name
Cholera
Disease caused by a bacterium which is transmitted in contaminated water.
Explain that the cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine,
causing osmotic movement of water into the gut, causing diarrhea, dehydration and loss of ions from the blood.
The function of the cartilage is to support the airways and keep them open during breathing.
(If they were not present then the sides could collapse inwards when the air pressure inside the tubes drops)
Roles
The ribs: Forced exhalation (ribs down and in)
The internal and external intercostal muscles: work as antagonistic pairs (meaning they work in different directions
to each other) Pull the ribs up and out to increase the volume of the thorax.
Diaphragm: Control ventilation in the lungs (contracts = increase volume of the chest)
Roles in protecting the breathing system from pathogens and other particles.
The passage down to the lungs are lined with ciliated epithelial cells, the tiny hairs at the end of them beat and push
mucus up the passages towards the nose and throat where is removed. Mucus is made of goblet cells and trap
particles, pathogens like bacteria or viruses, and dust and prevent from them reaching the lungs.
Respiration
(A chemical process that involves the breakdown of
nutrient molecules and is Enzyme-controlled)
Muscle contraction
Protein synthesis
Cell division (to make new cells)
Growth
Active transport across cell membranes
Generation of nerve impulses
Maintaining a constant internal body
temperature
Apparatus
Yeast suspension
Glucose solution
Test tubes
Stopwatch
Methylene blue
Temperature-controlled water bath(s)
Neurons
There are three main types of neurons: sensory, relay and motor.
Relay neurons are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and
motor neurons.
Reflex Summary:
Stimulus -> Receptor -> Sensory Neurone -> Relay
Neurone -> Motor Neurone -> Effector ->
Response
Synapses
A junction between two neurones, where nerve impulses can transmit across synapses and be directed along the
appropriate route.
Structure of a synapse
(a) an impulse stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules from vesicles into the synaptic gap
(c) neurotransmitter molecules bind with receptor proteins on the next neurone
Sense Organs
(Groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light,
sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals)
Blind spot: The point where the optic nerve joins the retina, there are no light-sensitive rod and cone cells on that part of the
retina, so no object is detected in out peripheral vision.
Accommodation:
The way to view near and distant objects in terms of the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles, tension in
the suspensory ligaments, shape of the lens and refraction of light.
Near objects: Distant objects:
(b) There are 3 types of cone cells which are sensitive to different colours of light (red, blue and green)
Hormones
(Chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs)
Adrenaline:
The hormone secreted in ‘fight or flight’
situations and its effects, its produced in danger
situations and produces an increased breathing
rate and increased heart rate so glucose and
oxygen can be delivered to muscle cells and
ensure muscles are well for high activity in a
´flight or fight´, and increased pupil diameter so
that more information Is sent to the brain.
Homeostasis
(The maintenance of a constant internal environment)
Insulin: Secreted when decreases blood glucose concentration (As kidneys only cope with a certain level of glucose,
when levels to high glucose is excreted and lost in urine)
The glycogen is converted back to glucose several hours later when blood glucose levels have dipped due to respiration in all tissues.
Symptoms: extreme thirst, weakness or tiredness, blurred vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness.
Coordination in Plants
Tropisms
Factors:
Light
Water
Gravity
Others
Role of auxin in controlling shoot growth, limited (b) auxin diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
to: (c) auxin is unequally distributed in response to light
Auxin concentrates on the shady or lower side of a and gravity
shoot, making the cells in those areas elongate faster (d) auxin stimulates cell elongation
than on the other side. This causes the shoot to bend
towards light or away from gravity as it grows.
Kidney filters the blood, the ureter connects the kidney to the bladder, which stores urine produced by the kidney.
Finally, the urethra connects the bladder to the exterior, where urine is released.
Urea: waste product produced in the liver, from the breakdown of excess amino acids
Deamination: The removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETION
Urea is a toxic substance, if it accumulates in the body, it can become toxic and cause damage to organs
such as the kidneys and liver.
Maintaining water balance, by removing urea, the body can maintain its water balance and prevent
dehydration.
The excretion of urea is important for the regulation of blood ph.
Excretion of urea and other metabolic waste products is essential to prevent the build-up of toxic
substances in the body that can interfere with normal cellular function and lead to disease.
Excretion of urea is the primary way that excess nitrogen is removed from the body.
Chapter 14
Reproduction in plants
Asexual Reproduction
Process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent.
Advantages Disadvantages
Population increased Limited genetic variation in
rapidly population (off-spring identical)
Can exploit suitable Population vulnerable to changes
environments quickly in conditions and may only be
suited to one habitat
More time and energy Disease is likely to affect the
efficient whole population as there is no
genetic variation
Reproduction is
completed much faster
than sexual
reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote (fertilized egg cell) and the
production of offspring that are genetically different
Germination
Factors:
Water – Allows seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start working so that growth can occur.
Oxygen – So that energy can be released for germination.
Warmth – Germination improves as temperature rises.
Self-Pollination
(the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on
the same plant)
Cross-pollination
(The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species)
Cross-Pollination Self-Pollination
Much more variation because parents’ New combinations of genes can be formed. So, there is
plants can be genetically different from some variation - though usually not very much.
another. Good in keeping variation to a minimum.
(CHAPTER 17) Useful if difficulty in finding another plant nearby to
exchange pollen without pollinators.
Growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilisation
(Details of production of endosperm and development are not required)
Chapter 15
Reproduction in Humans
The male reproductive system:
Prostate Gland: Production of semen
(provide sperm cells with nutrients)
Fertilization: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell)
In early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that implants into the lining of the uterus.
In females, testosterone is produced in small amounts in the ovaries. However, the primary female sex hormone is
oestrogen. Oestrogen is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast
development, the widening of the hips, and the growth of pubic and underarm hair.
Both testosterone and oestrogen are involved in the regulation of the menstrual cycle in females. Oestrogen helps
to thicken the lining of the uterus in preparation for pregnancy, while testosterone stimulates the growth of the
follicles in the ovaries.
The menstrual phase is the first phase of the menstrual The ovulatory phase is the third phase of the menstrual
cycle, and it begins with the shedding of the thickened cycle, and it typically occurs around day 14 of a 28-day
lining of the uterus that was built up during the previous cycle. The surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) from the
cycle. This is what is commonly known as a period or pituitary gland triggers the release of a mature egg from
menstruation. The menstrual phase usually lasts for 3 to 7 one of the follicles. This is known as ovulation.
days.
Luteal phase:
Follicular phase:
The luteal phase is the final phase of the menstrual cycle,
The follicular phase is the second phase of the menstrual and it begins after ovulation. The empty follicle that
cycle, and it begins on the first day of menstruation. During released the egg transforms into a glandular structure
this phase, the pituitary gland in the brain releases follicle- called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum produces
stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates the growth progesterone, which helps to thicken the lining of the
and development of a number of follicles (fluid-filled sacs) uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy. If the egg is
in the ovaries. Each follicle contains an immature egg. not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down,
progesterone levels drop, and the thickened lining of the
uterus is shed during the next menstrual phase.
The role of hormones in controlling the menstrual (Limited to FSH, LH, progesterone, and oestrogen)
cycle and pregnancy
Sexually transmitted infections
(An infection that is transmitted through sexual contact)
Females: Chromosomes XX
Males: Chromosomes XY
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids that make a specific protein.
Transcription & Translation: Extended
Proteins are made by ribosomes
with sequences of amino acids
controlled by the sequence bases
within DNA.
DNA cannot travel out of the
nucleus to the ribosomes, so the
base code is transcribed onto RNA
molecule called mRNA.
mRNA moves out of the nucleus
and attaches to a ribosome.
Ribosome reads the code on the
mRNA in groups of three.
Each triplet of bases codes for a
specific amino acid
The ribosome translates the
sequence of bases into a sequence
of amino acids that make up a
protein.
Once the acid chain has been
assembled, it is released from the
ribosome so it can fold and form
the final structure of the protein.
All humans have 23 different chromosomes in each cell, in most body cells we have 2 copies of each chromosome.
Nuclei with two sets of chromosomes are known as diploid nuclei. (Pair of each type of chromosome and there are
23 pairs)
Nuclei with one set of unpaired chromosomes are known as haploid nuclei.
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter cell.
5 Describe stem cells as unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can become
specialised for specific functions
Many tissues in the human body contain a small number of unspecialised cells. These are called stem cells and their
function is to divide by mitosis and produce new daughter cells that can become specialised within the tissue and
be used for different functions. A zygote divides several times by mitosis to become a ball of unspecialised cells
(around 200-300 cells). These are embryonic stem cells. These cells are all the same and start differentiating as the
foetus develops with recognisable features
Importance: Variation and forming new combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes
Monohybrid inheritance
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
Genotype: The genetic make-up of an organism and in terms of the alleles present
If the, we describe the individual as being heterozygous (hetero = different)7 State that a heterozygous individual
will not be pure-breeding
Recessive allele: An allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present in the
genotype
Genetic Diagrams
Standard way of showing all the steps in making predictions about the
probable genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring from two parents
Sex-Linked Characteristic
Use genetic diagrams to predict the results of monohybrid crosses and calculate phenotypic ratios,
limited to 1 : 1 and 3: 1 ratios
Use Punnett squares in crosses which result in more than one genotype to work out and show the
possible different genotypes
This involves crossing the unknown individual with an individual showing the recessive phenotype - if the
individual is showing the recessive phenotype, then its genotype must be homozygous recessive
By looking at the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, we can tell whether the unknown individual is
homozygous dominant or heterozygous
Codominance
(Situation in which both alleles in heterozygous organisms contribute to the phenotype)
Phenotypic Variation
o Or it can be environmental - caused entirely by the environment in which the organism lives
Genetic Variation
o blood group
o eye colour
o gender
Environmental Variation
Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as climate, diet, accidents,
culture and lifestyle
In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’ and so can include factors like
climate, diet, culture, lifestyle and accidents during lifetime
Examples include:
o Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
o Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language with a certain accent
o A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and environmental causes, for example:
o however, if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
Another way of looking at this is that although genes decide what characteristics we inherit, the surrounding
environment will affect how these inherited characteristics develop
Mutation
Genetic change
The way in which new alleles are formed (survival advantage or can lead to harmful changes)
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in populations.
Can happen: spontaneously and continuously (increased by exposure to gamma rays and/or certain types of
chemicals)
Random fertilisation: Which sperm and egg combinations occur during sexual reproduction.
Adaptive features
Inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
Fitness: probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found
A typical question here might be to explain how the leaf area and distribution and density of stomata help different
species of plant survive in their different habitats
Selection
Natural selection:
The genetic variation within populations related with the production of many offspring, which leads to competition
and struggle for survival, including competition for resources. A greater chance of reproduction by individuals that
are better adapted to the environment than others, therefore these individuals pass on their alleles to the next
generation.
Selective breeding:
Selection by humans of individuals with desirable features. Crossing these individuals to produce the next
generation entail selection of offspring showing the desirable features
Selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out over many generations to improve crop plants and
domesticated animals and apply this to given contexts
Adaptation: The process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to their
environment over many generations
Energy Flow
Plant gets energy from respiration, energy flows through the different trophic levels in a food web.
Food web: a network of interconnected food chains and interpret food webs.
Producer: an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using energy from sunlight, through
photosynthesis
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms (consumers may be classed as primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary according to their position in a food chain)
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material
Impact humans have through overharvesting of food species and through introducing foreign species to a habitat.
Food webs give us a lot more information about the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
They also show interdependence - how the change in one population can affect others within the food web.
Most of the changes in populations of animals and plants happen as a result of human impact - either by
overharvesting of food species or by the introduction of foreign species to a habitat
Due to interdependence, these can have long-lasting knock-on effects to organisms throughout a food chain
or web
Pyramids of numbers
Pyramids of biomass
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or ecological pyramid
Identify the following as the trophic levels in food webs, food chains and ecological pyramids: producers, primary
consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and quaternary consumers
Pyramids of Energy
In order for the energy to be passed on, it has to be
consumed (eaten)
Only the energy that is made into new cells remains with
the organisms to be passed on
Explain, in terms of energy loss, why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
The majority of the energy an organism receives gets ‘lost’ (or ‘used’) through:
making waste products eg (urine) that get removed from the organism
as movement
as heat (in mammals and birds that maintain a constant body temperature)
as undigested waste (faeces) that is removed from the body and provides food for decomposers
This inefficient loss of energy at each trophic level explains why food chains are rarely more than 5 organisms long
Explain why it is more energy efficient for humans to eat crop plants than to eat livestock that have been
fed on crop plants
Given what we know about energy transfer in food chains, it is clear that if humans eat the wheat there is
much more energy available to them than if they eat the cows that eat the wheat
This is because energy is lost from the cows, so there is less available to pass on to humans
Therefore, it is more energy efficient within a crop food chain for humans to be the herbivores rather than
the carnivores
In reality, we often feed animals on plants that we cannot eat (eg grass) or that are too widely distributed for
us to collect (eg algae in the ocean which form the food of fish we eat)
Nutrient Cycles
The Carbon Cycle
Decomposition
Nitrification
Nitrogen fixation
Denitrification
Populations
Population: a group of organisms of one
species, living in the same area, at the same
time
Population growth:
Factors:
Food supply
Predation
Disease
Explain the factors that lead to each phase in the sigmoid curve of population growth, referring, where
appropriate, to the role of limiting factors
Organisms in a natural environment are unlikely to show population growth like a sigmoid growth curve because
they are affected by many other factors, including:
o predators
o disease
Birth rate: the total number of live births over time. Balanced by death rates.
Death rates: the total number of deaths over time
In agrarian economies of many LEDCs more people are needed for manual labor, so families tend to be
bigger
In MEDCs it is expensive to have children and pensions are provided by the stare
Social and political factors result in low use of birth control in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth control is
widely used
Limiting factor: a factor that is in short supply, which stops and activity happening at a faster rate
Chapter 19
Human influences on ecosystems
Food supply
How humans have increased food production:
Air Pollution
Acid Rain
Some resources can be conserved and managed sustainably, limited to forests and fish stocks.
Climate change
habitat destruction
hunting
overharvesting
pollution
introduced species.
There are moral, cultural and scientific reasons for conservation programs, including:
Education helps to ensure logging companies are aware of sustainable practices and consumers are aware of
the importance of buying products made from sustainable sources
Educating fishermen as to local and international laws and consumers so they are aware of types of fish
which are not produced sustainably and can avoid them when buying fish.
This allows large numbers of offspring to be produced without the need for conventional sexual intercourse between
males and females
This allows gametes with known alleles to be used in ensuring the next generation remains biodiverse
If its population size decreases, a species will experience reduced genetic variation.
Biotechnology
Role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during the
production of ethanol for biofuels:
Advantages:
Quickly breaking down large, insoluble molecules such as fats and proteins into smaller, soluble
ones that will dissolve in washing water.
They are effective at lower temperatures, meaning less energy (and money) has to be used in order to wash
clothes to get them clean as washing water does not need to be heated to higher temperatures
They can be used to clean delicate fabrics that would not be suitable for washing at high temperatures
Fermenters
(used for the large-scale production of useful products by
bacteria and fungi, including insulin, penicillin and
mycoprotein)
Genetic modification
Changing the genetic material of an organism by
removing, changing, or inserting individual genes
Use methods of sampling that are representative and avoid bias, e.g., consideration of sample size and
simple random sampling.
observe, record and measure images of familiar and unfamiliar biological specimens.
Make clear line drawings of biological specimens, calculating the magnification or actual size and
adding labels
as required.
Use simple apparatus in situations where the method may not be familiar to the candidate.
Padre nuestro que estás en el cielo,
santificado sea tu Nombre;
venga a nosotros tu Reino;
hágase tu voluntad
en la tierra como en el cielo.
Danos hoy
nuestro pan de cada día;
perdona nuestras ofensas,
como también nosotros perdonamos
a los que nos ofenden;
no nos dejes caer en la tentación,
y líbranos del mal. Amén.