GENERALPHYSI

CS

PHYSI
CS:Isthestudyofhowmat t
erbehaves-from veryl
argeobject
sli
kestar
s
andpl
anets,
toverysmallat
omsandmol ecules.Physi
csisalsoaboutdi
ffer
ent
ki
ndsofenergysuchasheat,l
i
ghtandelect
ri
city,andhowenergybehaves.

LENGTH,
MASSANDTI
ME

Therearethreebasicphysicalquant
iti
esofmeasur e-length,ti
me,andmass.
Thismeanst hatal
ltheothermeasureswer ederivedfrom oneoracombi nati
on
ofthesebasicmeasures.Lengthhasgi venr iseto:perimeter
,areaandv ol
ume.
Timehasgivenr i
setoperiodetc.Massist hebasisf orweight.Acombinati
onof
thesegi
ves:speed,vel
oci
ty,accel
erat
ion,force,densit
yet c

Thebasi
cmeasuresaregivenuni
tswhichareani
nter
nat
ional
l
yagreedunitof
measur
e. The sci
ent
if
ical
l
y agreed syst
em is cal
l
ed SI uni
ts( Sy
steme
I
nter
nati
onal
e).

measur
ement SIuni
t Ot
heruni
tsandmul
ti
ples

1cm =0.
01m

Lengt
h met
re(
m) 1mm =0.
001m

1km =1000m

1mi
nut
e(mi
n)=60s

Ti
me seconds(
s) 1hour(
hr)=3600s

1day=86400s

1g=0.
001kg

Mass ki
l
ogr kg) 1000g=1kg
am (

1t
onne(
t)=1000kg

1
Commonpr
efi
xesusedf
orl
argerorsmal
lerquant
it
iesi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng;

pr
efi
x sy
mbol number St
andar
dnot
ati
on Exampl
es

μ mi
croseconds(
μs)

mi
cro mi
crogr
am(
μg)

m mi
l
li
li
ter
s(ml
)

mi
l
li mi
l
li
met
er mm)
s(

c cent
imet
er cm)
s(

cent
i cent
i cs)
seconds(

k ki
l
omet
er(
km)

ki
l
o 1000 ki
l
ogr
am(
kg)

ki
l
ojoul
es(
kJ)

M megawat
ts(
MW)

mega 1000000 megaher

tz(
MHz)

LENGTH

Thei
nter
nat
ional
uni
tofl
engt
hismet
r m)
e( .

I
nst
rument
susedf
ormeasur
ingl
engt
h

Metr
er ul
e-Amet err
ulei
sdi
videdi
ntocent
imetr cm)
es( ,andmil
li
metr mm)
es( .
Thi
sinstr
umentcanbeusedformeasuri
ngdist
anceswi
thl
essaccur
acy.When
2
weneedt omeasur
ethelengthwit
hgr
eateraccur
acyweusei
nst
rument
sli
ke
ver
niercal
li
per
sormicr
omet erscr
ewgauge.

Ruler
: Arul
ercanmeasur e
uptot henearest1mm; i
tis
accuratetothenear estmm.
Whileusi
ngar ul
eroranyot
hermeasur
ingi
nstr
umentmakesur ethaty oureyeis
keptvert
ical
l
yabovethemarkyouarer
eadi
ng.Thi
sistoav oi
dpar al
laxerror.

Ver
niercal
li
per
s:

itisusedi nthelabor
atoryt
omeasur esmalll
engthsandcanmeasur
elengt
h
correctto0.1mm or0.0lcm,whi
chisalsocall
edtheaccuracyoft
hei
nstr
ument
(smallestpossibl
ereadi
nggivenbytheinst
rument)

Thisinst
rumenti
susedformeasuri
ngl
engthsofsmal
lerobj
ect
sandalsothe
i
nternal(
usingi
nnerj
aws)andexter
nal
diameter
s(usi
ngouterj
aws)ofcyl
i
nders.

Theval
ueofonedivi
siononthe
mainscal
eis1mm.Thev al
ueof
onediv
isi
ononthesl
idingscal
e
i
s0.1mm.

Thismeansthattheinst
rument
canmeasurelengthscorr
ectt
o
0.1.mm or0.
01cm

Howt
otaker
eadi
ngwi
thaVer
niercal
li
per

Themai nscaleisr eadupt

ot hezer
o
mar kofthevernierscal
etothe
nearestmil
li
met er.Themainscale
readingi
s6.30cm.

3
Thev erni
erreadingist akenbylocatingav er
nierdivi
sionthati
sexactlyali
gned
t
h
withamai nscaledi vi
sion.The7 v er nierscaledivi
sioncoinci
deswithamai n
scaledivi
sion.Thev ernierscal
ereadi ngis7.Mul ti
plytheverni
erscal
er eadingby
0.01cm thesmal l
estlengthmeasur edbyt hev er
nierscal
eandaddt hisproduct
(0.001cm×7=0.07cm)t othemai nscal ereadingof6. 30cm.Thusthetotalreading
i
s6. 37cm.

Mi
cro-
met
rescr
ewgauge:

usedt
omeasur
ethi
cknessofanobj
ect
,itmeasur
esl
engt
hscor
rectt
o0.
01mm.

Li
nearscal
eorpi
tchscal
eismar
kedi
n0.
5mm

Headscal
e(ci
rcul
ar)has50di
vi
sionsoni
t.

Whenthegapi
sclosedt
hezeromarkont heci
rcul
arscal
est
andsov
ert
hel
i
near
scal
eandthe‘
0’mm marki
sjustv
isi
ble.

Whenthecir
cul
arscal
eisgi
venonef
ull
rot
ati
ont
hedi
stancemov
edont
hel
i
near
scal
eis0.
5mm.

Leastcount=0.
5/noofdi
vi
sionsonci
rcul
arscal
e.=0.
5mm/
50=0.
01mm.

Tofi
ndthethi
cknessofanobjecti
tisgr
ipedi
nt hegap.Whent
hegapi
scl
osed
onecanheart
heclicki
ngsoundonturni
ngtheratchet
.

Useonl
ytherat
chett
oti
ghten.Donotuset
het
himbl
etot
ight
en;
thi
swi
l
l
per
manentl
ydamagetheInst
rument
.

Howtoreadt
hemi
cromet
erscr
ew
gauge

 Notedownt helast
visiblereadingoft heli
near
scal easy ourlinearscal
e
reading
 Not edownt hedivi
siononthecir
cularscalet hatcoincideswi thcentr
eli
ne
 Mul t
ipl
ythiswith0.01mm togetthecircularscal ereading
 Addt hetwov aluesofli
nearscal
eandci rcularscalet ogett hefi
nal
readinge.g.
Thereadingonthel i
nearscalei
s7.5mm.Ther eadi ngoft heci r
cularscal
eis14;
thet
otalreadi
ngi s7.5mm +14x0. 01mm=7. 64mm

ERRORSASSOCI
ATEDWI
THMEASUREMENT

Aner r
orisaval
ueofmeasuredquant
it
ywhichaffect
sthecorr
ectval
ueoft he
quanti
tybei
ngmeasured.Theer
rormayov erest
imateorunderesti
matet he
corr
ectval
ue.I
tisadv
isabl
easagoodpract
icetoalwaysr
epeatmeasurements
4
sever
alti
mesi n exper
imentsand then f i
nding theav eragev aluetoreduce
possi
blerandom error
s.Example;when usi ng a pairofv erniercali
per
st o
measurethethi
cknessofawirerepeatthepr oceduretwiceorthriceandusethe
twoorthr
eev al
uestofi
ndtheaveragethickness.

EXAMPLESOFPOSSI
BLESOURCESOFERRORS

1.Err
orduetotheinstrumentused(instrumentalerr
or)t
hatisthei
nst
rument
maybehav i
nganer roronit
scalibr
ation,ther
eforethescal
eusedbecomes
i
ncorrect
.Anerrorduet oi
mproperl
ymar kedinstr
umentiscall
edsyst
emati
c
err
or.Thi
serrorcanalsobecausedbyt heenv i
ronment

2.Random er
ror-t
hiserr
orwhicharisesfr
om obser
ver
’sest
imatebecauset
he
i
nstrumentwi
llnotbehavinganycalibr
ati
onsfr
om cer
tai
nsect
ionofthescal
e.
Averagi
ngwouldreduce/
mi ni
mizethiserr
or.

3.Par al
laxer r
or -
iti
saner rorthat
accumul atesast heobser verf ai
l
st oposi
ti
on
his/herpointoff ocusont hei nstr
ument
beingusedcor rectl
y .Forexampl e,the
measur ementofl engt husingt herulenot
e
this,whent aki
ngar eadingf rom ar ul
ethe
eyehast obeposi t
ionedatr ightangletothe
pl
aceoft
her
uleasshownbel
ow.

4.Zeroerr
or-thi
ser r
orwhi chexi
stsinaninstrumentf rom
manuf acturer
.Theinstr
umentwi llbegivingareadi
ngofacer tai
nv al
uebef or
e
anyobj ecthasbeenplaced/buttonpr essedtotakeareading, whichisnotata
zeromar kbef
orethemeasur ementofanobj ect
.Negati
vezer oerrorexistswhen
theinstrumentgivesareadingbeforet hezeromark.Posit
ivezer oerroriswhen
theinstrumentgivesareadingafterorbey ondthezeromar k.Theposi ti
vezero
5
err
ori
salwayssubt
ract
edfrom thereadinggi
venbyt
hei
nst
rument
,whi
l
ethe
negat
ivezer
oerr
orisaddedtothereading.

I
ll
ust
rat
on:
Posi
ti
veZer
oer
ror

Thescalesofthemi
crometerscr
ew
gaugeshownhasapositi
vezero
errorof+0.
83mm.Thesizeofthe
objectmeasur
ed=4.43mm –
(+o.83mm)

=4.
.43mm –0.
83mm

=3.
60mm

5.Humanr eact i
ontimeer ror-t
hisist heerrorthatarisesifthereadi
ngi st aken
earl
ierorafteranev enthast akenplace.Thi serroriscausedbyi nconsist
encyi n
thereacti
ont imeofaper son,ieaper sonmayr eactt oosoonorl aterthant he
actualeventbei ngobserved/ monit
or edhasoccur red.Exampl esofexper i
ment s
whichinvolvehumanr eacti
oner rorincludeusingt hest opwatchwhil
eobser v
ing
anotherevent.Thi serrori
st reatedbyt aki
ngsev eralreadingsandthenf inding
theaveragev alue.

6
TI
ME

Ti
meismeasur
edusi
ngeventswhi
chr
epeatt
hemsel
vesatf
ixedI
nter
val
s.Such
ev
ent
saresai
dtobeper
iodi
c.

e.
g.

Ear
thspi
nni
ngabouti
tsaxi
s

Ear
thr
evol
vi
ngaboutt
hesun

Wat
erdr
ippi
ngt
hroughapi
nhol
eatt
hebot
tom ofav
essel
.

Uni
ts

Sluni
tist
hesecond(
s)

Ot
heruni
ts

1y
ear
-t
imet
heear
tht
akest
orev
olv
eroundt
hesun

1dayt
imet
heear
tht
akest
ocompl
eteoner
otat
ionabouti
tsaxi
s.=24hour
s

1hour=60mi
ns

1mi
n=60secs

I
nthel
abt
imeismeasuredusingast
op
wat
chwhi
chhasanaccuracyof0.
01s.
Bel
owi
safaceast
opwat ch

Exampl
es1

Whenast opwat
chreadsasshown
ontheri
ght,t
het
imeshownin
secondsi
s;

23sec+0.
34sec=23.
34sec

7
Exampl
e2

Ti
meshowni
nsecondsi
s;

(
5x60sec)+45se+0.
23sec=345.
23sec

8
 Det
ermi
nat
ionofPer
iodofasi
mpl
ependul
um

Asimplependul um consistsofasmal lbobat t

achedtooneendofast ringand
suspendedf r
om ar igi
dsuppor t
.Thedi stancebetweent hepoi
ntofsuspension
andthecent r
eoft hebobist helengt
hoft hependulum.Whent hependulum bob
i
satr estthestringi sver
tical.I
fthebobi spul
l
edt hr
oughasmal ldist
anceand
thenreleased,itwi l
lmov et oandf rof orawhi l
ebef orecomingtor est.One
completet oandf romotioni soneosci ll
ati
on.Thedi agramsbel
ow show one
completeoscil
lation.

Thetimet akent ocompl et

eone
oscil
lat
ioniscall
edt heperiod[T].Theper i
odofasi mpl ependul um dependson
thelengthofthestringandt hegr av
itat
ionalfi
eldstrengt h.Usuall
ytheseperi
ods
areverysmall.Thereforetodeter mi
neper ioditi
shelpful tomeasur etheti
me
takentocompl et
eaf ewoscill
ationsandt hist
imei sdividedbyt henumberof
oscil
lat
ionstocalculatetheperiod.

DETERMI
NATONOFPERI
ODOFPENDULUM

Pr
ocedur
e:

a)Setupt
heexper
iment
alappar
atusasshownabov
elef
t.
b)Measur
ethel
engt
hoft
hependul
um usi
ngar
ulert
o50cm.
c)Di
spl
acet
hebobt
hroughasmal
l eandr
angl eleasei
ttosett
hebobi
n
9
 mot
ion.
d)Usi
ngast
op-
wat
chr dt
ecor wi
cet
het
imei
ttakest
hebobt
omake5or10
osci
l
lat
ionst
5ort
10i
nseconds.
e)Cal
cul
ateper
iodToft
hependul
um f
oreachat
temptandf
indt
heav
erage
per
iodTav.
f
) Recor
dal
lofy
ourr
esul
tsi
nasui
tabl
etabl
e.I
ncl
udet
abl
eheader
swi
th
appr
opr
iat
euni
ts.

At
tempt Ti
mef
or10osci
ll
ati
ons/
s Per
iodT/
s

Av
erageper
iod(
Tav)

TI
TLE:EFFECTOFLENGTHONPERI
ODOFPENDULUM

Theef
fectofl
engt
hont
heper
iodofasi
mpl
ependul
um canbei
nvest
igat
ed
byset
ti
ngasi
mpl
ependul
um andt
henv
aryi
tsl
engt
hwhi
l
erecor
dingt
he
cor
respondi
ngper
iod.

AI
M:Toi
nvest
igat
ehowachangei
nlengt
hofst
ri
ngaf
fect
stheper
iodofa
si
mpl
ependul
um.

HYPOTHESES:

 I
ncr
easei
nlengt
hincr
easet
heper
iod
 Decr
easeofl
engt
hdecr
easest
heper
iod
Var
iabl
econt
rol
:lengt
hofpendul
um i
schanged

massofbobi
skeptconst
ant
10
 angl
eofdi acementofbobi
spl sal
sokeptconst
ant

Pr
ocedur
e:

g)Setupt
heexper
iment
alappar
atusasshownabov
e.
h)Measur
ethel
engt
hoft
hependul
um usi
ngar
ulert
o30cm.
i
) Di
spl
acet
hebobt
hroughasmal
l easshownabov
angl eandr
eleasei
tto
seti
tinmot
ion.
j
) Usi
ngast
op-
wat
chr dt
ecor wi
cet
het
imei
ttakest
hebobt
omake10
osci
l
lat
iont
10i
nseconds.
k)I
ncr
easet
hel
engt
hoft
hependul
um ati
nter
val
sof10cm andr
epeat
st
epsb)t
od)abov
eunt
ilr
eachi
ngl
engt
hequal
to100cm.
l
) Cal
cul
ateper
iodT1andT2oft
hependul
um f
oreachl hlandf
engt indt
he
av
erageT.
m)Recor
dal
lofy
ourr
esul
tsi
nasui
tabl
etabl
e.I
ncl
udet
abl
eheader
swi
th
appr
opr
iat
euni
ts.
n)Dr
awasui
tabl
econcl
usi
onf
rom y
ourr
esul
tsaboutt
heef
fectofchangi
ng
l hlonper
engt iodT.

Lengt
h/cm Ti
mef
or

10osci
l
lat
ions Per
i T1&T2)
od( /s Av
erageper
iodT/
s

100.
0

90.
0

80.
0

11
…….

Di
scussi
on:

Ther
esul
tsshowt
hatper
iodoft
hependul
um i
saf
fect
edbyt
hel
engt
hoft
he
st
ri
ng.Whent
hel
engt
hoft
hest
ri
ngi
sincr
easedi
ttakesal
ongert
imef
oran
osci
l
lat
iont
obecompl
etedbutashor
terpendul
um t
akesl
esst
imet
o
compl
eteanosci
l
lat
ion.Thet
imef
or10osci
l
lat
ionswasr
ecor
dedt
wicet
o
mi
nimi
zehumanr
eact
ioner
rorbyf
indi
ngt
heav
erageper
iodf
oreachl
engt
h.
I
tmustbenot
edt
hatper
ioddoesnotdependont
hemassoft
hebob.

Concl
usi
ons:

Anincr
easeinl
engthi
ncr
easest
heper
iodwher
easadecr
easei
nlengt
h
decr
easestheper
iod.

Per
iodal
sodependsonaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
tyg.

Note:Exper
iment
shaveshownt
hatPer
ioddoesnotdependont
hemassoft
he
bob.

12
Ar
ea

Areai
sameasureofthesurface.Itt
ell
syouhowbigorsmal
lasur
faceis.SIuni
t
2
i
ssquaremeter(
m )i.
e.theareaofasquareofsi
de1m.Youcanthinkofadesk
top1m l
ongand1m wide.Thear eaofsuchasur
facei
s1squaremeter.

Wedouseotheruni
tsalsot
omeasur
earea.Forinst
anceweusesquar
e
2
ki
l
omet
er(km )toexpresst
hear
eaofacountry
.
2 2
1Km =1000000m

Doy
ouknowwhatt
hear
eaofBot
swanai
s?

Formeasur
ingsmal
l
erar
easweusesquar
ecent
imet cm2)andsquar
er( e
2
mil
li
meter(
mm )

1cm2i
sthear
eaofasquar
eofsi
de1cm.

1mm2i
sthear
eaofasquar
eofsi
de1mm

1m2=100x100=10000cm2

1km2=1000km x1000km=1000000m2=106m2

1cm2=10mmx10mm =1002mm

Vol
ume

Vol
umei
sspaceoccupi
edbyanobj
ect
.

SIuni
tiscubi
cmet
rem3.

Cubi
cmetrei
sthespaceoccupi
edbyabl
ockofl
engt
h1m hei
ghtIm and
br
eadthl
m.

i
.e.1m3=1m x1m x1m

Acubi
cmetr
eisqui
teal
argev
olume.Soot
heruni
tsmaybeusedf
orsmal
l
er
vol
umes.

Ot
heruni
ts

Cubi
ccenti
metr
e( cm3)i
sthespaceoccupi
edbyabl
ockofl
engt
h1cm hei
ght
1cm andbr
eadt
h1cm.Howmanysuchbl ockswi
l
lfi
tint
oaboxofl
engt
h1m
widt
h1m andheight1m?

1m3=100cm x100cm x100cm =106cm3

13
1cm3=10mm x10mm x10mm =103cm3

Tomeasur
ethev
olumeofal
i
qui
dweof
tenusel
i
tres.

i
tr 1l
es( )=1000cm3or1L=l
000ml

Vol
umeofl
iqui
ds

Inthelaborator
yt hevol
umeofl i
quidsi
s
measur edusingameasur i
ngcyl
inder
.They
areavailabl
eindiffer
entrangesandare
3
cali
bratedincm .

Vol
umeofi
rr
egul
arobj
ect
s(suchasst
one)

Use measur ing cy l

inders and/ or
displ
acement can. Fi ll a measur i
ng
cyli
nderwi t
hwat ert oanyspecificmar k
youl i
ke.Readt hev olume.Thent i
et he
stonet ooneendofast ri
ngandgent l
y
l
oweri tintothemeasur ingjarunti
litis
compl etely submer ged.Take t he new
readi
ngoft hewat erlevel.Thedif
fer
ence
betweent hetwor eadingsi sthevolume
ofthest one

Int
heabovediagram t
heor i
ginal
wat er
3
l
eveli
satthe50cm mar k.Whent he
sol
idi
ssubmer gedthelevel
ofwat er
3
r
isest
othe73cm mar
k.Whati
sthev
olumeofthesoli
d?

14
I
fthesoli
dobjecti
slar
geandcannotbeint
roducedi
ntot
hemeasur
ingcy
li
nder
,
useadispl
acementcantodet
erminethevol
ume,

Placet hecanonaf l
at
surfaceandf i
llit
compl etelywithwat erunti
l
youseeaf ewdr opsof
excesswat erflowsout
throught hespout .NBDo
notshaket hetable.Wait
untilal
l theexcesswat er
hascomeout .Thenkeepa
measur i
ngcy l
inderbelowt hespoutandgentl
ylowertheobjecti
ntothecanuntil
i
tiscompl etel
ybel owthewat er
.Coll
ectall
thedispl
acedwat eri
nthemeasuring
cyli
nder .Thev olumeoft heli
quidcol
lect
edisequaltothevolumeoftheobject.

MASS

Massi
stheamountofmat
teri
nanobj
ect
.

SIuni
tiski
l
ogr
am (
kg)

Ot
heruni
ts

Mi
l
li
grams(
mg)

Gr
am (
g)

Tonne=1000Kg

Measur
ingi
nst
rumentf
ormass

o Tri
plebeam bal ance(
cor
rectt
o0.
1g)
o El
ectroni
cbal ance
o Bathroom scaleetc

DENSI
TY(
)

Densi
tyi
sameasur
eofmassperuni
tvol
umeOFASUBSTANCE.Densi
tyi
s

15
const
antsi
ncei
tisapr
opr
iet
yofasubst
ance.

massi
nki
l
ogr
ams,
vol nm3t
umei her
efor
e

SIuni
tiski
l
ogr
amspercubi
cmet
er( m3)
kg/

Ot
heruni
ts

cm3
g/

Thedensi
tyofwat
eri cm3
s1g/

Not
et cm3i
hat1g/ snotequal
to m3
1kg/

I
nf cm3=1000kg/
act1g/ m3

16
 MOTI
ON

DEFI
NATI
ONOFTERMS

Dist
ance-i
st hechangeofposi
ti
onofabody(lengt
htr
av el
edbyabodybet
ween
cert
ainpoi
nts).
Dist
anceisascal
arbecausei
thasnodirecti
on.

Di
splacement -
isdefi
nedasthedistancemov edinast at
eddirecti
on.Di
spl
acement
i
sav ectorquanti
tysi
nceithasdir
ect i
on.Determinethefoll
owingforaper
son
t
ravel
ingfrom KopongtoMol epol
olepassingthroughMet si
mot l
habe.

Exampl
e1.

a) Tot
aldi
stancet
rav
eled.

b) Di
spl
acement
.

Example2.Anathlet
ecompetesin400m fl
atraceand
takes44seconds.Eachofthesecti
onSP, PQ,QRandRS
i
s100m i nlengt
h.S/Fr
epresent
sstartandfi
nish
respect
ivel
y.

Det
ermi
net
hef
oll
owi
ng;

a)Total
dist
ancet
rav
eledoncompl
eti
ngt
her
acei
s
400m.

b)Displ
acementofathlet
eoncompl et
ingt
her
acei
s0m si
ncet
heat
hlet
ehas
retur
nedtot
heoriginalposi
ti
on.

c)Theat
hlet
ehasagr
eat
erdi
spl
acementwhenatposi
ti
onQt
hanatPandR.

Speed(v)
-i
sdef
inedast
her
ateofchangeofdi
stancemov
ed.Speedi
sascal
ar
quant
it
y.

17
TheSIuni
tforspeedi
smet
erpersecond(
m/s)

Thespeedofanobj
ecti
sgi
venbyt
heequat
ion.

Therei
sar easonwhyav er
ageisused.I
magineajour
neyi
nacarfrom Gabor
oneto
Molepol
ole,atot
aldi
stanceof50km.ifajour
neyt
ook2hrsthent
hespeedwouldbe

hecarwas25km/
Thespeedoft h.

Butthi
sdoesnotmeanthatthespeedometerwil
lconstant
lybereadi
ng25km/,t
he
carmayslowdownforgoatsontheroad,i
tmayspeeduponanopenandcl earroad
oritmaystopatMmanoko.Sothisequat
iongiv
esust heaveragespeedf
orthe
wholejour
ney,
nott
hespeedatanyspecifi
cpoint.

Veloci
ty(voru)-i
sdefi
nedast her
ateofchangeofdi
stancemovedinaspeci
fi
ed
di
recti
on(or,t
herateofchangeofdi
splacement
).Vel
ocit
yisavect
orquant
it
y,i
thas
bothsizeanddir
ecti
on.

TheSIuni
tforv
eloci
tyi
smet m/
erpersecond( s)

I
fabodyt ravel
swi t
haconstantspeedi
nastrai
ghtl
i
nethenithasconst
antvel
oci
ty.
Butifit
sdirect
ionchangest
heni t
svel
oci
tyal
sochanges.I
famanwal ki
nghisdog
i
nt heparkwalksaroundatr
eet henhi
svel
oci
tyhaschangedeveni
fhisspeed
remainsconstant.

Theequat
ionf
orv
eloci
tyi
sver
ysi
mil
art
othatf
orspeedandi
sshownbel
ow

Whenst
ati
ngv
eloci
tyy
oushoul
dal
sogi
vedi
rect
ion.

Accel
erat
ion(a)
-i
sdef
inedast
her
ateofchangeofv
eloci
ty.Accel
erat
ioni
sa
vect
or.
18
TheSIuni
tofaccel
erati
oni
sthemet
repersecondpersecondormet
repersecond
2 -
2
squar
ed(m/s orms )

But
,accel
erat
ioncanbef
oundbyusi
ngt
heequat
ion

Exampl
e1

AnairBot
swanaaeroplaneaccel
erat
esfrom r
estt
oav el
oci
tyof100m/
sjustbef
ore
takeof
f.I
fiti
sontherunwayfor12s,f
indit
saccel
erat
ion

St
age1:wr
it
eal
lthegi
venquant
it
iesandt
her
elat
edunknownquant
it
ies

i
nit
ial
vel
oci
t u)=0m/
y( s

f
inal
vel
oci
ty(v) =100m/
s

t
i t)
me( = 12s

accel
erat
ion(a) =?

St
age2:
wri
teappr
opr
iat
eequat
ion

St
age3:Subst
it
utet
hequant
it
iesandev
aluat
e

19
 =8. s2
33m/

St
age4:Wr
it
etheanswerwi
thSIuni
t(
s)

Theaccel
erat
ionoft s8.
hecari s2(
33m/ cor
rectt
o3si
g.f
ig.
)

Exampl
e2

Acaristraveli
ngataconstantv
elocit
yof80km/ h,whensuddenl
yacow wander
s
i
ntotheroad.Thedr i
verstepsont hebrakespaddleandr educesherspeedt
o
2
20km/h.I
fittook5st
oreduceherspeed,f
indherdecel
erat
ioni
nm/ s.

1.i
nit
ial
vel
oci
t u)=80km/
y( h

f
inal
vel
oci
t v
y() =20km/
m

[
real
izethatt
her
eisneedt
ochanget
hehour
sint
osecondsandt
heki
l
omet
ersi
nto
meters]

Ther
efor
e

u=80x100/
3600=22.
22m/
s

v=20x1000/
3600=5.
57m/
s

t=5s

a=-3. s2
33m/

Themi nussigntel
lsusthecari
ssl
owi
ngdownori
tisdecel
erat
ing.
Thust
he
2
decel
erat
ioni
s3.33m/s

VELOCI
TYTI
ME-
GRAPH

Veloci
tyti
me-graphsgiveusinfor
mationaboutthev el
oci
tyofanobj ectovera
specif
iedt
ime.Suchgraphscantel
lhowfastacarwasmov i
ng,
itsaccel
erat
ion,and
i
tsdeceler
ati
onwhenitstoppedandthedist
ancetr
avel
ed.

Thegraphshowspartofaj
ourneyf
rom Sel
i
bePhi
kwej
unct
iont
oMmadi
nar
eSeni
or
takenbycardr
ivenbyTumi
sang.

20
Firstheuniformlyacceleratedtohismaximum veloci
ty.Hethent r
aveledatt hi
s
maxi mum veloci
tyunt
ilhehadt oslowdownunif
orml ytoavoi
dsomest raygoat si
n
ther oad.Heagai nacceleratednon-
uni
for
mlytoahi ghermaximum v eloci
tyand
stayedatthi
sspeedunt i
l hehadtostopatapol
i
cer oadblocknearSupi
ngj uncti
on.

Summar
yofmot
ionsect
ions

OA–cari
saccel
erat
inguni
for
mlyt
omaxi
mum v
eloci
ty

AB-cari
str
avel
i
ngataconst
antv
eloci
ty

BC-cardecel
erat
euni
for
mlyt
oav
oidt
hest
raygoat
s

CD-caraccel
erat
inguni
for
mlyt
oahi
ghermaxi
mum v
eloci
ty

DE–cari
str
avel
i
ngatconst
antv
eloci
ty

EF–cardecel
erat
esuni
for
mlyt
oast
opatapol
i
cer
oadbl
ock.

GRADI
ENTofVel
oci
ty/
Speed-t
imegr
aph=ACCELERATI
ON

Gr
adi
ent=changei
nyv
alues/changei
nXv
alues

=changei
nvel
oci
ty/
changei
nti
me

Butchangei
nvel
oci
ty/
ti
me=accel
erat
ion

Theref
orethegradientofthevel
ocit
y/speed-t
ime
graphgiv
esaccel
erati
onofanobj
ect.

21
Asteepgradientorsl
opegi
vesal
argeaccel
erat
ionandashal
lowgr
adi
entgi
vesa
smal
laccel
erati
on.

Li
neRr epr
esent
sthemotionofanobj ectmovingwi
tht
hegr
eat
estaccel
erat
ion
whi
lstPisf
oranobj
ectwi
ththel
eastacceler
ati
on

VELOCI
TY-
TIMEGRAPHSFORUNI
FROM ANDNONUNI
FROM MOTI
ON

AREAUNDERVel
oci
ty/
Speed–t
imeGr
aph=DI
STANCETr
avel
ed.

Thear eaunderthegraphgivesyouthedi
stancetravel
edbyt hemovingbody
.Iti
s
veryconvenienttospli
tyourgraphint
otri
angles,squaresandrect
anglesasiti
s
easiertof
indtheareaofthi
sshapes

Theexampl
ebel
owgi
vest
hedi
stancet
rav
eledi
nthe5s.

22
 Di
stance =Ar
ea of t
ri
angl
e =

*al
way smakesurethatyouruni
tsareconst
ant.
Ifveloci
tyisin m/st hen t
ime shoul
d be i
n
seconds.Ifv
eloci
tyi
sinkm/ hthenti
meshould
beinhour.

DI
STANCE–TI
MEGRAPH

Anothert
ypeofgrapht
hatyoushouldbeawareofi
sthedi
stance-
ti
megr
aph.Thi
s
showsthedi
stancemovedbyanobjectwi
tht
ime.

23
 GRADI
ENTofdi
stance-
ti
megr
aph=SPEED

Gr
adi
ent=y
/x=di
stance/
ti
me=(
y2–y1)/(x2–x1)

=(
50–0)m /(
5-0)
s

=50m/
5s

=10m/
s

Theuni
toft
hisgr
adi
enti
sthesameasuni
tofspeed.Hence

Thegr
adi
entofadi
stance-
ti
megr
aphgi
vest
hespeedofabody

EQUATI
ONSOFUNI
FORMLYACCELERATEDMOTI
ON

Ther
earefi
vefundamentalquant
it
iesy
oucanknow aboutt
he
moti
onofabody.Thesear
e:

s–di
spl
acement(
m)

u–i
nit
ial
vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

v–f
inal
vel
oci
ty(
m/s)

a–accel
erat
ion(
m/s2)

t–t i
me( s).Givenv al
uesof3oft hefol
lowi
ngquant
iti
esdispl
acement(s),i
nit
ial
vel
oci
ty(u),f
inalveloci
t v
y(),accel
erat
i a)andt
on( ime(t)onecancalcul
atet
heother
t
wousi ngtheabov eequati
ons.

NB:theequat
ionsappl
yonlyt
ouni
for
m accel
erat
ingmot
ionandt
hequant
it
ies
shoul
dal
waysbeinSIuni
ts.

Exampl
e1

Amot
orcy
cleaccel
erat
esf
ormr
estt
o5m/
sin5s.

(
a)Whati
sit
sfi
nal
vel
oci
ty?

Sol
uti
on

u=0m/
s,v=5m/
s,t=2s,
a=?

24
Theaccel
erat
ionoft
hemot
orcy
clei
s2. s2.
5m/

Exampl
e2

Abodyst
art
sfr
om r
estandmov
eswi
thauni
for
m accel
erat
i s2i
onof2m/ nast
rai
ght
l
ine.

(
a)Whati
sthev
eloci
tyaf
ter5s?

(
b)Howf
arhasi
ttr
avel
edi
nthi
sti
me?

Sol
uti
on

a) u=0m/
s,v=?
,t=5s, s2
a=2m/

Thev
eloci
tyaf
ter5si
s10m/
s.

b) u=0m/
s,v=10m/
s,t=5s, s2
a=2m/

I
ttr
av s25m i
el n5s.

ACCELERATI TYg
ONDUETOGRAVI

I
fanobjecti
sdroppedf r
om agreathei
ghti
tsvel
oci
tyincr
eases.Thisincr
easei
n
v
eloci
tyi
saccel
erat
ion.Sowhati
sitt
hatmakesafal
li
ngbodyacceler
ate?

Thinkaboutwhathappenswhent heacceler
atorpedalofavehi
clei
spr essed,the
vel
ocit
yincrease.Thisi
sbecauset
heengineisprovidi
ngafor
cewhichi
ncr easesthe
vel
ocit
y.Thesamei str
ueforafal
lingbody.Theremustbeaforcewhichincreases
thevel
ocit
y.Thisforcei
scall
edthef or
ceofgravi
ty.

Thefor
ceduetograv
ityi
sroughl
ythesameatallpoi
ntsont
heear
th(g=10N/kg)
.
Buti
tdoesvar
yingasmallway.Thi
sisbecausetheear
thi
snotatr
uespher
e,iti
s

25
fl
att
enedneart
hepoles.Theaccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tydoesv
aryar
oundt
hewor
ld.
Attheequat
ori
tissl
i
ghtlyl
essthanatthepol
es.

NB:forceofgrav
itymakesthi
ngsaccel
erat
eandwhenev
eranobj
ectaccel
erat
es
t
hereisachangeinvel
oci
ty.

Thef or
ceofgr avit
ymakest hi
ngsaccelerateatthesamer ate.Justast heengineof
acaraccel er
at es( changeinv el
ocity
),thef or
ceofgr avit
ymakesaf al
li
ngbody
acceler
atedownwar ds.Thisaccel
erati
oni sconstantneart heEar t
h’ssurfaceandit
-
2 -
2
i
s9. 8ms usual l
yroundedt o10ms f oreasycalculat
ions.AllobjectsneartheEarth
acceler
ateatthisconst antr
atewhent heeffectofairresist
ance( fr
ict
ion)isignor
ed.
Thisisanidealsituati
oncalledFREEFALL.

Theequationsofmoti
oncanbeadjust
edtosolv
emoti
onprobl
emsunderfr
eefal
l
asshownbel ow. A f
all
i
ngobjectaccel
erat
esthusa =g whi
leari
singobj
ect
decel
er eshencea=-
at g.

Equat
ion Fal
li
ngobj
ect Ri
singobj
ect

Exampl e: A stone is pr oj
ected
v=u+at v=u+gt v=u-
gt vert
icall
yupwardswithav el
ocityof
-
1
40ms .I gnor
ingairresi
stanceand
-
2
t ngg=10ms ,
aki det
ermine;

s=1/
2(v
+u)
t s=1/
2(v
+u)
t s=1/
2(v
+u)
t

2 2 2
s=ut+1/
2at s=ut+1/
2gt s=ut-1/
2gt

2
v =u2+2as 2
v =u2+2gs 2
v =u2–2gs

a)themaxi
mum hei
ghtr
eached.
Sol:atmaxi
mum heightobj
ectst
ops

26
 movi
ngup;
v=0ms-1,
butu=40ms-1,
g=10ms-2,
t=?
,s=?;
2
v =u2–2gs
2 2
s=(
v -u)/(
-2g)

02-
=( 402)
/(-
2*10)

=-
1600/
-20

=80m

Ans:t
hemaxi
mum hei
ghtr
eached=80m

b)theti
metakent oreachmaximum hei
ght
-
1 -1
solv
:=0ms , butu=40ms , g=10ms2,
-
t
=?,

v=u–gt

t
=(v
-u)
/-g

=(
0-40)
/-10

=-
40/
-10

=4s

Ans:i
ttakes4st
oreachmaxi
mum hei
ght
.

c)veloci
tyaft
er8seconds.
Sol
:v=?,butu=40ms-1,
g=10ms-2,
t=8s;

v=u–gt

=40–10*
8

=40-
80

40ms-1
=-

Themi
nussi
gni
mpl
i
est
hatt
hebal
lwasnowmov
ingi
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ion.

Ans;v
eloci
tyaf
t s40ms-1downwar
er8secondsi ds.(
remembert
ost
atedi
rect
ionof
vel
oci
ty)

Not
ethesy
mmet
ryoft
hemot
ionasshownabov
e.

Ter
minalVel
oci
ty
27
Whenapar achut
istj
umpsoutofai
rpl
anethefor
ceofgrav
itypul
lshi
mt owardthe
ear
th.Hisini
ti
alv
eloci
tyi
szer
o,buthesoonspeedsup.Hestart
stoaccel
eratedue
tograv
ity
.

Af
orcei
srequi
redt
omakeabodyaccel
erat
e(t
hisanexampl
eofNewt
on’
sfi
rstl
aw)

Theonl
yforceact
ingont
hepar
achut
istwhenhef
ir
stj
ustf
rom pl
anei
sthegr
avi
ty,
ort
heweight.

Thi
sforcemakeshi
m acceler
ateuptoat
ermi
nalvel
oci
tyofabout60m/
s(216km/
h).
Att
hispointher
eal
lyneedsthehel
pofhi
spar
achute.

Asheaccel
erat
est
hef
orceduet
oai
rresi
stancest
art
stoi
ncr
ease.Buti
f

Wei
ght>ai
rresi
stance

Thenthereisaresul
tantf
orceandheaccel
erat
esdownwar
ds.Butaf
tersomet
ime
ai
rresi
stanceincr
easesand

Wei
ght=ai
rresi
stance

Ther
eisnoresul
tantf
orce(againseeNewt
onf
ir
stl
aw)andhest
opsaccel
erat
ing.
He mov eswit
haconstantveloci
ty

Thi
sisfast
estv
eloci
tywhi
cht
hepar
achut
istcanmov
eat
,sowecal
lthi
ster
minal
vel
oci
ty.

Butr
ememberthatthisv
eloci
tyi
sabout60m/ s!Hest
il
lhast
osl
owdown.Theway
i
nwhichhedecel
eratesi
stoopenhisparachute.

Wei
ght<ai
rresi
stance

Ther
eisnowar
esul
tantf
orceupwar
dssopar
achut
istsl
owsdownordecel
erat
es

Eventual
l
ythetwoforcesar
eagainequalt
oeachotherandher
eachesanew
ter
minalvel
oci
tyofabout10m/s.Thi
sthespeedatwhichhewi
ll
landandhopef
ull
y
avert
ingafat
alacci
dent.

Airresi
stanceisafor
m offr
ict
ion,i
tisanupwardfor
ce
whichopposest hedownwardforcethusslowi
ngdown
therateatwhichthepar
achuti
stacceler
ates.

Remember :i
ft herei
snor esult
antforcet
henabody
cannotaccelerate.I
tmustt heref
ore move wi
tha
constantvel
ocity
,inthi
scasewecal litt
hetermi
nal
vel
ocityorsteadyspeed.
28
I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Ter
minal
vel
oci
ty.

Note:Bodi
esfal
li
ngthr
oughaliqui
dal
soexper
iencer
esi
sti
vef
orceduet
ovi
scosi
ty
(
viscousfor
ces)oft
heliqui
d.

Ther
efor
eal
lbodi
esf
all
i
ngt
roughaf
lui
dexper
iencet
ermi
nal
orst
eadyv
eloci
tyaf
ter
someti
me.

Araci
ngcartest
edonastrai
ghtl
evelt
rackst
art
sfr
om restandaccel
erat
esata
const
antr
atetoreachav
eloci
tyof50m/ si
n2seconds.

29
 CI
RCULARMOTI
ON

CENTRI
PETALFORCE

Wheny ouwhir
laballaroundinahori
zontal circl
eatasteadyspeed, aninwardf
orce
i
sneededt omakethebal l
tofoll
owacircularpat h.Thetensionont hestri
ng
provi
desthi
sforce,
withoutitt
heballwouldt raveli
nastraightli
ne.Thei nwardf
orce
neededtomakeanobj ecttomov ei
naci r
cul arpathiscall
edcent r
ipetalfor
ce

I
ll
ust
rat
ionAbal
lbei
ngwhi
rl
edar
ound

Themagni
tudeoft
hecent
ri
pet
alf
orcei
sdependentont
he
fol
l
owi
ng

 massoftheball
 Speedoftheobj
ect
 Theradi
usoftheci
rcl
e

Cent
ri
pet
alf
orcei
sgi
venbyt
heequat
ion

wher
em ismassoftheobj
ectinki
logr
am,vist
hevel
oci
tyi
nmet
repersecondandr
i
stheradi
usofcur
vatur
eoftheci
rcul
arpat
hinmet
re.

CENTRI
PETALACCELERATI
ON

Thev elocit
yoft hebal lincir
cularmot i
oni salways
changingbecauset hedirecti
onofmot i
oni salways
changing, t
her eforet heballisaccelerati
ng.The
dir
ect i
onoft hev elocitycomponenti salway s
tangentialtot hecent reofthecircl
eatev erypoint.
Thebal laccelerat est owardsthecent reofthe
cir
cle.Butthebal l nevergetsclosertot hecentreof
thecircle,
thisi sbecauset heobjectisconst antl
y
mov inginwar dsf rom t hepositi
onitwoul dhav ehad
i
fittravell
edi nast raightli
ne.

Thear
rowsshowt
hedi
rect
ionoft
hevect
ors

30
act
ingont
hebal
l.

31
 MASS,
WEI
GHT,
CENTREOFGRAVI
TYandSTABI
LITY

MASS

Massi
stheamountofmat
teri
nanobj
ect
.

TheSIuni
tofmassistheki
logr
am.Massisascal
arquant
it
ysi
ncei
tdescr
ibed
bymagnit
udeanduni
tonl
ybutnodi
rect
ion.

I
NERTI Ai st
her el
uctanceofabodyt ochangei tsstateofmot ion.Anobjectat
restoff
erssomer esistancetosetinmotionwhi leamov ingobjectalsotendsto
opposeanychanget hatattendst
ost opit.Evi
dentlyitismor ediff
icul
ttosetin
mot i
onanobjectwithmor emassobjectthanal essmassi v
eobj ect
.Thesamei s
truetostopamassi vebodyt hanalessmassi v
ebodybot htrav
elli
ngatthesame
veloci
ty.Asar esultinert
iaissaidtobedi r
ectlyproporti
onalt omassi .
e.the
mor emassthemor ei nert
iaandvi
cev er
sa.

WEI
GHT

Weightistheamountofgr
avi
tat
ionalpul
lact
ingon
anobject.TheSIuni
tofweightisthenewton(N)
becauseiti
safor
ce.

Weighti
sar esul
toft
heforceofgrav
ityhencei
tisa
vect
or. Theinstr
umentformeasuri
ngwei ghtisa
f
orcemeterandacommont ypei
sthespringbal
ance.

Weightandmassar ediffer
entt houghindai
lyl
i
fe
conser
v at
ionpeopl
eoftener roneouslyr
efert
oone
quanti
tyinpl
aceoftheother.

Thewei
ghtoft
heobj
ectont
hedi
agr
am shownl
eft=
……………[
2]

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenmassandwei
ght

1)massdoesnotdependongr avi
tyi .
e.wei
ghti splacedependentsinceitis
aff
ectedbygsincef
orceofgrav
ityvarieswi
thplace.(
thisexplai
nswhyanobject
thr
ownup[wit
hsamei ni
ti
alener
gy]risestoagreaterheightatthemoonthanon
eart
h)
32
2)massi
sascal
arwher
easwei
ghti
sav
ect
or.

RELATI
ONSHI
Pbet
weenMassandWei
ght(
W =mg)

Theweightofanobjectdependsongr
avi
tat
ional
pul
landmasst
hrought
he
equat
ionshownbelow;

Wher
ewi sweighti
nnewtons(
N),mismassi
nki
l
ogr
ams(
kg)andgi
sfor
ceof
gr
avi
tyact
ingonunitmass(g=10N/
kg)

Thef
oll
owi
ngquant
it
iesmaybeusef
ulwhenanswer
ingt
hequest
ionsbel
ow.
( )

a)Fi
ndt
hemassofanobj
ectatt
hemoonwhosewei
ghti
s160N
[
2]

b)Whatwoul
dbet
hemassoft
hesameobj
ectmeasur
edonear
th?
[
1]

c)Fi
ndt
hewei
ghtoft
hesameobj
ectoear
th.
[
2]

d)Expl
aingivi
ngdet
ail
swhet
heranobj
ectwoul
dwei
ghl
essatt
heMar
sor
onEarth. [
2]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

33
 CENTREOFGRAVI
TY/
MASS

Cent
reofgravi
ty/
massi
sar
egi
oni
nanobj
ectwher
ethewei
ght
/massseemst
o
beconcent
rat
ed.

Or

Cent
reofgr
avi
tyi
saposi
ti
ont
hroughwhi
cht
heEar
th’
sgr
avi
tat
ional
pul
lact
s.

Cent
reofgr
avi
tyf
oranREGULARObj
ectofUNI
FROM MassDi
str
ibut
ion

Thecentr
eofgravi
tyormassofaregul
arobj
ectofuni
for
m massdist
ri
butionli
es
exact
lyati
tscent
re.Thi
scent
reoftheobj
ect
(cent
reofgrav
ity
)canbelocatedby
twomethodstnamely;

i
)Bal anci
ng:Theobjecti
spivotedonashar pedgeunti
litbal
ances.This
showst hatt
hemomentofthewei ghtaboutthepi
voti
szeroienot ur
ning
eff
ectsincet
hewei
ghtactsdi
rect
lyatthepivot.

i
i
)Sy mmetry:theint
ersect
ionoftwol i
nesofsymmetrei
st hecent
r eofthe
obj
ectandthisi
stheposi t
ionofcent
reofgr
avit
y(cog)
.Perpendi
cularand
orangul
arbi
sect
orcanbeusedt olocatet
hecent
reofaregul
arobject.

Cent
reofgr
avi
tyf
oranI
RREGULARl
ami
na-pl
umbl
inemet
hod

Thecentr eofgravi
tyfor
anir
regularl
aminacanbe
det
ermined by t
he
PLUMBLINE met hod as
i
ll
ustr
atedbelow.

Pr
ocedur
e:

1.setuptheexper
iment
asshownont
heri
ght.

2.hangt helaminausing
pi
ni nser
ted thr
ough one

34
oft
hepi
nhol
e1.(
thel
ami
nashoul
dbeabl
etoswi
ngf
reel
y)

3.At
tachast
ri
ngsuppor
ti
ngasmal
lmassf
rom t
heot
herend.

4.Letlami
nacomet orestwit
ht hestr
ingresti
ngv er
ti
call
ydownwar ds.(
the
cent
reofgr
avi
tyl
iesal
ongthev
erti
call
i
ner epr
esentedbythestr
ingi
.e.al
ongthe
c.
o.gof
fthebob)

5.Mar
kbypenci
lpoi
ntPdi
rect
lyundert
hest
ri
ngont
hel
owersi
deoft
hel
ami
na.

6.Joi
nthecent
reoft
hepi
nhol
etopoi
ntPbyast
rai
ghtl
i
ne.

7.Repeatst
eps2t
o6f
rom anot
herpi
nhol
e.

8.Thecentr
eofgravi
tyofthel
aminai
stheint
ersect
ionoft
hel
i
nesdr
awnf
rom
thepi
nholestot
heircorr
espondi
ngmarks.

STABI
LITY

Stabil
it
yi stheabil
i
tyofabodytomai nt
aini
tsbal
ancedposi
ti
on.Theobj
ect
shouldalway sgobackt
oit
sori
ginalposi
ti
onwhenti
lt
edtoconsi
der
abl
eangle
withouttoppli
ng.

Thecent r
eofgr avit
yofanobjectinequi
l
ibr
ium al
waysfal
lswit
hintheplaneof
i
tssuppor torbase.Whenthecentr
egravi
tyf
all
soutsi
dethebaseareatheobject
toppl
esorf all
sov er
.Ther
estori
ngmomentaboutt heedgesofobjectpr
oviding
thepi v
otshoul dalwaysbeenought otur
nbackt heobjecttoi t
sbalanced
posit
ion.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingst
abi
li
ty

I
tcanbedemonst
rat
edt
hatst
abi
l
ityofanobj
ecti
saf
fect
edbyt
wof
act
ors
namel
y;

a)Positi
onofcentreofgrav
ity
:An
objectwi t
h a highercentre of
gravit
yisalway sl
essstabl
et han
onewi thal owerc.
o.gbuthav i
ng

35
t
hesamebasear ea.Anexpl anati
oncanbemadei nt er
msoft herest
ori
ng
momentsprovi
dedbyt heweightoftheobj
ectstakenbytheedgeswhi
chactsas
t
hepiv
ot.(t
hisisl
ef tt
ot hel
earnertoveri
fy)
.Racingcar
sar emademuchlower
t
hanordi
naryvehi
clestomaket henmorestable.

Bare ar
ea:The amountof
basesupport
inganobj ectis
vit
ali
nimprovingit
sst abil
it
y.
Large based obj ect
s ar e
mor
est
abl
ethant
hosewi
thsmal
lbasebuthav
ingt
hesamepositionofc.o.g.

Summary:
thestabil
i
tyofanobj
ectcanbeimpr
ovedbyl
ower
ingi
tsposi
ti
onof
c.
o.gandmaki
ngi t
sbasesupportl
arge.

For
msofEqui
li
bri
um

There ar
e three equil
i
bri
um
posi
ti
ons for a object
s as
shownint
hediagr
am.

a)St abl
eequi l
ibr
ium iswher e
an objectcan go back toi ts
ori
ginalstable posit
ion when
ti
l
tedsl i
ght
lyandthenr el
eased.

b)Un-
stabl
eequi
li
bri
um i
swhenanobj
ectt
oppl
eswhent
il
tedsl
i
ght
ly.

c)Neutr
alequi
li
bri
um iswher
etheposi
ti
onofcentreofgrav
ityal
way
sfal
l
s
wit
hint
hesamepositi
onal
ongt
hepl
aneofsuppor
toft
heobj
ect.

B1. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
hesameobj
ectofuni
for
m massdi
str
ibut
ioni
n
di
ff
erentor
ient
ati
ons.

(
i)I
nwhi
chor
ient
ati
onsAorBi
sthe

obj
ectl
eastst
abl
e?

Expl
ain!
………………………………….
…………

…………………………………………………………………….

36
 ………………………………………………………….
..
…..
.[3]

(
ii
) Mar
ktheappr
oxi
mat
eposi
ti
onoft
hecent
reofgr
avi
tyi
nor
ient
ati
onB.

[
2]

B2.Acoi
nispl
acedonacar
dontopofabeaker
.Ifthecar
dispul
ledaway
qui
ckl
y,t
hecoi
ndoesnotmovesi
deway
sbutfal
lsintot
hebeaker
.

Whi
chpr
oper
tyoft
hecoi
nmakest
hispossi
ble?

A.densi
ty

B.v
olume

C.i
ner
ti
a

D.t
hickness.

B3.

(a)Asmal lpi
nisf i
xedtotheedgeofabench.A
tri
angul
arpieceofcardwi t
hasmal lhol
eineach
corneri
shungont hepinfrom cornerAand
all
owedt osettl
e,asshowni nFig.belowlef
t.A
plumb-l
ineisthenhungf r
om thepi nandthe
verti
cal
lineAPi smarkedont hecar d.

Thisprocedurei
sthenrepeatedwit
hthecar
d
hangingfrom Candtheverti
call
ine
CQi smarked.Aft
erthi
s,thecardis
asshowni
nFi
g.bel
owr
ight
.

(i
)drawthevert
ical
li
net
hatwoul
dbeobt
ainedi
fthecar
dwer
e
hungfrom B,

(
ii
)Cl
ear
lymar
kthecent
reofmassoft
hecar
dusi
ngadotl
abel
l
edG.[
2]

37
 B4.Fig.belowshowst
wowoodenbl
ocksst
andi
ngonahi
ngedboar
dwi
tha
roughsurface.

Theboar
disslowl
yti
lt
edi
nthedir
ect
ionofthear
row.Thebl
ocksdonotsl
i
p.
Stat
ewhichbl
ockfal
l
soverf
ir
st,
andexpl
ainwhy.

…………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.[2]

38
 Gener
alPhy
sics

For
ces

Int
roduction
I
tisnotcl earwhatafor
ceexact
lyis,
butapushapullandatwistar
eexamples.
OnlySirIsaacNewtonhadaclearnoti
onofexact
lywhatafor
ceis,hence,
theSI
unitofforceisNewton(N)
,inhi
shonour.

Eff
ectsofforces
Alt
hougharenotclearwhataforceis,
weknowwhatafor
cecando.Whena
for
ceisappli
edtoabodyi tcancausethechangeof

a) shape
b) si
ze( l
engt
h)
c) motion

Thesechangesarecal
l
edef
fect
soff
orcesandwear
egoi
ngt
olookateachof
them i
nmoredetail
.

a) Eff
ectsoff
orcesonshape:-whenacanishi
twit
hahammeri
tchanges
shape.Sodoesapieceofchewi
nggum whenonebi
tesi
t.

b) Eff
ectsoff orcesonsi ze(length):-mostobj ect
schangel engthwhena
for
cei sappli
edtot hem, e.g.whenaspongei ssquashedi tdecreases
l
ength.Whenar ubberband( orspri
ng)ispullediti
ncreasesinlength.I
n
general,
thelengthofel asti
cobj ect
sincreaseswhenaf orcepull
satthem.
Thisi
ncr easeoflengthf r
om t heori
ginali
scal l
edextension.

i
.e.ext
ensi e=newl
on, engt
h,l–or
igi
nal
lengt
h,l
o

39
 1

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
hef
orceandt
heext
ensi
ont
hati
tcauses

Ther el
ati
onshi
pbetweentheforceandtheext
ensionitcauseswasf i
rst
determinedempir
ical
l
y(i
.e.experi
mental
ly
)byRobertHooke, hence,
the
fi
ndingsarenowknownasHooke’ slaw.Nextistheexperimentsimil
artot
he
oneconductedbyRobertHookewhi chwealsodi
di nclass.

Exper
iment
:Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
hef
orceandt
heext
ensi
oni
tcauses

Ai
m:-t
odet
ermi
ne

aimi)ther
elat
ionshi
pbetweenthefor
ceandt
heext
ensi
oni
tcauses
ai
mii)thef
orceconstantoft
hespri
ng
Appar
atus

- spri
ng(tobeext ended)
- metrerule(tomeasurethelength)
- masshanger( tohangthemasses)
- fi
ve100gsl otmasses(tosupplythefor
ce)
- ret
ortstandandcl amp(forsupport
)

Setup:-t
heappar
atuswer
esetupasshownbel
ow.

1
Wewi
l
luset
hisnot
ati
ont
hroughoutt
hist
ext
.

40
Pr
ocedur
e

Theor i
ginal l
ength,lo,
ofthespringwasr eadfrom themet rerul
e(withthemass
2
hangerst i
l
l hung)f rom thespri
ngandr ecorded.A100g, mass,m, washungon
thespringandt henewl engt l
h,,ofthespringreadfrom themetreruleand
recor
ded.Theext ension,e,
duet othemass, m, wascalculat
edfrom formul
a,e=
l–lo,andr ecorded.Thef or
ce,F,(i
nnewt ons)duetothemass, m,was

cal
cul
atedf
rom f
ormul
a, andr
ecor
ded.Thi
spr
ocedur
ewasr
epeat
ed

f m =200g,
ormasses, 300g,
400gand500g.

Resul
tsandanal
ysi
s

Resul
ts

Al
lther
esul
tswer
erecor
dedbel
ow.

Or
igi
nal
lengt
h,l
o= cm

Tabl
eofr
esul
ts3

2
Thi
sisapr ecaut
iontoensur
ethatt
hespri
ngisv er
ti
cal
l
ystrai
ghtwhenwet aket
henewl
engt
h.
3
Therestoftheresul
tsyouwil
lfi
l
lwit
hyourteacherasyoudotheexper
iment.

41
 mass, Newl
engt
h, Ext
ensi
on For
ce

m l e=l–l
o

(
g) (
cm) (
cm)
(
N)

100

200

300

400

500

Anal
ysi
s

i
) St
udent
spl
ott
edagr
aphofext
ensi
on,
e,(
cm)agai
nstf
orce,
F(N)
.

NB:St
udent
sar
etoski
pawhol
epagewher
etheyar
egoi
ngt
ost
ickt
hei
rgr
aphs.

i
i
) Fr
om t
hegr
apht
hest
udent
sshoul
ddet
ermi
net
hesl
ope(
Gradi
ent
),G,
andhencet
hef
orceconst
antoft
hespr
i k,
ng, f
rom f
ormul
a .
tofG abov
Theuni eiscm/
N hencet
heuni
tsof
,Ki
sN/
cm

Di
scussi
ons

St
udentsaret
ocompletet
hetablebel
owbystat
ingt
hepossi
blesour
ce(
s)of
er
rorandthepr
ecaut
ionst
heytooktomini
miset
heeffect
sofsucher
ror
s.

Possi
blesour
cesofer
ror Pr
ecaut
ionst
aken

Thespr
ingnotor
igi
nal
l
yst
rai
ght Theori
ginal
lengt
hwasreadwit
hthe
masshangerhungtost
rai
ght
enthe
spr
ing

42
Par
all
axer
rori
nther
eadi
ngofl
engt
h

Concl
usi
on

concl
usi
oni
) Theextensi
onofaspri
ngwasfoundtobedi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
to
thef
orcethatcausesi
t.(
Hooke’
slaw)

concl
usi
oni
i
) Thefor
ceconst
antoft
hespr
i k,
ng, wasf
oundt - k=
obe:
N/cm

Li
mit
ati
onsofHooke’
slaw

Furtherwor konl oadsandext ensionshowedt hat;iftheloadisincreased

gradually,t
herewi l
l comeapoi ntwhereHooke’ slawi sdisobeyedi .e.the
extension-l
oadgr aphwi llceaset obeast rai
ghtli
ne.Att hispoi
ntt hespr i
ngwil
l
sti
llret
ur ntoitsoriginal
lengthwhent heloadisremov edbuttheext ensi
onwill
besl i
ghtlygreaterthanitshoul dbe.Bey ondthispoi nttheextensioni snolonger
proportionaltothel oad(force).Thispointisthelimitofpr oport
ional it
yofthe
spring.Consequent l
y,Hooke’slawmustbemodi fiedt oread;

Theextensi
onofaspri
ngisdirect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hel
oadpr
ovi
dedt
hel
i
mitof
propor
ti
onali
tyi
snotexceeded.

NB.Hooke’sl
awi sobeyedonl yf
orsmallloadsthatdoNOTst retchthespring
toomuch.Whenaspr i
ngisstret
chedbeyondi t
selasticli
miti
teventuall
y
becomespermanentlystr
etchedi.
e.i
tdoesNOTr et
ur ntoit
sori
ginallengt
hupon
theremov
aloftheloadfrom it
.Thepointbeyondwhi chthespri
ngdoesNOT
ret
urntoi
tsori
ginall
engthupontheremov aloftheloadiscall
edt heelast
icli
mit

43
ofthespr
ing.Theel
ast
icl
i
mitcomesl
atert
han(
thoughcl
oset
o)t
hel
i
mitof
propor
ti
onali
ty.

I
tisi
mportantt
ohighl
i
ghtt
hedi
ff
erence4bet
weent
heel
ast
icl
i
mitandt
hel
i
mit
ofpr
opor
ti
onali
ty

Limitofproportional
it
y:-thepointbeyondwhi chtheextensionisno
l
ongerproportionaltotheload(thespringsti
llr
eturnstoitsori
ginal
l
ength)
Elasti
cli
mit:-thepointbey ondwhichthespr i
ngdoesNOTr et
urntoit
s
ori
ginal
length( ext
ensionissti
l
l notproport
ionaltotheload).

Thesket
chbelowshowsanext
ensi
onl
oadgr
aphf
ort
hathasbeenst
ret
ched
wel
lbeyondi
tselast
icl
i
mit
.

Pi
sli
mitofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty

Qi
sel
ast
icl
i
mit

Usi
ngpr
opor
ti
onal
it
yincal
cul
ati
ons

Directpropor
tionmeanst hat;
doubl
ing
onedoubl estheother
,trebl
ingonemakes
theothertotreble,
hal
vingonehalvesthe
otheretc.

Exampl
e1

A10cm l
ongspr
ingbecomes14cm l
ongwhenan8Nl
oadi
shungoni
t.
Det
ermi
ne

(i
) theext
ensioncausedbyt he8Nf orce
(
ii
) thefor
ceconstantoft hespring,k
(i
ii
) theext
ensionthata6Nf orcewil
l causeont
hespri
ng
(i
v) thefor
cethatwillcauseanext ensionof7cm ont
hesamespr
ing
Sol
uti
ons

(
i) t
heext
ensi
oncausedbyt
he8Nf
orce

4
Somet
ext
suset
het
wot
ermsi
nter
changeabl
ytodef
inet
hesamepoi
nt.

44
 e=l–l
o }l=14cm ; l
o=10cm

=14–10

=4cm

(
ii
) t
hef
orceconst
antoft
hespr
i k
ng,

}F=8N ; e=4cm

=2N/
cm

(i
ii
) t
heextensi
ont
hata6Nforcewi
l
lcauseonthespring
Her
ewecanusetwomethods.I
.Thatut
il
i k.andI
ses, I.Thatdoesnotut
il
isek

Met
hod

I I
I

} F=5N ; k=

2N/
cm

e 8N=6N 4cm

=3cm

=3cm

45
 5
NB.Theansweri
sthesamei
nbot
hmet
hodsasshoul
dbet
hecase.

(
iv) t
hef
orcet
hatwi
l
lcauseanext
ensi
onof7cm ont
hesamespr
ing

Met
hod

I I
I

F=k e } e=7cm ; k=
2N/
cm

F 4cm =8N 7cm

=7 2

=14N

=14N

NB.ThevalueofkdoesNOTchange, hencethenamef orceconst

ant.St
udents
whowanttousemet hodIcanusetheanalogywhere;Fist hemoney,ei
st he
numberofloavesonecanbuywi t
ht hatmoneyandki sthepr i
ceofoneloaf.
Thepri
ceisconstantfort
hatshopjustaskisconstantforthespri
nginquesti
on.

Exer
cise

(
1)
a)Aspri
ngofori
ginal
length,lo,
becomes18cm l
ongwhena30gpani s
hungonit
.Whena20gmassi saddedt
othepan,
thespr
ing’
slengt
h
becomes22cm.Det er
mi ne6;

i
. t
heext
ensi
onduet
othe20gmass
5
Student
sareadvisedt
oshowhowt heuni
tscancelouti
nthecalcul
ationsi
nthesequest
ions.
6
Assumet hespr
inghasnotr
eachedthel
imitofpr
oporti
onal
i
tyinallquesti
ons

46
 i
i
.themassconst
ant
,km,
oft
hespr
ing(
i.
e.t
hemassneededt
o
causeauni
t(1cm)ext
ensi
on
i
i
i.t
heext
ensi
onduet
othe30pan
i
v.t
heor
igi
nal
lengt
hoft
hespr
ing

b)Henceorother
wise,det
ermine
i
. t hetot
alfor
ce,F,t
hatwil
lbeneededt
ocauseanext
ensi
onof
5cm

i
i
.thenewl
engt
h,l
,oft
hespr
ingi
nthi
scase

Usi
ngPr
opor
ti
onal
it
yinmul
ti
plespr
ingsy
stems

Themul
ti
plespr
ingscanei
therbeconnect
edi
n(A)ser
iesori
n(B)par
all
el

A. ser ies:-
ConsiderNi dent
icalspr
ings( eachofforceconst
ant,k,andhavi
ngnegli
gibl
e
weight)connectedinseries.Whenal oad,F,
ishungf r
om thebot
tom most
spr
ing;eachspr i
ngwi l
lfeeltheloadindependent
ly.Thuseachwil
lext
endby

sot
heext
ensi
onoft
heser
iessy
stem asawhol
e,es,
wil
lbegi
venby

es=Ne=N = ,

Thust
hef
orceconst
antoft
heser
iessy
st ks,
em, wil
lbegi
venbyf
ormul
a

47
Ingener
al,
thef
orceconstant,ks,
ofNident
ical
spr
ings(eachoffor
ceconst
ant
,k,
andhavi
ngnegl
igibl
eweight)connect
edinseri
esi
sgivenbyformula

Wher
e;Ni
sthenumberofspr
ingsandk,
ist
hef
orceconst
antof

onespr
ing

Fortwoident
ical
spr
ings(eachofforceconst
ant
,k,andhav
ingnegl
igi
blewei
ght
)
connect
edinseri
estheforceconst
antoftheser
iessyst
em,ks,
isgi
venby
for
mula

Wher
e;k,
ist
hef
orceconst
antofonespr
ing

B. par all
el:-
ConsiderNident i
calspri
ngs(eachofforceconst
ant,k,andhavingnegl
igi
ble
weight)connectedinpar al
l
el.Whenal F,
oad, ishungf r
om thebott
om most
th
spri
ng;thespr i
ngswillsharethel
oad.Thuseachwi l
lfeelanN oftheloadand
thusextendby

Theext
ensi
onoft
hepar
all
elsy
st ep,
em, wil
lbeequal
tot
hatofeachspr
ingand

48
begi
venby

Thust
hef
orceconst
antoft
hepar
all
elsy
st kp,
em, wil
lbegi
venby

Ingener
al,
thef
orceconstant,ks,
ofNident
icalspr
ings(eachoff
orceconst
ant
,k,
andhavi
ngnegl
igibl
eweight)connect
edinparall
elisgi
venbyfor
mula

Wher
e;Ni
sthenumberofspr
ingsandk,
ist
hef
orceconst
antof

onespr
ing

Fortwoident
ical
springs(
eachoffor
ceconst
ant
,k,andhavi
ngnegl
igi
blewei
ght
)
connect
edinparall
el,t
hef
orceconst
antoft
heparal
lel
syst
em,kp,
isgi
venby
for
mula

Wher
e;k,
ist
hef
orceconst
antofonespr
ing

Exampl
e

49
A10cm l
ongspr
ingbecomes12cm whena30Nl
oadi
shungoni
t.

a. Det
ermi
ne
(
i)t
heext
ensi
onoft
hespr
inge
(
ii
)Thef
orceconst
antoft
hespr
i k
ng,
Sol
uti
ons

(
i)t
heext
ensi
onoft
hespr
i e=l–l
ng; o=12cm -
10cm =2cm

(
ii
)Thef
orceconst
antoft
hespr
ing, =15N/
cm

b. Thespr
ingi
sconnect
edi
nser
ieswi
tht
woot
her
sident
ical
t
oit
.Det
ermi
ne
(
i)t
hef
orceconst
antoft
heser
iesspr
ingsy
st ks,
em,
(
ii
)theext
ensi es,
on, oft
heser
iesspr
ingsy
stem whena20N
l
oadi
saddedt
oit
(
ii
i)t oadFneededt
hel omaket
hespr
ingsy
stem t
oext
endby12cm
Sol
uti
ons

(
i)t
hef
orceconst
antoft
heser
iesspr
ingsy
stem;

=5N/
cm

(
ii
)theext
ensi es,
on, ofsy
stem whena20Nl
oadi
saddedt
oit
;

=4cm

(
ii
i)t oadFneededt
hel omaket
hespr
ingsy
stem t
oext
endby12cm
= =60N

Exer
cise

50
c. Thespr
ingsi
nb.abov
ear
enowconnect
ed
i
npar
all
elasshown,
Det
ermi
ne
(
i)t
hef
orceconst
ant
,kp,
oft
hepar
all
elspr
ing
sy
stem
(
ii
)theext onepoft
ensi hepar
all
elspr
ing
sy
stem whena20Nl
oadi
saddedt
oit
(
ii
i)t oadFneededt
hel omaket
hepar
all
elspr
ingsy
stem t
oext
endby12cm
c) Eff
ectsoffor
cesonmot
ion
Whenafor
ceisappli
edt
oamovi
ngbodyi
tchangesi
ts

speed
anddi
rect
ion
Butthespeedi
nast ateddi
rect
ionisthevel
oci
ty.Thusthechangeofei
thert
he
speedorthedi
rect
ionorbothisthechangeofvel
oci
ty.Theref
oreafor
cecauses
achangeofvel
ocit
y .

Therateofchangeofvel
oci
tyi
saccel
erat
ionsobychangi
ngv
eloci
tyt
hef
orce
causesaccel
erati
on.

Theamountofaccel
erat
ionaf
orcecausesonabodyi
sgi
venbyNewt s2nd
on’
l
awofmot i
onwhichstates

Therat
eofchangeofmomentum ofabodyi
sdi
rect
lypropor
ti
onalt
othe
for
cethatact
sonthebodyandi
sinthesamedi
rect
ionasthefor
ce.
nd
(
Newt
on’
s2 l awofmot
ion)

Moment
um,
P,i
sthepr
oductofmass,
m,andv
eloci
ty,
v.

Becausethefor
cedoesNOTchangeabody
’smasst
hechangeofmoment
um i
s
duetothechangeofvel
oci
ty

51
 but so,

wechangef
rom pr
opor
ti
ont
oequat
ionbyput
ti
ngaconst
antofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty,
k
=1.Thus

orj
ust

Thi
sisNewt s2ndl
on’ awofmot
ioni
nequat
ionf
orm.

wher
e; Fi
sthenetf
orcei
nnewt
ons

mi
sthemassoft
hebodyi
nki
l
ogr
ams(
kg)

ai
stheaccel
erat
ioni s2
nm/

Exampl
e1

A5kgtrol
l
eypushedbyastudentaccel
erat
esuni
for
ml s2.Det
yat3m/ ermi
net
he
f
orceappl
iedbyt
hestudent
.

Sol
uti
on

}m =5kg ; s2
a=3m/

=5 3

=15N

Exampl
e2

Adonkeyappli
esafor
ceof2700Ntopull
an800kgcar
tal
ongast
rai
ghtr
oad.
Thef
rict
ionact
ingonthesy
stem i
s300N.

52
Det
ermi
ne:[
i]t
henetf
orceont
hecar
t

[
ii
]theaccel
erat
ionoft
hecar
t

Sol
uti
ons: [
i]t
henetf
or FN,
ce, ont
hecar
t

} FA=2700N ; Fr=300N

=2700N–300N

=2400N

[
ii
] Theaccel
erat
ionoft
hecar
t

} FN =2400N ; m =60kg

s2
m/

Exer
cise

A60kgmot orcycli
stdri
vesa40kgmotor
cycl
ewit
hauni f
orm accel
erat
ion
2
of2m/s.Givent hefri
cti
onfor
ceact
ingonthemotor
cycl
istandmotorcycl
e
as500N,determine

i
. t
henet(hor
izontal
)for
ceact
ingonthemotor
cycl
i
standmot
orcy
cle
i
i
.thefor
ceappliedbythemotorcy
cle’
sengi
ne

Mass-
wei
ghtr
elat
ionshi
pandNewt s2ndl
on’ awofmot
ion

I
near
li
ert
opi
cswe

53
 (i
)def i
nedweightofabodyastheforceofgr
avi
tythatact
sonit
(
ii
)st at
edthatal
lbodi
esneartheeart
hf al
lwi
thaunif
orm accel
erat
ioncal
l
ed
accel
erat
ionduetograv
ity
,g.

Thususi
ngNewt s2ndl
on’ awofmot
ion,
i.
e.f
orce=mass accel
erat
ion,
weget

For
ceofgr
avi
ty,
w=mass,
m accel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty(g),t
hus

wher
e; wi
swei
ghti
nnewt
ons(
N)

mi
smassi
nki
l
ogr
ams(
kg)

gi
stheaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
tyi s2(
nm/ kg)
7

Exampl
e

Det
ermi
net
hewei
ghtofan80kgboxer
.

} m =80kg ; s2=10N/
g=10m/ kg

Exer
cise

Det
ermi
ne

a. theweight
soft
hef
oll
owi
ngmasses
(
i)2kg
(i
i)300g
(
ii
i)5tonnes

b. themassesoft
hef
oll
owi
ngwei
ght
s
(
i)1N
(i
i)9N
(
ii
i)40N

7
Theval
ueofgi
sconst s2f
antat10m/ oral
lbodi
esneart
heear
th.Theuni
tsN/ s2ar
kgandm/ e
equi
val
ent.

54
Mot
ioni
naci
rcl
e

Abodymov i
nginaci rcular(curved)pathi
sacceleratingev enwheni t
sspeed
remainsunchanged.Thi sisbecauseitsvel
ocitychangessi ncethedir
ecti
on
changes.Asaccel er
at i
oni stherateofchangeofv elocit
y ,
thebodyi s
acceler
ating.Theaccel erat
ionisduet oaforcecall
edcent ri
petalf
orce.The
centri
petalforceactst owar dsthecentreofthecurvat ur
eandhence, t
he
accelerati
onisdirectedt owar dsthecentr
eoft hecur vatur
easwel l
.Howev er
,
8
theinstantaneous velocityoft hebodyisdir
ectedt angent i
altothecurvat
ure.

Il
l
ustr
ati
on:consideraboyswi
ngingast
onebyast
ri
ngov
erhi
sheadi
na
cl
ockwisedi
rect
ionasshownbelow.

NB. Thedirect
ionoft
heinstantaneousvel
ocit
ymakesanangleof90owi
th
di
rect
ionofthecent
ripetal
f or
ce(andthatoft
heaccel
erat
ion)
.

Theboyappl i
esthecent
ri
pet
alf
orcethatkeepsthest
oneinorbi
t.Thi
sishow
thegrav
itat
ionalpul
loft
hesunkeepstheplanet
sincl
udi
ngtheeart
hinel
li
pti
cal
orbi
tsaroundit.

Newt
on’
sthi
rdl
awofmot
ion

Ast heboyintheexampl
eaboveswingst hestri
nghewil
lfeelatensi
ononthe
str
ingasifthestonei
sbeingpul
l
edradiallyoutwar
dsawayf r
om him.Thisi
s
becausethereisanot
herf
orcedi
rect
edr adial
lyout
wardsfrom t
hecentr
eofthe

8
Wetal
kofi
nstant
aneousvel
oci
tybecauset
hedi
rect
ionofv
eloci
tychangesev
eryi
nst
anceas
t
hebodymovesinthecur
ve

55
 curvature.Thisforceiscall
edcent r
if
ugal
force.Thecent rif
ugal f
orceisequalin
magni tudebutdi r
ectedoppositetothe
centri
pet al
force.Thecompl etediagram of
theforcest hatactinthesit
uati
onoft he
boyswi ngingthest oneaboveisgivenon
theleft.

Alt
hought hecentr
ipetal
andcentri
fugal
forcesareequali
nmagnitudeand
oppositei
ndirecti
ontheydoNOTcancel eachotheroutandgiveanetfor
ceof
zer
o( andhencezer oaccel
erat
ion)
.Thisisbecausetheyactondif
fer
entbodies.
TheCent r
ipet
alforceactsonthestonewhilet
heCentri
fugalf
orceact
sont he
boy.

Allf
orcesacti
npai
rsi
nthi
sway
.Thi
sisNewt s3rdl
on’ awofmot
ionandi
tst
ates
that
:

Forever
yforceacti
ngatapoi
nt,thereisanequalbutopposi
tel
ydi
rect
edf
orce
r
d
act
ingatthatver
ysamepoint
.(Newt
on’
s3 lawofmot
ion)

Summar
yofNewt
on’
slawsofmot
ion

Att
hispoi
ntwewi
l
lwr
it
ethet
hreeNewt
on’
slawsofmot
ioni
nsequence

Newt
on'sFir
stl
aw. ’
(l
awofI
nert
ia)
Abodywil
lcont
inuei
nit
sstat
eofr
estoruni
for
m mot
ionunl
essaf
orceact
son
i
t.

Newton'
sSecondlaw. ’
(l
awofmoment um)
Ther at
eofchangeofmomentum ofabodyisdi
rect
lyproport
ional tot hef orce
nd
thatactsonthebodyandisi
nthesamedir
ecti
onast hefor
ce.(Newton’
s2 l awof

mot
ion)

Newt
on'
sThi
rdl
aw.’
(l
awofact
ionandr
eact
ion)

56
Forever
yforceacti
ngatapoi
nt,
ther
eisanequal
butopposi
tel
ydi
rect
edf
orce
act
ingatthatver
ysamepoint
.

Tur
ningef
fect
soff
orces(
Moment
s)

Whenafor
ceisappl
iedt
oapi
vot
edbodyi
tmakesi
ttot
urn.Thet
urni
ngeff
ect
ofaf
orcei
scall
edit
smoment
.Themoment(t
urni
ngef
fect
)ofaf
orceisl
arge
when

t
hefor
ceappliedisl
arge
t
heperpendi
culardi
stanceoft
hepi
votf
rom t
hel
i
neofact
ionoft
he
for
ceislar
ge
Exampl
es

1. i
tiseasyt
ounscr
ewanutwithalongspannert
hanwithashortone
2. adoorismor
eeasil
ycl
osedwhenonepushesfurt
hestfr
om t
he
hi
nges.

Levers:Aleverisasi
mplemachi
newhereasmall
efforti
sappli
edatalong
di
stancef r
om thepiv
ottomoveaheavywei
ghtat
tachedtoatashortdi
stance
fr
om t hepivot
.Themomentproducedbyt
hesmalll
oadwi l
lbelar
geenoughto
overcomet heonecausedbyt
heload.

Ev
erydayexampl
esofl
ever
sincl
ude;
spanner
,wheel
bar
rowanddi
ggi
ngf
ork.

Exer
cise:
Stat
efi
veexampl
esofl
ever
sot
hert
hant
heonesl
i
stedabov
e

Momentofaf
orce:bydef
ini
ti
on

Themomentofaforceist
heproductofthef
orceandtheper
pendi
cul
ar
di
stanceoft
hepi
votfr
om thel
ineofacti
onofforce.

57
MOMENTS

Af or
cecanproduceaneff
ectonmot i
onofabodybesi
deschangeinsizeand
shape.However
,afor
cecanproduceeff
ect
snotonl
yonmoti
on,sizeandshape
ofabody,butmaymakeabodytoturn.

Thet
urni
ngeffectofafor
cedependsontheval
ueoftheforceandhowfaraway
i
sthel
ineofappli
cati
onfr
om t
hepivotort
urni
ngpoi
nt/
ful
crum.Forexampl
e;

a)Asee-sawturnstothesidewheretheEart
h’spulli
sgr eat
er.
b)A beam balanceturnstot hesidewheret hewei ghtofthemassesi s
great
er.However,i
fthemasswei ght
sareequal,thebeam balancewil
lbe
i
nast ateofequi
li
bri
um orinastateofbal
ance.
c)Aspannerturnsduetotheforceappl
iedatitsf
reeend.
d)I
tiseasiert
oloosenortight
enanutwi t
hal ongspannerthanashortone.
e)Thehandleofthedoorisplacedfarfr
om thehingessot hatasmallef
for
t
i
sappliedtoopenorcloseit
.

Al
loft he abov
e exampl
es show appl
i
cat
ion ofmoment
sinl
ever
s-si
mpl
e
machi
ne.

Theexamples,pr ovethatthet urni

ngeffectofaforcei
sdirect
lyproporti
onalto
thesizeoft
hef orceandt hedistancefr
om thepivottoi
tsl
ineofapplicat
ion.The
momentofaf orceisameasur eofitst
ur ni
ngeff
ectaboutaparti
cularpointina
part
icul
ardi
rection.I
tisdefineas

‘
Momentistheproductoft
hef
orceandper
pendi
cul
ardi
stancef
rom t
hepi
vot
t
othel
ineofappl
icat
ionoft
hef
orce’
.

Mat
hemat
ical
l
yexpr
essedas

Si
nceforcei
smeasuredinnewt
ons(N)anddi
stancei
nmet
res(
m),
themoment
i
sther
eforemeasur
einnewtonmet
re(Nm).

Thedir
ecti
onofamomenti sgiveni ntermsofwhet hert
heforcet
urnsthe
syst
em i
nthecl
ockoragainsttheclockdi
recti
on.Thusmomentar
edescr
ibedas
cl
ockwi
seoranti
clockwi
sedirecti
on.

Exampl
e:

58
Thepr
inci
pleofMoment
s

Thefi
gurebel
owcanbeusedt oinvest
igatet
hepri
nci
pleofmoment
s.I
tconsi
sts
ofbarofnegl
igi
blewei
ghtsupport
edatitscent
reO.

Forcescanbeappliedtothe
baroneithersi
deofthepi
vot
byhangingstandar
dmasses
f
rom di
ff
erentpoi
nts.

Theposi
ti
onsofthef or
cesarethenadj
ust
edsucht
hatt
hebari
sinst
ateof
bal
anceorequi
l
ibr
ium.const
ant

Thedi
stancesar
eaccur
atel
ymeasur
edusi
ngasui
tabl
emeasur
ingr
uler
.

Thefor
cesappli
edisequaltot
hewei
ghtoft
hest
andar
dmassesand canbe
cal
cul
atedusi
ngtheexpr
essi
on,

Usi
ngt
hemeasur
ement
sshownabov
ethemoment
sar
ethencal
cul
atedas;

Ant
icl
ockwi
semomentaboutO

59
Cl
ockwi
semomentaboutO

Concl
usion:Theexampl eabov
eil
l
ust
ratest
hatant
icl
ockwisemomentaboutO
i
sequalt otheclockwi
semomentaboutO.Theanti
clockwi
setur
ningbal
ances
thecl
ockwisetur
ning.

Not
e:TheUpwardfor
cehasnomomentaboutObecausei
tact
satt
hepi
vot(
i.
e
i
tsdi
stancef
rom t
hepi
voti
s0m)

Thesituat
ioninthefi
gurebel
ow isalit
tl
ecompl i
cat
ed,butonceagai
nthe
posi
ti
onsofthefor
cesar
esuchthatt
hebarbal
ances.

Not
e:t
hedi
stanceof5Nf
orcef
rom t
hepi
voti
s0.
1m +0.
3m =0.
4m

Thisshowsthati
tist
ruethatt
heresul
tantant
icl
ockwisemomentisequaltot
he
resul
tantcl
ockwi
semoment .Thi
smeanswhenADDEDt ogether
,thecl
ockwi
se
moment saboutObal
ancetheant
icl
ockwisemoment saboutO.

Bot
htheseexampl
esi
l
lust
rat
ethepr
inci
pleofmoment
s.Thi
sst
atet
hat
;

Whenanobjecti
sinequi
li
bri
um,thesum oftheant
icl
ockwi
semomentsabout
anypoi
nti
sequaltot
hesum oft
heclockwisemomentsaboutt
hatsamepoi
nt.

I
fanobject/
syst
em i
sinequi
li
bri
um notonl
ythemomentsshoul
dbalance,t
he
f
orcesacti
nginonedir
ect
ionmustalsobal
ancefor
cesact
ingintheopposit
e

60
di
rect
ion.

Fr
om abov
ecase:
Upwar
dfor
cef
rom t
hesuppor
t=

Thi
smeanst
her
ear
etwocondi
ti
onsf
orequi
l
ibr
ium:

1.theprinci
pleofmoment smustapply
2.thesum off orcesint heupwarddi r
ecti
onmustequalt
hesum offor
ces
inthedownwar ddirecti
on.
Example:Thef i
gurebelow showsacementbagst andi
ngonapl
anksupport
ed
bytwot r
estl
es.Calculatet heupwardforcesXandYexer t
edbyt
hetrest
leson
thepl
ank.Ignoretheeffectoftheweightoftheplank.

Thesyst
em i
sinequi
li
bri
um,
sothepr
incipl
eofmomentsapplyandcanbeused.Momentcoul
dbetakenfr
om
anypoi
nt,buttaki
ngmomentaboutAorBgetsri
doftheunknowns,
XorY.

Sol
uti
ons:

Taki
ngmoment
saboutA:

But
;

From here,t
her
et womet hodsoffi
ndi
ngX.Youcantakemoment
saboutBand
proceedasbefore.Al
ternati
vel
y,y
oucanusethefactt
hatXandYmustaddto
equalthedownwardforceof600N.Thati
s:

Quest
ion1:

61
ThebarIt
hef
igur
ebel
ow i
sinequil
ibr
ium.Usei
ttoanswert
hef
oll
owi
ng
questi
ons.

a)Whati sthemomentoft hef ollowi

ngforcesaboutO?
i
) 6N
i
i
) F
b)Cal cul
ateFandreactionf orceQ.
c)Usi ngthef
orcevaluescal culatedabove,cal
cul
atethemomentoft
he
fol
lowi
ngforcesaboutP.
i
) F,
i
i
) Q,
ii
i
) 6N.
d)Whati sthetotal
clockwi semomentaboutP?
e)Whati sthetotal
anticlockwi semomentaboutP?
Quest
ion2:

Thef
igurebel
owshowsal i
ghtpl
ankont
wot
rest
lesAandBsuppor
ti
ngaman
andablockofconcr
ete.

Q#3.Thefi
gur
ebelowshowsloadssuppor
tedbyr
opes.RopesXandYar
e
hangi
ngfr
om ari
gidcei
l
ing.

Fi
ndt
het
ensi
oni
nther
opesXandY. [
5]

ENERGY

62
Ener
gyi
stheabi
l
ityt
odowor
k.

TheSIunitofener
gyisthej
oul
e(J).Thi
sissi
mil
artoSIunitofworkdone
becauseworkdoneistheamountofener
gychangedt
oot herfor
ms.

Wor
kist
her
efor
erel
atedt
oener
gyasf
oll
ows

Wor
kdonei
sequal
tot
heener
gychanged.

Wor
kdone=Ener
gychanged.

Ki
net
icEner
gy(
EkorK.
e.)

Thekinet
icener
gyofanobj
ecti
stheener
gyduet
oit
smov
ement
.Anyobj
ect
thati
smov i
nghaski
neti
cener
gy.

Theki
neti
cener
gyofanabjectofmassm andmov
ingatav
eloci
tyvcanbe
cal
cul
atedfr
om t
heexpr
ession

Ki
net
icener
gy(
Ek) =

Theabov
eexpressi
onshowsthatt
heki
net
icener
gyofanobj
ecti
sdependenton
i
tsmassandveloci
tyasf
oll
ows.

1)Twoobject
sofalargemassM andsmal
lmassm t
rav
eli
ngatt
hesame
vel
oci
tydonothav
et hesameki
neti
cener
gy.

Thel
argerobj
ecthast
hegr
eat
estki
net
icener
gy
duet
oitslar
gemass.

Obj
ectBhasmor
eki
net
icener
gyt
hanobj
ectA.

2)Twoobject
soft
hesamem t r
avel
i
ngatdi
ff
erentv
eloci
ti
esv
1andv
2(v
1>v2)do
nothav
ethesamekinet
icener
gy.

Theobj
ectwi
thagr
eat
erv
eloci
tyhast
hegr
eat
estki
net
icener
gy.

Obj
ectChasmor
eki
net
icener
gyt
hanobj
ectD.

Exampl
e1.Aspri
nter
’smassi
s60kgandrunsat
aconst
antr
ateof10m/s.Whati
sherki
neti
c

63
ener
gy?

k.
e. = = =3000kgm2/
s2=3000J=3kJ

Exampl
e1

Aballofmass0.
5kgroll
ingal
ongasmoot
hst
rai
ghtpat
hhas100Jofki
net
ic
ener
gy.Whatist
hevelocit
yofthebal
l
?

K.
e.=

v= = =

v=20m/
s

Thev
eloci
tyoft
hebal
li
s20m/
s.

Exampl
e2

Anobj
ectofmass6kgi
str
avel
i
ngatav
eloci
tyof5m/
sal
ongasmoot
hst
rai
ght
pat
h.

a)Whati
sit
ski
net
icener
gy?

K.
e.= = =75kgm2/
s2=75J

b)Whatwoul
dbei
tsv
eloci
tywhent
heki
net
icener
gyi
sdoubl
ed?

Theki
net
icener
gydoubl
est
obecome150J

v= = = =7.
1m/
s

Thev
eloci
tyoft
heobj
ectwoul
dbe7.
1met
respersecond.

64
 Gr
avi
tat
ionalPot
ent
ialEner
gy(
G.P.
E.orEp)

Thegravi
tati
onalpot
ent
ial
energyofanobjecti
sener
gypossessedbyan
obj
ectthatabovethegr
ound.Thi
sistheenergyduet
otheforceofgr
avi
ty
act
ingont heobj
ect.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Epdependenceonmassandhei
ghtabov
ethegr
ound

Theforceact
ingont
heobjecti
sthegr
avit
ati
onalpul
l(i
tswei
ght)
.Si
nce
workisequaltot
heamountofener
gychangedorconvert
ed,
itmeanst
hat
;

Wor
kdonet omov eobj
ectfrom t
opofbuil
dingt
othegr
oundi
sequalt
o
t
hegrav
itat
ionalpot
ent
ialener
gychanged.

Hencetheexpr
essi
onforcal
culat
ingt
hegr
avi
tat
ional
pot
ent
ial
ener
gyofa
obj
ectofmassm andataheighthis

65
Theaboveexpressi
onimpliest
hatt
hegr
avi
tat
ionalpotent
ial
energyofan
obj
ecti
sdirectl
yproporti
onalt
omassofanobjectandtheheightt
he
obj
ecti
sabov etheground.

Thi
smeans

a)Alar
geobjectofmassM andasmal oneofmassm hel
l datthesame
hei
ghtabovethegroundhaveunequalG.P.E.dependingonthei
rmasses.
Thelar
gerobj
ecthasmor egrav
itat
ionalpotent
ialenergyt
hanthesmall
er
one.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:G.
P.Ei
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
omass(
G.P.
E.αm)

The10kgobj
ecthasmor
eg.
p.e.t
hant
he5kgobj
ectbecause

b)Twoi dent
icalobject
soft hesamem hel datthedi f
fer
entheightsabove
thegr oundhav eunequal g.
p.e.dependi
ngont heirhei
ghts.Thehigher
objecthasmor egravit
ati
onal pot
enti
alenergythanthelowerone( g.
p.e.
i
ncr easesast heheightincr
eases)

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:G.
P.Ei
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
ohei
ght(
G.P.
E.αh)

66
 Ther ugbyball
atposi
ti
onAhasmor egrav
itat
ional
pot
ent
ial
ener
gyt
han
thatatposit
ionBbecausei
tishi
gher.

Exampl
e1.A5gor angefr
uitfal
l
sf r
om atr
eeataheightof12m.How
muchgravi
tat
ionalpot
enti
alenergydoesi
tpossessatthehi
ghestposi
ti
on?

Thegr
avi
tat
ional
pot
ent
ial
ener
gyoft
heor
angei
s6J.

Exampl
e2.

Thegravi
tat
ional
pot ent
ial
energyofa60kgboyonat
reebr
anchi
s12kJ.How
hi
ghisthetreebranchfrom t
heground?

Thet
reebr
anchi
s20m abov
ethegr
ound.

Ener
gycanexi
sti
nmanyf
ormsasi
ndi
cat
edi
nthet
abl
ebel
ow.

For
m ofener
gy sour
ces Exampl
es energy
conv
ersions

Gravit
ati
onal Obj
ectl
if
tedabove Waterinahi
gh Sun’
sheatr
aised
potenti
alener
gy t
hegrounddoes r
eservoui
r thewat
er
wor
kwheni tf
all
s

Elast
icpot
ent
ial Materi
ali
sunder Catapult, Suntofoodto
energy str
ainanddoes st
retchedbow, musclesofa
workwhen wound-upspri
ng per
son
rel
eased

67
Chemical
pot
ent
ial Energyst or
edin Coal,wood,f
ood, Suntopl antt
o
ener
gy chemi calbonds.I
t petr
ol,andot
her f ossi
lfuels
i
sr el
easedi n fuel
s
chemical
reacti
ons.eg
thermal power
plant.

Ener gyst oredi n Nucl earpower

nucl eiofat oms.I t stati
on, nuclear
i
sr eleasedi n bombs- thebi nding
nucl earr eactions. energyofor i
ginal
Dur i
ngf i
ssion mat erial i
smor e
(breakingofl arge thant hatoft he
238
nucl eie.g.U t o product s, soheat
Nucl
earener
gy Nucl
eusofan
smal l
erones)and energyi sr eleased
at
om
Fusi on( smal l -cancr eate
nucl eie. g. conv ectional
deut erium and current sthatcan
tri
tium combi neto driv
et ur binest o
forml ar genucl ei) produceel ect r
ici
ty

Movingobject
s
haveenergyand
Falli
ngwater,wind
candowor kin
turni
ngturbinesin
Ki
net
icener
gy col
li
sions.
powerst at
ionsto
k.e.possessedby gener ate Sunproducesr
ain,
mov i
ngai rfr
om electr
ici
ty wind
highpr essure
regionst olow
pressur eregions
usedbywi nd
mi l
ls)

El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy Aflowofel
ect
rons Elect
ric Suntofuel
sto
candowork appli
ances,fan, gener
ators
kettl
e,heat
er,
el
ectricmotor

68
 Molecul
eshave Steam t
urn Suntopl
antt
o
moreenergywhen turbi
nesina fuel
s
Heatort
her
mal
heatedandcando generat
or
ener
gy
work.

El
ectromagneti
c Light,
radi
antheat
, Sun,r
adi
o
wavescarry radiowaves tr
ansmit
ter
,
Waveener
gyand
packetsofener
gy atomicnuclei micr
owaveoven
Sol
ar
whichcandowor k (radi
oacti
ve)
asthewav es
tr
avel.

Thekinet
icener
gy Mov ingwater Ocean,t
ide
oft
ides(moving wav escandri
ve gener
ator
Ti
dal
ener
gy
water
)cando turbi
nesto
work. produceelect
ri
cit
y

Mol t
enr ock
(magma) -i
tsheat
Geother
mal Eart
h’scrusthas
canbeusedt o
ener
gy hotmoltenrock
producest eam to Ear
th’
scr
ust
,sun
(magma)
turnturbinesfor
generating
elect
rici
ty

EI
NSTEI
N’SMass-
Ener
gyEquat
ion

Whenar
adioacti
venucleusdecay
s,al
argeamountofener
gyEi
srel
eased.At
t
hesameti
me, asmallamountofmass,mislost
.

Theamountofener
gyr
eleasedi
sgi
venbyt
heEi
nst
ein’
smass-
Ener
gyequat
ion
off
orm;

69
Calcul
atetheamountofener
gyr
eleasedwhen1gmat
teri
slostdur
inga
238
radi
oacti
veofU .

Ener
gyConser
vat
ionPr
inci
ple

Thepri
nci
pleofconser
vat
ionofener
gyst
atest
hatener
gycannotbecr
eat
edor
dest
roy
ed.

Itcanonlychangef
rom onef
ormt
otheot
her
.Thi
soccur
sthr
oughener
gy
conver
sions.

I
nthefol
lowi
ngdiagram assumethatt
hesl
opeisfr
icti
oncompensat
ed(no
f
ri
cti
on),
andthattheheatandsoundener
gyarenegli
gibl
eandt
heballr
oll
sfr
om
r
est.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Conser
vat
ionofener
gy

Atpoi
ntA

Thetot
alener
gyoft
heball
isduetoit
sgrav
itat
ional
pot
enti
alener
gyonl
ybef
oreitst
art
sroll
i
ngdownt he
sl
ope.

but and

=t
otal
ini
ti
alener
gy(
pot
ent
ial
)

Atpoi
ntB

and , , and ,
hence

70
 = =t
otal
ini
ti
alener
gy(
pot
ent
ial
)

Atpoi
ntC(
ont
hegr
ound)

; and , , and

; =

= =t
otal
ini
ti
alpot
ent
ial
ener
gyoft
hebal
l

Atever
ypointdur
ingthefl
ightoftheball
itst
otal
ener
gyi
sequal
tot
hei
nit
ial
ener
gyithadhenceenergyisconserved.

Ener
gyConser
vat
ionPr
inci
ple

Thepri
nci
pleofconser
vat
ionofener
gyst
atest
hatener
gycannotbecr
eat
edor
dest
roy
ed.

Itcanonlychangef
rom onef
ormt
otheot
her
.Thi
soccur
sthr
oughener
gy
conver
sions.

Ener
gyConv
ersi
on

Energycanbeconver
tedfr
om onefor
mtoanot
her
.Ther
ear
emanydev
ices
whichchangeener
gyfrom onef
ormtoanot
her
.

Exampl
e1.

Ingreenplant
sli
ghtenergyfr
om thesunischanged(
conver
ted)t ochemical
potenti
alener
gyinthebondsofst ar
chmolecul
esdur
ingphotosynthesi
s.The
energyisconver
tedtoheatorkineti
cener
gybythepr
ocessofr espir
ati
onin
l
ivi
ngor gani
sms.Energychangescanbeshowni naf
lowchartorbyl i
nkingt
he
dif
ferentener
gyformsbyanar r
ow.

Thear
rowshowst
hedi
rect
ionofchangeofener
gy.

71
Exampl
e2.

Wr
it
eal
ltheener
gychangesi
ntheel
ect
ri
cfi
l
amentwhent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed.

Consi
deri
ngtheuseoft
heli
ghtbul
b(pr
oducelight
)themai
nener
gychangesar
e
el
ectr
ical
toheatwhi
lemor
eoftheener
gyislostasheat
.

Exampl
e3.Whatar
ethemai
nener
gychangeswhenanel
ect
ri
cheat
eri
susedt
o
warmther
oom?

Example3.Theflowchartbel
owshowsenergychangesf
orapet
rol
oper
ated
gener
atorproducingel
ectr
ici
tyf
orast
ove.

Ex4.
Abuil
derl
i
fts8br
icks2m hi
ghi
n5seconds.Themassofonebr
icki
s1.
5kg.
(g=10N/
kg)

a)Whati
stheener
gygainedbythebri
cks?
b)Howmuchofthisenergyi
sgainedbythebricks?
c)Howmuchkinet
icenergydot
hebr i
cksloose?

72
Whatar
ethemai
nener
gychangesi
nthef
oll
owi
ng?

1.mov ingcar,battery,batter
yoperat
edradi
o, el
ect
ri
cal
bulb,coal
fir
e,
hydroelectr
icpowerpl ant
2.thermal powerpl ant,r
aindrop,sun,el
ect
ricfi
re,
nucl
earpowerplant
,
microphone, solarcell
3.solarpanel,electri
cmot or
,a.
c.gener
ator

Ener
gysour
cesi
nBot
swana

InBot
swanathemai
nsour
cesofener
gyar
efi
rewood,
coal
,pet
rol
eum pr
oduct
s
andsol
arener
gy.

1.Fi
rewood

Mostpeopl
e,especi
all
yinr
ural
areasusewoodf
rom t
hef
orest
sasaf
uel
.

Soci
o-economi
cimpact

Woodi softenfr
eeofchargeorr el
ati
velycheaptobuy.Asthepopul
ati
onofa
vi
ll
ageincreasesthefor
estispushedf art
herandfart
herback.Thef
oresti
s
denuded,peoplehavetotr
avelfart
hertogetf i
rewoodanditbecomesmore
expensi
ve.

TheEnv
ironment
ali
mpact

Lossoft hef
orestleadstoerosionofthesoi
landtocli
matechange.Theburni
ng
producescarbondioxidewhichcontri
butest
othegreenhouseeffect
.Atthe
samet i
me, t
hetreesthatshouldbeusingupcarbondioxi
dearenotbeing
repl
aced.Onawor ld-widescalemil
li
onsofhectar
esofforestar
edestroy
ed
everyyearwit
houtbeingr epl
aced.

2.
Coal

I
nBotswanacoali
sminedatMor upule.I
tisburntt
oproduceel
ect
ri
cit
yat
Mor
upulegener
ati
ngstat
ion.I
tisalsosoldinbagsforuseasadomesticf
uel
.

Soci
o-economi
cimpact

Coal
issol
datf
air
lyl
owpr
icest
oenabl
epeopl
etohav
eaf
uel
wit
houtcut
ti
ng

73
downt
rees.

Env
ironment
ali
mpact

Bur
ningofcoal
rel
easessulphurdi
oxi
deintotheatmosphere.
Thiscauses
pol
l
utioni
nthefor
m ofaci
dr ai
n.Coalbur
ningalsorel
easescarbondioxi
de
whi
chactsasa'gr
eenhouse'gas.Many

oft
hegreati
ndustri
alareasoftheworl
dburncoal
ast
hei
rmai
nsour
ceofener
gy.
Aci
drai
nisamaj orproblem i
nthosecount
ri
es.

3.Pet
rol
eum pr
oduct
s

Petr
ol,
diesel
,par
aff
inandpropane/butanegasareall
ext
ract
edfr
om cr
udeoil
.
Theyareusedtodri
vetr
ains,buses,car
s,gener
ator
sandfact
orymachi
nes.

Soci
o-economi
cimpact

Botswanaimportsal
l i
tspetr
oleum products.Theyar econv enienttousebutare
expensiv
eanduseupmuchoft hecountry'
sr eser
vesoff oreignexchange.Wor l
d-
wide,afewoil
-pr
oducingstateshaveenormousef fectsont hewor ldeconomyby
beingablet
ocontrolpri
cesandpr oducti
on.Ast hesef ossi
lf uelsgetusedup
theybecomemor escarceandmor eexpensive.Theyar enon- renewablesour
ces
ofenergy.

Env
ironment
ali
mpact

Bur
ningpetr
oleum pr
oductscausesai
rpol
lut
ionwit
hcarbonmonoxide,sul
phur
di
oxideandoxidesofni
tr
ogen.Themotorcarist
hebiggestcont
ri
butort
oair
pol
luti
on.

4.Sol
arener
gy

Thesungi vesouthugeamount sofheatandl i

ghti
nel ect
romagneticwav es.In
Botswana,solarenergyisusedt oheatwat erandtopr oduceelectr
ici
ty.Solar
waterpanelsconsistofblackenedpipesonabl ackbackgroundwhi chabsor b
radi
antheatfrom thesunandt ransferitt
owat erinthepipes.Solarelectr
ic
panelsmadeofsi l
i
conconv ert
slightenergyfrom thesunintoelectri
calenergy.
Theelect
ricalenergyisusedtochar geabat terywhichisusedt oproduceheat,
l
ight,
mov ement ,sound,et
c.

Soci
o-economi
cimpact

74
Instal
li
ngsolarequipmentcanbeexpensive.However,ov
ert
helongter
m, alotof
moneycanbesav edbecauset heener
gyisfree.Bot
swanaismorefort
unate
thanmanycount riesbecauseofthehi
ghlevelsofsunshi
neweget.Sol
ar
electr
ici
tyi
ssuitableforl
ow-powereddev
ices.

Envi
ronmentali
mpact :Ifusedonal ar
gescale,sol
arener
gycanreduce
dest
ructi
onofforests,
reducedependenceonf ossi
lfuel
s,r
educeairpol
l
uti
on
andreduceemissionofgr eenhousegases.

75
 Exer
cises

Ex1.
Agi
rlofwei
ght300Nr
unsal
ongani
ncl
i
nedpl
aneasshecl
i
mbssomest
air
s

asshown.

Howmuchpowerdoesagi
rldev
elopi
fshecl
i
mbst
hest
air
sin10seconds?

Ex2.
Abuil
derl
i
fts8br
icks2m hi
ghi
n5seconds.Themassofonebr
icki
s1.
5kg.
(g=10N/
kg)

d)Whatist
heenergygainedbythebri
cks?
e)Howmuchoft hisenergyi
sgainedbythebricks?
f) Howmuchkinet
icenergydot
hebr i
cksloose?
g)Atwhatrat
eisthemanwor ki
ng?

Ex3.Ast
onei
sthr
ownv
ert
ical
l
yupwar
dwi
thav
eloci
tyof8m/
s.

(
i) Whatisthemaximum heightr
eached?
(
ii
) Writ
ethemainenergychangesthatoccurf
rom t
het
hrowerunt
il
i
treachthehandagai
n.

Ex4.Becauseofai
rresi
stanceandf r
ict
ion,
afor
wardfor
ceof2500Nisneededto
keepacartrav
eli
ngatast eadyspeedof20m/s.Whatpowermustbeprovi
ded?

Ex5.Dr
awasi
mpl
ependul
um andshowwher
eithasonl
y

(
i) Gr
avi
tat
ionalpot
enti
alenergyEp
(
ii
) Maxi
mum kineti
cenergyEkmaximum

76
WORKDONE

Workdoneiswhenafor
ce(F)mov
esi
tspoi
ntofappl
i
cat
iont
hroughdi
stance
(
d)i
nthedir
ecti
onoft
hefor
ce.

Wor
kdonegiv
esamountofener
gyconv
ert
ed/
transf
ormed/
changedf
rom f
orm
t
ootherf
rom(
s).

Wor
kdonecanbecal
cul
atedf
rom t
heexpr
essi
on

Si
nceforcei
smeasuredi
nnewt
onsanddist
anceordi
spl
acementi
nmet
rest
his
meanstheunit
sforwor
kdonei
snewtonmetre(
N.m)

Bcausewor
kdonegi
vest
heamountofener
gychangedi
tfol
l
owst
hat
:

Fr
om equat
ion(
1)abov
eiti
sal
sot
ruet
hat

POWER

Poweri
sther
ateatwhi
chwor
kisdone.

OR

Poweri
sther
ateatwhi
chonef
orm ofener
gyi
sconv
ert
edt
oanot
herf
rom.

(
orPoweri
srat
eofener
gyconv
ersi
on)

Thewor
drat
eindi
cat
est
het
imei
nwhi
cht
hewor
kisdone.

77
Powercant
her
efor
ebecal
cul
atedusi
ngt
heexpr
essi
onsbel
ow;

Or

TheSIuni
tofpoweri
sthewatt(
W).Si
nceWorkdoneorenergyar
emeasur
edi
n
j
oulesandt
imeinseconds,
awatti
sequal
toajoul
epersecond.

Example1.Awei
ghtli
ft
erl
if
ts600Nwei
ght
sthroughadi
stanceof1.
5m i
n3
seconds.Whati
sthepoweroft
hewei
ghtl
if
ter
?

Ther
efor
e; = = =

Thewei
ghtl
if
terhasapowerof300wat
ts.Thi
smeanst
hewei
ghtl
i
fterconv
ert
s
300j
oul
esofenergyi
nasecond.

Example2.
Agir
lofwei
ght300Nrunsal
ongani
ncl
i
ned
pl
aneasshecl
imbssomestair
sasshown.

Howmuchpowerdoesagi
rldev
elopi
fshecl
i
mbst
he
st
air
sin10seconds?

Thegirlhastoapplyaforceequal
toherwei
ght(
300N)buti
ntheupward
di
recti
on.Thedistanceshehastocar
ryherwei
ghti
sthever
ti
calhei
ght(
30m)
nottheslopi
ngdistance.

78
 Ther
efor
e; =

Thegi
rldev
elopsapowerof900wat
ts.

Example3.
Abui
l
derlif
ts8br
icks2m hi
ghi
n5seconds.Themassofonebr
icki
s
1.5kg.(
g=10N/kg)

a)Whatistheener
gygainedbythebr
icks?
Ans.gr
avit
ati
onalpot
enti
alener
gy.

b)Howmuchoft
hisener
gyi
sgai
nedbyt
hebr
icks?
=workdone

= =240Nm=240J

ans. Thebr
icksgai
n240j
oul
esofgr
avi
tat
ional
pot
ent
ial
ener
gy.

c)Howmuchki net
icenergydothebri
cksloose?
Fr
om ener
gyconser
v at
ionpri
nci
pleconsi
deri
ngonlyt
hemai
nener
gychanges,

Ki
net
icener
gyl
ost=gr
avi
tat
ional
pot
ent
ial
ener
gygai
ned

Ans. t
heki
net
icener
gyl
osti
s240j
oul
es.

d)Atwhatr
atei
sthemanwor
king?
= = = 48wat
ts.

Ans.Hi
spower(
rat
eofwor
king)i
s48wat
ts.

79
THERMALPHYI
SCS

Thi
sbranchofphysi
csfocusesonthebehaviourofmatteri
nrel
ationt
ochanges
i
ninter
nalener
gy.I
texpl
ainstheexi
stenceofmatterundert
hethreestat
esas
sol
id,l
i
quidandgas.Accordi
ngtothekinet
ictheoryofmatter
:

‘
Matt
erismadeofti
nypart
icl
eswhi
char
einconst
antmot
ionandhel
dtoget
her
byi
nter
molecul
arf
orces’
.

DI
STI
NGUI
SHI
NGPROPERTI
ESOFSTATESOFMATTER

Par
ti
clesar
ever
ycl
osedpackedi
nregul
arpat
ter
ns.

For
cesofat
tract
ionandr
epul
sionbet
weent
hepar
ti
clesar
e
ver
ystr
ong.

Par
ti
clesal
ter
nati
vel
yattr
actandrepel
eachot
herandso
v
ibr
atewi
thi
nfi
xedposit
ionswit
houtnetdi
splacement
.

Consequent
lyasl
i
dhasar
igi
dshapeandoccupi
esadef
ini
tev
olume.

80
 Thei nt
ermol ecularf or
cesinli
qui
dsar elessst rongt hanin
solids.Par ti
clesar eclose(butsl
ightlyfurtherapar tthanin
solid)tooneanot herbutvi
brat
evigorouslythattheat t
ractiv
e
forcescannothol dt hem i
nf i
xedposi t
ions.Par ti
clesmov e
aboutatl argespeedscol li
dingwitheachot herandwal l
sof
thecontai
nerandexchangi ngpar t
ner s.Thi
smakesal iquidt oflow andt ake
shapeofanycont
aineritfi
ll
s( nof i
xedshape)buthasf i
xedv olume.

Thei
nter
molecul
arfor
cesar
esoweakt
hatt
hepar
ti
clesar
e
fr
eef
rom oneanother
.

Part
icl
esther
efor
efi
l
lupanyavai
l
abl
espacehenceagas
hasnofixedvol
umeorshape.

Thepar
ti
clesar
ever
yfarapar
tandt
rav
elr
andoml
yatgr
eatspeedscol
l
idi
ngwi
th
eachot
her.

EXPANSI
ONOFMATTER

When part
icl
es ofmat t
erar e heated theymov e morev i
gorousl
yand t hei
r
movementsbecomel ar
ger.Themol eculespushawayf r
om eachother
,taki
ngup
morespaceandt hesubst anceexpands.Ther ev
erseoccurswhent heycool
down,thatist he molecularmot ions become smal l
erand the substance
cont
ract
sasitsmolecul
esar epull
edcl oserbyt
heforcesofatt
ract
ion.

RELATI
VE ORDER OF
MAGNITUDE OF
EXPANSION:

I
nt he gasst atet he
par t
icl
es ar e f ur
ther
apar tand t he f orces
ofat t
racti
onar ev ery
weak,whileinsolidtheparti
clesar eclosert
ogetherandt heat t
racti
onf orces
verystr
ong,thegaspar ti
clest akeupmor espacebutt hesol idpar t
iclesar e
stoppedbytheinter
molecul
arfor ces.Thusagasexpandst hemostwhi leasol i
d
expandstheleast
.

81
 EXPANSI
ONOFSOLI
DS

Expansi
onofsol
i
dscanbeeasi
l
ydemonst
rat
edby

a)Met
albal
landmet
alr
ingexper
iment

Beforetheballisheateditjustfi
tsandpasses
thr
ought hering.Aftertheballisheat
editno
l
ongerpassthr oughtheringasithasexpanded
andnowoccupi esmor espace.Theradi
usofthe
bal
l i
snowlargerthanthatofther
ing.

Discusst
hepossi
bleobser
vat
ionsi
fthemetal
o
ri
ngiscool
edi
nli
quidai
rat-
196Candthebal
li
s
t
ri
edt
opasst
hrought
her
ing.

b)Met
albarandmet
algaugeexper
iment

CONSEQUENCESANDUSES(
APPLI
ATI
ONS)OFEXPANSI
ON

Expansi
onandcontr
acti
oncanbev er
yusef
ul(
appl
i
cat
ions)aswel
lasbr
ing
negati
veef
fect
s(consequences)

Someev er
ydayappl
i
cat
ionsandconsequencesofexpansi
onorcont
ract
ionar
e
descr
ibedbel
ow.

82
BIMETALLI
CSTRI
Pismadeoft
woequall
engthsofdi
ff
erentmet
alr
ivet
ed
toget
her
.Thet
wometal
shav
evary
ingl
i
nearexpansi
vi
ty.

Whent hebimetall
i
cst ri
pisheat edaluminium
expandsmor ethancopper .Toaccommodat et he
extr
al engthofaluminium thest ri
pbedst owards
copper .Whenthebi metall
i
cst r
ipiscooled
o
(pl
acingi nli
qui
dni t
rogenat- 196C) ,t
hemet als
contr
actswit
halumi
nium get
ti
ngshor terthancopperhencet hest r
ipbeds
towardsal
umini
um.

Theref
ore,gener
all
y,abimet
all
i
cst r
ipal
way sbedst
owardsthelessexpandi
ng
metalwhenheatedandtowar
dst hemoreexpandi
ngonewhencooled.

Abi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pisusedi
nat
emper
atur
econt
rol
l
ingdev
icecal
l
edat
her
most
at.

THERMOSTAT

Athermostati
susedt okeepthet
emper
atur
eofanappli
anceorr
oom const
ant,
wit
houtgetti
ngt oohotortoocol
d.I
tusesabimet
all
icstri
pasatemperatur
e
cont
rol
ledswitch.

Appl
ianceswhichuseather
most
ati
ncl
udeel
ect
ri
cir
on,f
ir
eal
arm,r
efr
iger
ator
,
gasoven,el
ect
ricket
tl
e

(
a) El
ect
ri
cir
on

Thet emper at
ureofanel ectri
cironiskept
near -
steadybyt hebi metalli
cst r
ipasi t
opens and cl oses t he cont acts with
temper atur
ev ari
ations. Ast hebaseof
the electri
ciron get s hot t
erabov et he
temper atur
esetbyt hecont rolknobt he
bi
metal
l
icst
ri
pbendsdownwar
dandbr eakst hecontacts.Whent hetemper at
ure
dr
ops,t
hestri
pcool
sandcontract
s.Itthengoesbackt oi tsor i
ginalposit
ion
henceswitchi
ngt heelect
r i
ccurrentagai n.

Note:Br
assexpandsmor ethanironsothatthe
st
ri
pbendsdownwar dstobr eakopent
hecircui
t
whenthetemper
atur
erises.

b)Fi
real
arm

Thebi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pmustbendandswi
tchont
he

83
ci
rcui
ttosoundt
heelect
ri
cbell
.Brassshoul
dexpandmorethanir
onsothatthe
st
ripbendsdown.Thebending shouldoccuratat emperat
ureconsi
der
ably
hi
gherthant
heaver
ageroom t
emper at
uret
oavoi
dfalseal
arms.

C)GAPSONBRI
DGESANDROADS

Bridgesareoft
enmadeofst eelbars
thatgetlongerwhenitishot.There
mustbeexpansi ongapsinther oad
att heendofabr idge.Bri
dgesar e
usuallyputon roll
ersto al
low for
easy mov ementdur i
ng expansion
andcontracti
on.

Roadsareoft
enmadeofconcr ete
sl
abshatexpandandcontracttoo.Ther
eareexpansi
ongapsbetweent hesl
abs
fi
l
ledwit
hasof tsubst
ancethatcanbesqueezedeasil
yinhotweatherasthe
sl
absexpand.Therearesi
milarexpansi
ongapsintheconcr
etefl
oorsaround
MmadSec.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Expansi
ongapbet
weenr
oadandbr
idge

d)
RIVETI
NGMETALPLATES

Awhi
te–hotr
iveti
spl
acedi
nther i
vethol
eandit
s
endhammer ed
fl
atandon
cooli
ngit
contract
sand
pul
l
sthepl
atet
ight
ly together
.

e)SHRI
NKFI
TTI
NG

84
Thisisusedwherethemetalpi
ecesj
oinedi
nvolv
eabal landsocket.Anaxleis
o
cooledinli
qui
dni
trogenat-196Cunti
lthegearwheelcanbeslippedont oi
t.On
regaini
ngnormal
temperaturet
heaxl
eexpandstogiveav eryt
ightjoi
nt.

EXPANSI
ONOFGASES

Expansi
onofgassescanbedemonstr
atedby
t
hefol
l
owingexperi
mental
set
-up.

Aroundbottomedfl
askisf
il
ledwi
thasoluti
on
ofpotassi
um per
manganat
eandthenheated.

Obser
vat
ions:

Thel evelofpotassi
um permanganat esoluti
on
i
nt het ubegoesdownwhi l
et heleveloft he
soluti
oni nthebeakerr
isesast hesolutionisdi
spl
acedbyai
r.Ev
ent
ual
l
ybubbl
es
areseenasai rescapesthrought hesoluti
on.

Expl
anat
ion:

Whenairi
sheatedi
texpandsandoccupi
esmorespacether
ebydi
spl
aci
ngt
he
sol
uti
oninthet
ube.Thi
sshowsthatai
rexpandsaswel
l.

Not
e:Whenacoldclot
hispl
acedovert
hef
lask,
theai
rcont
ract
sandoccupi
es
l
essspacef
orci
ngthesol
uti
onupintot
het
ube.

EXPANSI
ONOFLI
QUI
DS

Justl i
ke soli
ds and gases a
l
iquidalsoexpandsorcont ract
when heat ed orcool ed.The
diagram onthelef
tcanbeused
to demonst r
ate expansion of
l
iquids.

Observati
ons: When heat i s
appli
ed thereisa moment ary
dropi nt
helevelofthesoluti
onasf l
ask/beakerexpandsbef orethel
iqui
dcan
conductheat.Aft
erawhi lethesoluti
onri
sesst eadi
lyasi texpandsandrises
throughthecapil
lar
yuntilitoverf
lows.Whencool edt heliqui
dcontr
actsand
occupylessspacehenceitwil
ldropbacki
ntothef l
ask.

85
 MEASURI
NGTEMPERATURE

TEMPERAUREandHEAT

Temperat
ure(T/ )isthedegree/
lev
elofhot
nessorcol
dnessofasubstance
o
agai
nstagivenscal
e.Temperatur
eismeasuredi
ndegreesCel
sius(C),
Kelvi
n
(K)
.

Thet emper at
ureofagasi smainlyrelatedt
otheaverageki
net
ict
hemol ecul
es.
Thehot tertheobjectt
hef ast
erthemol ecul
esmov eandthegr
eat
ershouldbe
thei
rav eragekineti
cenergy.Theaveragekinet
icenergyoft
hemolecul
es
decreaseswhent heobjectcol
dsdown.

HEAT( Q):i
sthetotalener gyofanobj ectduetomotionofthemol ecul
es( kinet
ic)
andt hei
rposit
ion(pot entialenergy )withrespecttoeachot her
.Thepot ent
ial
energyhereisduet ot hei nt
er-
mol ecularforcesbetweenthemol ecules.Wor k
hast o bedoneagai nstt heat tractiv
ef orceshenceener gychange f orthe
dist
ancebetweenthemol eculestoi ncrease.Objectatthesamet emper aturedo
notnecessari
lycontaint hesameamountofheatener gy.Not ethatheati sa
form ofener
gyandi smeasur edinj oule(J).

THERMOMETRI CPROPERTIES
Anypropert
yofasubstancethatchangeswhenthetemperatur
evar
iesiscall
ed
ther
momet ri
cproper
tyandtheyincl
udevolume,
pressur
e,elect
romoti
veforce
andresi
stance.

Abi met
all
i
ct her
mostatusest heexpansionandcont racti
onofamet alt
o
measuretemperatur
e, sotheex pansionandcont r
acti
onofasol i
dar e
thermometri
cproper
ties.Alsot hepressureofagasatconst antvolume,the
volumeofagasatconst antpressureandt heresi
stanceofapur emetalareall
examplesofthermomet ricproperti
es.
Theexpansionofali
qui disalsoapr opertyusedformostoft hethermometersto
measuretemperatur
e.Theset hermomet ersar
ecalledliqui
d—i nglass
thermometers.

CALLIBRATING A THERMOMETER
Thismeansmar ki
ngagradualscal
e
(marki
ngdiv
isi
ons)ont
hest em ofa
ther
mometer.

FIXED POI NTS: These are two

refer
ence posit
ions mar
ked on t
he
scale using mel t
ing and boi
li
ng
temperatur
es of a known pur e
substance.

86
LOWERFIXEDPOI
NT:Istheposit
ionoft
hel
i
qui
dinbul
bwhent
het
her
momet
er
o
i
splacedi
npur
ewaterat0 C(
ice).

UPPERFIXEDPOI
NT:Ist
heposit
ionmarkedonthestem whenthet
her
momet
er
o
i
splacedi
npur
eboil
i
ngwater(
temper
atureof100 Catsealev
el)

Thedi st
ancebetweenthelowerandupperfi
xedpointsi
sthendivi
dedi
ntoequal
divi
sionstogiv
eapar t
icul
arscal
e.Example:Marki
ng100di v
isi
onswoul
dmean
thatthether
momet eri
saccuratetoonedegreeCel
sius(1oC).

LABORATORYTHERMOMETER

Thesamepr i
ncipl
eisappli
ed
i
nal i
quid—i nglass
thermomet ers,t
henar r
owerthe
capill
arytubes,f
urtherthe
threadmov esup.Asmal l
expansionoft heli
quid
pr
oducesagr
eat
erascentupt
het
ube

Sensit
ivi
tyofaninstr
umentscalerepr
esentsi
tsabi
li
tytodetectsmallchangesof
thequantit
ytobemeasur ed.So,“
thenarr
owerthebore,
themor esensit
iveist
he
ther
momet er
”.
Thethermomet erscal
erepresent
edbelowismoresensit
ivethantheone
repr
esentedbefore.

Thet her
momet ersweusei nourl aboratoryhavegotat emperatur
er angef
rom
10°Ct o110° C.Howeveracl i
nical t
hermomet erwhichisanothertypeof
l
iquid—inglassther
momet erhasar agef om 350Ct
r o42° Cthatisaf ewdegrees
eit
hersidesofthehealt
hyorav eragebodyt emperatureofabout37° C.Thi
s
ther
momet eri
smor esensi
tivethanal abor at
orythermometerthatiswhyits
o
accuracyisatenthofadegr eeCel si
us(0.1 C) .

Asensiti
vether
mometerdoesnothav
eav er
ylar
getemperaturer
angeev
en
whenitisveryl
ong.Al
argert
emperat
urer
angescal
eisachievedusi
ngawider
capi
l
larytube.

87
Alsoaclini
calther
momet erhasaconst
ricti
onwhi chst
opst hemer
curywhen
goingbacktothebulb.I
tallowsmeasuri
ngt hetemperatur
eofapatientaft
er
removingthethermometer.Themercur
yi sret
urnedtothebulbbyshakingthe
thermometer.

CLI
NICALTHERMOMETER

Al ar
gebulbandat hickgl
assstem hav edisadvantages,t
hethermometerhast
o
takemor eenergyfrom thehotobjectthansmal lbulbandathi ngl
assstem
thermomet erdose,andsoi tmaycool i
tdown.I talsotakesl
ongertoreacha
steadyreading.Thust hebulbsonaliquid-
inglassthermomet erar
enotmade
verylar
geandt hest emsar emadef r
om av er
ythinglass.

Summar
y:At
her
momet
eri
smor
esensi
ti
vei
fithas

a)At
hin/
nar
row capi
l
lar
yorbor
e

b)Al
argebul
b

c)Reduci
ngt
het
hicknessoft
hebul
b

CHANGESOFSTATE

LATENTHEAT(l)
:Isheatener
gyt
hatchangest
hest
ateofasubst
ance(
wit
hout
achangei
ntemperat
ure)
.

88
Theheatener gyt
hatisabsorbeddur
ingmelt
ingorevaporat
ion,
andgivenout
duri
ngfreezingorcondensi
ngiscaledl
l at
ent(hi
dden)heatbecausei
tdoesnot
causeanyt emperat
urechange.

Whenasubst ancemeltsorsoli
difi
esit
s
temperatur
eremainsconstantevenifi
t
absorbsorrel
easesheatcaledl
l atent
heatoffusi
on(l)
f.

Thetemperatureofli
quiddoesnot
changeduri
ngboi l
ing(unti
lal
ltheli
qui
d
hasbeenconv ert
edtov apour
/gas)as
theli
qui
disvapor i
zed.Heatabsorbed
duri
ngthi
schangeofst at
eiscall
ed
l
atentheatofv
apor
izat
ion(
l)
v .

MELTI
NG/
FUSI
ON:
Iswhenasol
idsubst
ancechangesi
ntol
iqui
d.

SOLI
DIFI
CATI
ON/
FREEZI
NG:
Thi
sisachangeofl
i
qui
dsubst
ancei
ntosol
i
d.

Solidi
fi
cati
onandfusionoccurwit
houtachangei
ntemper atur
e.Whena
substancemelts,t
heheatsuppli
edenabl
esthemoleculestobreakf
reefr
om
theirf
ixedarr
angementinsoli
d(weakeni
ntermol
ecularfor
ces)toat
tai
nrelat
ivel
y
freemov ementinl
iquidst
ate.

Dur
ingsol
i
dif
icat
ionheati
srel
easedast
hemol
ecul
escomet
oget
her
.

Apuresubstancemeltsandf
reezes(
sol
i
dif
icat
ion)att
hesamet
emper
atur
e
cal
l
edmel t
ingpointorfr
eezi
ngpoint
.

VAPOURISATION: Whenasubstancei
nli
qui
dst
atechangesi
ntoagas.Thi
smay
occurdur
ingevaporat
ionandboi
li
ng.

CONDENSATI
ON:
Whenasubst
ancei
nagasst
atechangesi
ntoal
i
qui
d.

Invapouri
sationt hel
iqui
dmol ecul
esabsorbalargeamountofenergyast hey
mov efur
therapar tunti
ltheyareseparat
edi
ntoindependentgasmolecules.
Someener gyi salsorequir
edtoenablethemolecul
estowor kagai
nst
atmosphericpr essur
east heyexpand.Whenasubstancecondenseslatentheat
ofvapori
zationi srel
eased.

SUBLIMATI
ON: I
sadirectchangeofst
atef
rom sol
i
dtogasorgast
osol
i
d
wit
houtf
ormingl
iqui
df i
rst
.

89
EVAPORATI
ONandBOI
LING

Ev
apor
ati
oni
stheescapeofgaseouspar
ti
clef
rom t
hesur
faceofal
i
qui
d.

Duri
ngev aporati
onthefastermor eener
get i
cmol eculesescapef rom thesurf
ace
oftheliquid.Forthemol ecul
est oevaporatet heyabsor bmor eheatandmov e
muchf urtherapartast heygainmor ekinet i
cener gy .Theescapi ngmol ecul
es
absorblatentheatf rom theliqui
dandr esultincool i
ngef fectasmol ecul
es
remaini
ngbehi ndareofal owerenergylevel.Thel atentheatabsor bedisneeded
toovercomet heattr
acti
vef or
cesbetweent heremai ningmol ecules.

Ev
apor
ati
onr
atei
sincr
easedby
;

a)Incr
easi
ngtemper at
ureoftheli
qui
d-athi
ght
emper
atur
emor
emol
ecul
es
aremovingfastenoughtoescape.

b)Anincreasei
nsur
facear
eaofl
i
qui
d-mor
emol
ecul
esnearsur
faceofl
i
qui
d
escape.

c)Adr
aughtormov
ingai
r(wi
nd)-whi
cht
akest
hemol
ecul
esaway
.

Boi
l
ingi
swhenal
i
qui
dfor
msbubbl
esofv
apourt
hroughoutt
hel
i
qui
d.

Boili
ngt akesplacewhent hesaturatedv apourpr
essurebecomesequalt
ot he
externalatmosphericpressure.Thev apourformedwithi
nboili
ngl
iqui
dburstat
thesur f
aceoft heli
quid.Boil
i
ngt akesplaceatapar t
icul
artemper
atur
ecall
edt he
boili
ngpoi nt.

DI
FERENCEBETWEENBOI
LINGandEVAPORATI
ON

Evapor
ati
ontakespl
aceatt
hesurf
aceoft
hel
i
qui
dwhi
l
eboi
l
ingoccur
s
thr
oughoutt
hebodyofthel
iqui
d.

Evapor
ati
ontakesplaceatal
ltemper
atur
eswhi
l
eboi
l
ingoccur
sataf
ixed
temper
aturecal
ledboil
i
ngpoint.

APPLI
CATI
ONSOFEVAPORATI
ON

90
 1.Cool
ingef
fectusedi
n

a)Ref
ri
ger
ati
on

b)Animalsli
kedogsandcr
ocodi
lescoolthemsel
vesbydr
ivi
ngmor
e
energet
icmolecul
esf
rom t
hei
rbodies.

2.Wetcl
othesdr
yqui
ckerwheni
tiswi
ndyandhot
.

HEATCAPACI
TY

Heatcapacit
y,C,i
sthequant i
tyofheatwhi
chisrequi
redtor
aiset
he
temperat
ureofanobjectby1° Cor1K.
From t
hedefini
ti
on,heatcapacit
ycanbeexpressedas:-

C=Q/
∆T

whi
chf
oll
owst
hat
;

Q=C∆T-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
>(1)

wher
eQ=amountofheatt
ransf
err
ed/
suppl
i
edt
otheobj
ecti
n
j
oul
es(
J)

∆T=changei
ntemper
atur
e(f
inal
tempTf -i
nit
ial
tempTi)
i
n°CorK

C=heatcapaci
tyi
nJ/
°CorJ/
K

91
SIUni
t:j
oul
eperkel
vi
n( KorJK-1) OR
J/

Ot
heruni
t:j
oul
eperdegr
eecel
sius(
J/° C-1)
CorJ° .

SPECI
FICHEATCAPACI
TY

Speci
fi
cheatcapaci
ty,
c,ofamater
ial
isthequanti
tyofheatwhichmustbe
suppl
i
edtoamassof1kgoft hatmateri
altorai
seitst
emperatureby1°Cor1K.

SIuni
t:j
oul
eperki
l
ogr
am perkel
vi
n(Jkg-1K-1)
-
1 -
1
Ot
heruni
t:j
oul
eperki
l
ogr
am perdegr
eecel
sius(J/
kg/
°CorJkg °
C orJ/
(kg
°
C))
Speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyi
sinf
actheatcapaci
typeruni
tmass,
whi
chmeanst
hat
c=C/
m--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
>(2)

subst
it
uti
ngeqn(
1)abov
eint
otheequat
ion(
2)wehav
e

c=(
Q/∆T)
/m

whi
chf
oll
owst
hatQ=mc∆T

wher
eQ=amountofheatt
ransf
err
edorsuppl
i
edi
njoul
es(
J)

m =massoft
hemat
eri
ali
nkg

c=speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyoft
hemat
eri
alnJkg-1°
i C-1
orJkg-1K-1

∆T=changei
ntemper
atur
e

∆T=|
∆T|
,thi
smeans∆Tshoul
dal
way
sbeposi
ti
veev
eni
fTfi
sless
t
hanTi

*
NB:Heatcapacit
yshowst
heamountofheatneededt
ochangethe
t
emper
atureofthe
whole(orany)massofanobj
ectby1°COR1KBUTspeci fi
cheat

92
 capaci
tyshows theheatr
equi
redt
ochanget
hetemper
atur
eof
only1kgofthemassoft
heobj
ectby1°
C or1K.

Pr
obl
ems

#1Fi
ndt
hespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dgi
vent
hat
:

ener
gyt
ransf
err
ed=12209J

massofl
i
qui
d=0.
8kg

or
igi
nal
temper
atur
e=26.
8°C

f
inal
temper
atur
e=33.
0°C

Answ Dat
a:Q=12209J, m =0.
8kg, Ti=26.8°
C, Tf=
33.
0°C, c=?

Q=mc∆T

c=Q/
m∆T

=12209/
(0.
8(33.
0–26.
8))

=2461.
5J

#2.Cal
cul
atet
heheatr
equi
redt
or ai
sethetemperat
ureof10kgofbr
ass
-1 -
1
fr
om 10°Cto90°
C.Speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofbrass=377Jkg °C.

Answ:

Dat
a:- m =10kg, Ti=10°
C, Tf=90°
C, c=377Jkg-1°
C-1,
Q=?

Q=mc∆T

93
 =10x377x(
90–10)

=301600J

#3Akettl
econtaini
ng1kgofwat c=4200Jkg-1°
er( C-1)i
splacedont
op
ofanel
ectr
icheaterofpower1000W.Ittakes5mi
nf orthewater
temper
atur
etorisefrom 20°
Ct o90°C.Find:

t
heener
gyr
eleasedbyt
heheat
er

t
heener
gyabsor
bedbyt
hewat
er.Accountf
oranyl
ossesi
nener
gy

Answ:

Dat
a:- P=1000W, t=5mi
n=300s, Q=?

Q=E=Pt

=1000x300

=300000J

Dat
a:- m =1kg, c=4200Jkg-1°
C-1,Q=?

Q=mc∆T

=1x4200x(
90–20)

=294000J

6000Jofenergyarelostt
othesur
roundi
ngsandcoi
ntai
nerbyconduct
ion,
convect
ionandradi
ati
on.

#4If2kgofwat
ercool
sfr
om 70°
Cto20°
C,howmucht
her
mal
ener
gy
doesi
tlose?

94
 Answ:

DATA:
- m =2kg, Ti=70° C, c=4200Jkg-1°
C, Tf=20° C-1,
Q=?

Q=mc∆T

=2x4200x(
70–20)

=420000J.

#5Inanexper i
ment,920000Jofenergyi
stransf
err
edto2kgofir
on(c=
-1 -
1
460Jkg ° C) .Thei
niti
alt
emper
atureofi
ronis25°C.Whati
sthefi
nal
temper
atureoftheir
on?

Answ:

Dat
a:- Q=920000J, m =2kg, Ti=25°
C, c=460
-
1
Jkg °C-1

Q=mc(
Tf–Ti)

Tf=(
Q/mc)+Ti

=920000/
(2x460)+25

=1000+25

=1025°
C

8.
11.
3 SPECI
FICLATENTHEATOFVAPORI
ZATI
ON

Thespecifi
clatentheatofvapori
zati
onLVofasubstancei
stheamountof
heatneededtochangemassof1kgofal i
qui
dtov apourwi
thoutchange
i
tstemperature.ItmeasuredinJ/kgorJ/
g

95
 Q=mLV eQ =ener
wher gysuppl
i
ed(
J)

m =massoft
hel
i
qui
d(kg)

LV =sp.Lat
.Heatofv
apor
izat
ion
(J/kg)

8.
11.
4 SPECI
FICLATENTHEATOFFUSI
ON

I
tistheamountofheatneededtoconv
ertmassof1kgofasol
i
dtol
i
qui
d
wi
thouttemper
atur
echange.Iti
smeasuredi
nJ/kgorJ/
g.

Q=mLf eQ=heatsuppl
wher i
ed(
J)

m =massoft
hesol
i
d
(
kg)

Lf=sp.Lat
.Heatof
f
usi
on(
J/kg)

8.
12 QUESTI
ONS

1.Aheatersuppl
ies42Jofenergyev
erysecond(
it
spoweri
sthen42W)
.
I
tisusedt
oheatsomewater.The

t
emperat
urer
isesby5°Cin100seconds.Whati
stheheatcapaci
tyof
t
hewat
er?Aboysaysitwoul
dtake

t
imesasl
ongt
orai
set
het
emper
atur
eto50°
C.I
sher
ight
?Expl
ain

96
y
puranswer
.

2. Abeakerofoilandabeakerofwat
erar
eheat
edont
hesameel
ect
ri
c
hotpl
ate.Thebeakerofoi
lhasa

lowert
her
mal capacit
ythanthebeakerofwat
er.Whatcany
ousay
abouthowthetemperatureschange?

3.Theheatcapacit
yofat
her
mocoupl
eismal
l
.Gi
vet
woadv
ant
ages
whi
chresul
tfr
om this.

4.Whati
smeantbyt
hespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofasubst
ance?

5.Calculat
etheener
gyl
ostby2.
5kgofsteam at100°
Cwheni
t
condenses,
cool
sdownto0°Candsol
idi
fi
es

att
hatt
emper
atur
e.

Speci
fi
clat
entheatofst
eam =2260000J/
kg

Speci
fi
clat
entcapaci
tyofwat
er=4200J/
(kg°
C)

Speci
fi
clat
entheatofwat
er =336000J/
kg

6.Aheat errai
sest
hetemperatur
eof1.25kgofwat
erby20°
Cin30
seconds.Thespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyof

wateri
s4200J/(
kg°C).Cal
culat
eanappr
oxi
mat
eval
uef
ort
hepower
oft
heheater
.Uset
hisv
alueforthe

powert
ocalcul
ateM,t
hemassofwat
erboi
l
edawayeachsecond
whent
hetemperat
urer
eaches100°
c.

Assumet hatthespeci
fi
clat
entheatofv
apour
isat
ionofwat
eri
s2.
26x
6
10 J/
kg.Explai
nwhethertheact
ual

97
 r
ateatwhi
chwat
eri
sboi
l
edawayi
sgr
eat
ert
hanorl
esst
hanM

7.Expl
ainwhyadr
inki
scool
edmor
ebyi
cet
hanbyt
hesamemassof
°
wat
erat0 C.

8.Ittakes80000Jofheattor
aiset
het
emper
atur
eof500gofpor
ri
dge
fr
om 20° Ct
o50°C.Cal
culat
ethe

speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofpor
ri
dge.

9.Anexperi
mentwasconduct
edt
omeasur
ethespeci
fi
clat
entoff
usi
on.
I
cewasplacedi
nafunnel
and

heat
edforafi
xedti
me.Thewat
erf
rom t
hemel
tedi
cewascol
l
ect
edi
n
abeakerasshownint
hediagr
am.

Themassoft heempt ybeakerwas50g.A100W heat erwasusedt oheatthe

i
cefor2min.Afterthejeaterwasswitchedof
fthemassofthebeakerandthe
meltedi
cewas83g.Uset heresul
tst
ocalcul
ateaval
ueforLf,
thespeci
fi
clatent
heatoff
usi
onofi ce.Explainwhyyouransweri
sdif
fer
entfr
om theaccepted
-
1
val
ueof340Jg .

98
 TRANSFEROFTHERMALENERGY

Therearet
hreemethodsbywhi
chthermalener
gycanbet
ransfer
redf
rom a
hott
erregi
ontoacoderregi
oni
ethroughatemper
atur
egr
adient.

a)Conduct
ioni
sthetr
ansferoft
her
mal ener
gyf
rom ar
egi
onofhot
tert
oregi
on
ofl
owertemper
atur
ewithoutmovementofmatt
er

I
nconduct
ion –mol
ecul
esar
emadet
omov
efast
er

i
)byt
het
ransf
eroff
astel
ect
rons,
or

i
i
)bymut
ual
int
eract
ion.

b)Convecti
onist
heflowoft
her
mal ener
gythr
oughaflui
dfrom aregionof
hi
ghertoregi
onoflowert
emper
atur
ebyt hemovementofthefl
uid(l
iquidsand
gases)
.

99
I
nconvect
ion–hotmolecul
esar
emadet
omov
efr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herdue
t
ochangeofdensi
ty.

c)Radi
ati
onisthef
lowoft
her
mal
ener
gyf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herbymeansof
el
ectr
omagneti
cwav es

–mol
ecul
esar
emadet
omov
efast
erwhenel
ect
romagnet
icwav
esf
all
ont
hem.

Heatt
ransf
eri
nsol
ids–conduct
ion

Thi
smodeofheatt
ransf
eroccur
smai
nlyi
nsol
i
ds.

Mot
ionofel
ect
rons:

Whenasol i
de.g.metalbari
sheat edatoneend,heatt r
avel
sandsoonreaches
theotherend.Thishappensbecauseofthefreeel
ectr
onssurroundi
ngt
heatoms
ofthemet alwhi
chmov efast
erandgot owardsthecoolerpar
ts.

Colli
sionsbetweent heseelectr
onsandt hestati
onar yatomsatt hecoolerendof
themet alresultinthet r
ansferofkineticenergyfrom t heelectr
onst otheatoms.
Ast he‘warm’ elect
ronsmov efrom thehot t
erregiont othecool erregi
on,‘cool
er’
electr
onsmov ei ntheopposi tedir
ect i
ont otaket heirplace.Int hi
swayheati s
transf
erredf r
om onepl acet oanot herwithoutanyappar entmov ementoft he
transmitt
ing subst ance. The di agr am bel ow i llustr
ates t his conducti
on
mechani sm.

Thefasterelectrons( i
ndicatedbythelonger
arr
ows)di ff
useint her egionoccupi
edbyt he
sl
owerel ectr
ons)i ndicatedbyshorter
arr
ows),andv ice-versa.Theenergyi s
tr
ansfer
red.

Alsonotethatthevi
brat
ingat
omsar e
responsi
bleforsomethermalconduct
ion:

I
ftheyj
ost
leeachot
her
,ener
gycanbepassedf
rom onepar
toft
hesol
i
d
t
oanother
.

Thissecondconducti
onmechanism cannotbev eryeff
ecti
v e,
sincehighr at
esof
conducti
onofheatareonlybysubst
anceswi thconductionelectrons.Therear
e
excepti
ons,however
,somenon-metals(i
.e.substanceswithoutconduction
el
ectrons)areasgoodconduct
orsassomemet al
s.

Ast
heconducti
onel
ect
ronscantr
ansferbot
helect
ricchar
geandi
nternalener
gy,
weseewhythesamesubst
ancesaregoodconductorsofbot
hel
ect
ricit
yand

100
heat
.

Exper
imentt
odemonst
rat
erat
esofheatconduct
ion

Heatf l
owsal ongt herodsatdi f
fer
entrates
andt hepinsdropof faftervaryi
nglengthsof
ti
me.I ntheexper i
mentt hepinoncopper
dropsof ffi
rstfol
lowedbyi ronandl astl
yon
gl
ass.Thi sconf i
rmsthatmet al
shav every
hi
ght hermal conducti
v i
ty.Othersol
id
mat eri
alssuchasgl ass,woodandpl asti
cs
conductheatv
erysl
owl
yandar
ebadconduct orsorinsulators.

Anexper
imentbel
owshowst
hatwat
eri
sact
ual
lyabadconduct
orofheat

Not
etheor
deri
nwhi
chpr
ocesseshappen.

Thewateratthetopofthet
ubeboil
s,whil
etheice
remai
nssoli
d( doesnotmel
t)att
hebottom.
Ev
entuall
yslowconduct
ionofheatthrought
hewaterandthewall
softhe
gl
asstesttubemelt
stheice.

Li
quids(
exceptmol t
enmetal
ssuchasmercury
)ar
eusuall
ybadconductor
sof
heat
.Iti
simportanttoal
sonot
ethatai
risaver
ypoorconduct
orofheatandi
s
animport
antinsulat
or.

Whenwef
eel
col
dweputonwar
m cl
othes.Cl
othesdonotsuppl
yheatt
oour

101
bodies,sohowdot heymakeusf eelwarm?War m cl
othesusual
l
ycont ai
nal otof
tr
appedai r
.Pocketsofai
rareheldbetweenthefi
bresofwoolenmat eri
alsandin
holesli
kethoseinstr
ingvests.I
nasimilarwaybi
rdsfluffupt
hei
rfeathersto
tr
apmor eai
raroundthem t
okeept hem warm.

Fibregl
assandexpandedpolyst
yreneareusedasinsul
ator
sinhouses;
bot
h
thesemat eri
alsowet
hei
rinsul
ati
ngpropert
iest
olargeamountoftr
appedai
r
theycontain.

Heatt
ransf
ert
hroughf
lui
ds–conv
ect
ion

Heatcanf
lowt
hroughl
i
qui
dsandgases(
fl
uids)bymeansofconv
ect
ioncur
rent
s.

Convecti
oncur
rent
sareafl
owofl i
qui
dorgascausedbyachangei
ndensi
ty,
in
whichthewhol
emedium movesandcarr
iesheatener
gywi
thi
t.

Not
e;a)convect
ioncannothappeni
nsol
i
dsbecauset
hemol
ecul
eshav
efi
xed
rel
ati
veposit
ions.

b)conv
ect
ioni
smor
eef
fect
ivei
ngasest
hani
nli
qui
ds.

Demonst
rat
ionofconv
ect
ion

Explanat
ionconv ectioncurrent:Anincreasein
temperat
ureusual lycausesani ncreaseinv ol
umeThe
warm parti
clesbecomel essdenseandr i
sesup.Agi ven
massofwar mf luid,wil
lther
ef oreexperi
enceanup-
thr
ust(fr
om coolerf l
uidthatsurroundit)greaterthan
i
tsownwei ght.Thecol ddenserf lui
dthuspr ovidesa
f
orcet
hatcausest
hewar mf l
uidtorise.

Exampl
eofconv
ect
ion

a)cl
oudf
ormat
ion–war
m moi
stai
rri
sesbef
orecondensi
ngi
ntor
ain.

b)winds–causedbydi
ff
erencesi
nai
rpr
essur
ewhi
char
isesf
rom unev
en
heat
ingofmassesofai
r.

102
c)thear
tofgl
i
dingi
stot
raceandusehotai
rcur
rent
s(asdonebyseagul
l
s–
bi
rds)

d)t
hedomest
ichotwat
ersuppl
y.

e)Landandseabr
eezes

RADI
ATI
ON-heatt
ransf
erbyEl
ect
romagnet
ic

Radiat
ioni
st hef
low ofheati
nfor
m ofel
ect
romagnet
icwav
esr
equi
ri
ngno
tangi
blemedi
um.

I
tisthetypeofwav emot i
ongi venoutbyaccelerat
edelectr
iccharges,andi t
r
esul
tsinthet
ransferofenergyform onepl
acetoanother
.Inpart
icul
arthei nf
ra-
r
edwav eshavefrequenci
essucht hattheyareeasil
yabsorbedbypar ti
clesof
matt
er,
andaretherefor
eeffect
iveatwarmingmatter.

Warm obj
ect
sgiv
eoutorr adi
ateinfr
aredwaves(heatwav es–radiantheat
).But
i
ftheybecomehottertheyemitshor terwavel
engthswhi chmayi ncl
udelight
.
Thi
siswhyaradi
antheaterorgri
l
l st
artsto‘
glowred’hotwhenitheatsup.

Emi
tt
ersandAbsor
ber
s

Somesur facesarebett
eratemi tti
ng (sendi
ng -
out
)thermalr
adi
ati
on than
other
s.Forexample,bl
acksaucepancoolsdownquickl
ythanasi
mil
arwhit
eone
becauseitemi t
sener
gyatafasterr
ate.

Whi teorsil
versurf
acesarepoorabsorber
sbecausetheyr ef
lectmostoft
he
thermalradi
ati
onaway .Thi
siswhy ,i
nhot,sunnycountri
es,housesar
eoft
en
paintedwhit
etokeepthem cooli
nsi
de.Theinsi
deofablackcarwarmsupmore
rapidl
ythanawhiteoneonasunnyday.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Good/badabsor
ber
soft
her
mal
radi
ati
on

I
ftwocoi nsofthesamev aluearestuckon
outsideofeachpl at
ewithcandlewax, some
mi nutesaftert
heheaterhasbeenswi tched
on,thewaxont heblacksurfacemeltsand
thecoinf al
lsoff
.Thewhitesurfaceissti
ll
cool
erandt hewaxdoesnotmel t
.

Theexper i
mentshowst hatbl
acksur facesarebetterabsor
bersofther
mal
radi
ationthanwhitesur
faces.Dullblackar et
hebestabsorbersofthermal
radiat
ion;si
lver
ymi r
ror
-l
ikesurfacesar epoorestabsorber
s.Sil
ver
ysurfaces
refl
ectalmostallt
hethermalradiat
ionst r
iki
ngthem.

103
I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Good/bademi
tt
ersoft
her
mal
radi
ati
on

Holding the back ofy ourhands on eit

her
sidesofhotcopperpl atewhichhasonesi de
polishedandt heotherblacked,itisfound
thatt heblacksurfaceisabet teremit
terof
radiation than t
he pol i
shed surf
ace.Dul l
blacksurfacesar
ealsothebestemitt
er softhermalradi
ati
on,sil
verymir
ror-
li
ke
surfacesarethepoor
estemitt
ers.

Theref
ore:
“Thegr
eat
ertheamountofther
malradi
ati
onabsorbed,t
hegr eat
er
wil
lbetheemissi
on”
,sogoodabsor
ber
sareal
sogoodemitt
ersandvice-
versa.

Goodemitt
ersoft
her
malr
adi
ati
onar
eal
sogoodabsor
ber
s,asshowni
nthe
char
tbel
ow.

Summar
yonemi
tt
ersandabsor
ber
s

APPLI
CATI
ONSOFTHERMALENERGYTRANSFER

Carcool i
ng sy stem-mostcarengi
nes ar
e
cooled by
conv ecti
on
currents i n t he
water pi pes. A
pumpi softenused
to hel p wat er to
ci
rcul at
e. Thi s is
‘
forcedconv ent
ion’.

Waterisver
ygoodsubstancetocar
rytheunwant
ed
heatawayfr
om theengi
net ot
heradi
ator
.Herethe

104
r
adi
atorisaheatexchangerwherethehotwatergivesupitsener
gytoair
.The
r
adi
atorsar
eusual
lypaint
edblacktoincr
easet
heirheatexchangef
unct
ion.

SOLARHEATI NG( sol

arpanel)
-somehousehaveasolarpanelikeshownbelow.
I
tusest hesun’sther
malr adi
ati
ontowarm upwaterf orthehouse.Theblack
l
ayerabsorbsther
malr adi
ati
onandwarmsupwat erflowingthroughthepi
pes.
Whyaret hepi
pescoil
ed?

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
sol
arpanel
(wat
erheat
ingsy
stem)

Thev
acuum f
lask(
ther
mosf
lask)

Av acuum f
laskcankeepdri
nkshot(orcol
d)forhour
s.
Ithasthesefeat
uresf
roreduci
ngtherateoft
hermal
energyfl
oeinorout.

a) Ani nsulatedstoppertor educeconduct

ion
andconvect i
on.
b) Adoubl e-walledcontainerwithgap
betweenthewal ls.Airhasbeenr emov edfr
om
thegaptor educeconduct i
onandconvect i
on.
c) Wal l
swi thshinnysurfacest oreduce
ther
malradi at
ion.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Ther
mosf
lask

Gr
eenhouseef
fect
s

Onasunnyday ,agreenhousebecomesa‘ heatt rap’

.Short-
wav el
engththermal
radi
ati
on f r
om t hesun passeseasil
yt hr
ough t hegl assand war msup t he
material
si nsi
de.Thewar medmat eri
alsemi tt hermalradiat
ion,butatl onger
wavelengthsthatdonotpasst hr
oughthegl asssoeasi ly.Radi
at i
onidrefl
ected
backintothegreenhouse,sothet
emperaturerises.

105
 Theear th’scont ai
nsasmal lamountof
carbon dioxide gas.This has a si mi l
ar
effecttotheglassi nagr eenhouse-itlets
the sun’st hermalenergy t o war m t he
earth,butr ef
lects he earth’sr adi
ation
back.Wi thoutt hi
s naturalgr eenhouse
o
effecttheear th would be30 C col der
than iti s.Ext r
a carbon di oxide from
burningfuel si
saddi ngtot heef fectand
causi
nggl
obalwar
ming. I
ll
ust
rat
ion:Gr eenhouseef fect

Ot
herev
ery
dayconsequencesoft
her
malt
ransf
er

1)Landandseabr eezes-aresetupbyear
th-seatemperaturedif
fer
ences.
Duri
ngthedayt hel
andheat supmorequicklyt
hanwat erinthesea.Hot
ai
rabovethelandrisescausingcool
andheav i
erairf
rom theseatocome
andrepl
aceit(seabreeze).Atni
ghtt
hereverseoccurs.Thediagr
am
bel
owi l
l
ustr
atesthis.

2)Dayandnight
sindesert
s–day stendtobev eryhotduet
oradiantheat
fr
om theheat
edsand.Night
salsotendtobev erycol
dduetolackofcloud
cover
.Therei
snothi
ngtoactli
keagr eenhouse.

3)Cycl
ones-
arer
egionswheretheat
mospher
icpressur
eislowert
han
aver
ageandhencewindsblowspi
ral
lyi
nwardstowardst
hepressur
e
cent
er.

Theexi st
enceofcyclonesisat
tri
butedtoconv ect
ioncurr
ent
screati
ng
dif
ferencesinairpr
essureatcert
ainlocal
i
ties.Cyclonesl
i
ketyphoonscanbe
verydestruct
ivewheretheypass.

106
107
108
109
 GENERALWAVEPROPERTI
ES
Wave:Thi
sisabackwardandfor
wardorupanddownmov
ementofpar
ti
clesof
anel
asti
cmedium whentheyv
ibr
ate.
Or
Wav
e:Thi
sisadi
stur
banceofpar
ti
clesofmat
ert
hatr
esul
tsi
ntr
ansf
erofener
gy.
Pr
oper
ti
esofWav
e
Wav
elengt
h(λ)
:Thi
sist
hedi
stanceoccupi
edbyonecompl
etewav
e.
Or
t
hedi
stancebet
weensuccessi
vecr
est
s/peaksort
roughs.
Or
t
hedi
stancebet
weensuccessi
ve(
fol
l
owi
ngeachot
her
)andcor
respondi
ng
(
simi
l
ar)posi
ti
ons(
part
s)ofawave.
Wavelengt
hisrepr
esent
edbytheGreekl
ett
erlambda(λ)
.Sincewavel
engt
his
di
stance,i
tmeasuredi
nuni
tsoflengt
handtheSIuni
tisthemetre(
m).

Ampli
tude(
A):t
hisi
sthemaxi
mum di
stanceapar
ti
clemov
esf
rom i
tsr
est
posi
ti
onwhenawavepasses.

Or

themaximum di
spl
acementofapar
ti
clef
rom i
tsr
estposi
ti
onwhenawav
e
passes.

I
tisal
someasur
edi
nuni
tsofl
engt
handt
heSIuni
tist
hemet
re(
m).

Frequency(
f):
Isthenumberofcompletewav
es(cycl
es)producedpersecond.I
t
i
smeasur edinhert
z(Hz)
.Frequencycanbecal
cul
atedfr
om theexpressi
on
below;

110
 Speed(υ):Thi
sisthedi
stancecov
eredbyawav
einasecond.I
tismeasur
edi
n
metrespersecond.

Thespeedisr
elat
edt
owav
elengt
handf
requencyt
hrought
hewav
eequat
ionas
shownbelow.

Wav
eequat
ion

wher
eλi
swav
elengt
h,fi
sfr
equencyandυi
sspeed.

TYPESOFWAVES

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofwav
esnamel
y;

a)
. Longit
udinalwav e
b)
. Transver
sewav e
Longi
tudi
nalwave:Awav einwhichthedir
ecti
onoft
rav
elofwav
eandt
he
di
rect
ioni
nwhichtheparti
clesarevi
brat
ingcoi
nci
de.

I
nalongit
udi
nalwav
etheparti
clesoftheelast
icmedium v
ibr
atebackwardand
f
orwardtopr
oduceaseri
esofcompr essi
ons(highpr
essurer
egion)and
r
aref
acti
ons(r
egi
onoflowpressure)
.

Exampl
es;

1. Wav estravel
ingalongast r
etched“sl
inky”spr i
ngwit
honeendf i
xedandthe
othermov i
ngr apidlybackwar dandforwar d.Themovementofthemoving
endistransmittedf r
om turntoturnofthespr i
ng.
2. Soundwav es
Tr
ansv er
sewav e:Awav einwhi chtheparti
clesarevi
brat
ingatr
ightangl
etothe
di
recti
onoft r
aveloft hewav e.

Thev
ibr
ati
onscoul
dei
therbeupanddownorsi
det
osi
de.

111
 Exampl
es;

1. Wav estravel
ingalongast retched“sli
nky”springwithoneendf i
xedandt he
othermov ingrapidl
yfrom sidetoside.Themov ementoft hemov i
ngendi s
transmitt
edfrom turntoturnoft hespri
ng.
2. Wav estravel
ingacrossthesur faceofwat erwhenast onehasbeendr opped
i
napond.Ri pplesmoveoutf r
om theplacewher ethest onewasdr opped.
3. Wav estravel
ingalongar opewi thoneendf ixedandt heot hermov i
ngupand
down.Themov ementofthemov i
ngendi stransmit
tedf rom partt
opar tof
thethroughthewhol erope.
4. Alltheelectr
omagnet i
cwav essuchas:light,radi
owav es, micr
owav es,
gammar aysandsoon.

WAVESPROPERTI
ESEXERCI
SE

1(a)Fi
ndthewavelengt
hofasoundwav
ewhi
chhasaf
requencyof1.
0kHz,
if
thespeedofsoundisair330m/
s.

b)Findt
hefr
equencyofr
adiowav
ewhi
chhasawav
elengt
hof3000m.(
speedof
8
radi
owaves=3.0*10 m/s)

c)Findthespeedofawaterwav
eproducedbya2.
0Hzv
ibr
atori
nar
ippl
etanki
f
successiv
ecrest
sare5.
0cm apart
.

2. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowsasect
iont
hroughawav
etr
avel
l
ingi
nwat
eri
n

t
he di
rect
ionshown.

a)
i)f
indt
hei
i
)ampl
i
tudei
i
i)wav
elengt
h

112
b)i
fthewav
etr
avel
s32.
0cm i
n2.
0s,
findi
ts)speedi
i
)fr
equency

c)Useappropr
iat
esy
mbol
stoshowont
hedi
agr
am abov
ei)ampl
i
tudei
i
)
wavel
ength

REFLECTONOFLi
ght

Ref
lect
ioni
sthebounci
ngof
fofl
i
ghtoncer
tai
nsur
faces.

Ref
lect
ionbyapl
anemi
rr
or

Aplaneisaflatsmoothrefl
ecti
ngsurf
acewhichbyregul
arr
efl
ect
ioni
susedt
o
for
mi mages.Ithasarefl
ecti
ngandsilver
edsur
facesi
nmostcasesshownby
shadi
ngbehindt her
efl
ecti
ngsurface.

Ty
pesofr
efl
ect
ion

113
I
nvest
igat
ingLawsofr
efl
ect
ion

Thelawsofref
lecti
onaretr
ueforal
lref
lect
ingsurf
aces,f
orcur
vedmirr
orsas
well
asplanemirror
s(surf
aces)
.Aplanemirrori
smor esi
mpleandconveni
entt
o
use.

Appar
atus:
planemi
rr
or,
sheetofpaper
,pr
otr
act
or,
raybox/opt
ical
pins

Exptset
-up

REFRACTI
ON

REFRACTI
ON:isthebendi
ngofl
ightwhent
rav
eli
ngf
orm onemedi
um t
oanot
her
wit
hdif
fer
entopt
ical
densi
ti
es.

Ter
msusedi
nopt
ics

114
I
nci
dentr
ay:
ori
ginal
rayofl
i
ghtf
rom t
hesour
ceofl
i
ght

Ref
ract
edr
ay:
rayofl
i
ghtt
hathasbeenbentasi
tpassesbet
weenmedi
a.

Emer
gentr
ay:
rayofl
i
ghtl
eav
ingamedi
um af
terr
efr
act
ion.

Inci
dentangl
e(angl
eofinci
dence() ):angl
emeasur
edbet
weent
hei
nci
dentr
ay
andthenormall
ineatpoi
ntofi
ncidence.

Angl
eofref
ract
ion( ):anglemeasur
edbet
weent
her
efr
act
edr
ayandt
he
nor
mall
ineatpointofi
ncidence.

Emergentangl
e( )
:angl
emeasur
edbet
weent
heemer
gentr
ayandt
henor
mal
l
ineatpoi
ntofemer
gence.

Nor
mal:i
magi
nar
ydot
tedl
i
nedr
awnper
pendi
cul
arl
yatpoi
ntsofi
nci
dentor
emer
gence

FACTSABOUTREFRACTI
ON

1. Ar
ayofl
i
ghtbendsawayf
rom t
henor
mal
whenmov
ingf
rom an
opt
ical
l
ydensermedi
um t
oanopt
ical
l
ylessdensemedi
um.
2. Ar
ayofl
i
ghtbendst
owar
dst
henor
mal
whenent
eri
nganopt
ical
l
y
densermedium from anopt i
call
ylessdensemedi um.
3. Arayofli
ghtenteringalongthenor malisnotrefr
acted-goes
wit
houtanydev i
ation.
4. Arayofli
ghtincidentinsi
deadensermedi um atcri
ti
calangleis
ref
ract
edsucht hatiti
sper pendicul
artothatsurf
aceofincidence.
5. Theinci
dentrayisalway sparal
leltotheemergentray.

115
 DEMONSTRATIONOF
REFRACTION-
DETERMINATI
ONOF
REFRACTIVEI
NDEX(
n)

Mat
eri
als

I
ll
ustr
ati
on:
refract
ion
t
hroughaglassblock

Gl
assblock,
penci
l
,4opti
cal
pi
ns,
drawingboar
d,pl
ain
paper
,rul
erandapr
otr
act
or

Pr
ocedur
e:

1. Pl
acet
hepl
ainpaperonthedr
awi
ngboar
d
2. Pl
acet
hegl
assblockint
hemiddl
eoft
heplai
npaperandt
racei
ts
boundar
y(out
li
ne)usi
ngpenci
l
3. I
nser
topt
ical
pins1and2(
P1andP2)atanangl
eononesi
deoft
hegl
ass
bl
ocksucht
hatt
heyar
einast
rai
ghtl
i
net
othesur
faceoft
hegl
assbl
ock.
4. I
nser
topt
ical
pins3and4(
P3andP4)ont
heot
hersi
deoft
hegl
assbl
ock
sucht hattheyar einast r
aightl i
newi t
hi magesofP1andP2asseen
throught hegl assbl ock.
5. Remov ethegl assbl ockandt heopt i
cal pinsandj oi nposi ti
onsofP1andP2
withast r
aightlinetor epresentthei ncidentr ay( i
ncludeanar rowt oshow
dir
ect i
onoft heray )
6. Joinposi ti
onsofP3andP4wi thast r
ai ghtli
net or epresentt heemer gent
ray( i
ncludeanar rowt oshowdi recti
onoft her ay)
7. Tracet hepat hoft her ayinsidethegl assbl ockbyj oiningt hepointsof
i
nci dentandemer gencet ogetherusi ngast raightl i
ne-t hisrepresentt
he
refractedray .
8. useapr otractortodr awanor mal li
neatt hepoi ntofi ncidenceand
measur etheangl esofi ncidenceandr efraction
9. calculatether efractiv
eindexoft hegl assbl ockusi ngt heexpr essionbel
ow
speedofl ightint heai r
or n=
speedofl i
ghti nglass

116
REFRACTI
VEI
NDEXI
NTERMSOFREALDEPTHANDAPPARENTDEPTH

Ref
ract
ioncauses:

(i) Anobject(e.g.acoin)placedat
thebot tom ofacont ainerhol
dingwat er
toappearnear ert
hesur facethanitis.
(i
i) Object
s( e.
g.rulerorpencil
)to
appearbentwhenpl acedinacont ai
ner
hol di
ngwat er.
Thelightray sfr
om thepoi ntOoft hepencil
whichisr esti
ngont hebot tom ofthecontainer
arerefr
act edawayf rom thenor malN1andN2
asshown;t
hepenci
lappearsbentwhenv iewedf rom abovethe
sur
faceofwat
er.

Tolocatetheimageoftheobjectconst
ructi
onlinesar
edr
awn
st
raightbackwar
dfrom thepoint
sofemer gence.

(
ii
i)Bottom ofapool t
oappearnearthesur
facethani
tactual
lyis.
Theaboveexampl esgiveri
set
owhati sknownasrealandapparentdept
hsof
thewaterasil
l
ustratedbel
ow.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
real
andappar
entdept
hs

Ther ef
ract
iveindexofamaterial
(e.
g.
waterorglass)canbecalcul
atedusi
ng
realandapparentdepthsbyt
he
expressi
onbelow;

TOTALI
NTERNALREFLECTI
ON

Theangl
ether
aymakeswit
hthenor
mal i
nairi
sal
way
sgr
eat
ert
hant
heangl
eit
makeswit
hthenor
mali
nthemedium (
x>y )
.

Whentheangl
eofincidencei
nsidethemedium i
sincr
easedgradual
l
ytheangl
e
ofr
efr
acti
onal
soincreasesproport
ionat
ely
.Event
uall
ytheangl
eofrefr
act
ion

117
becomes90o.

Theangl
eofinci
denceinthedensermedi
um forwhi
cht
heangl
eofr
efr
act
ioni
s
90iscal
l
edthecri
ti
calanglec.(
refert
ofi
gur
eb)

Whent heangleofinci
denceinsi
dethedensermedium i
sgr eat
erthanthe
cri
ti
calangl
enolightcanescapefrothedensermedium andtheli
ghtrayi
ssai
d
tobetotal
lyi
nter
nallyref
lect
ed.(
refert
ofigur
ec)

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:cr
it
icalangl
eandt
otali
nter
nalr
efl
ect
ion

APPLI
CATI
ONOFTOTALI
NTERNALREFLECTI
ON

Tot
ali
nter
nal
ref
lect
ioni
susedi
nfi
breopt
icsei
theri
n

Afibreopt i
cismadeofhi ghquali
tyglassofhighrefracti
veindexcoat
edwitha
thi
nlay eroflowerr
efract
ivei
ndex.Ar ayofl
ightenteringtheendofthethi
nfibr
e
opti
ct hatstri
kesatanangleofincidencegr
eat ert
hant hecrit
ical
angl
eistot
all
y
i
nternallyref
lect
edalongthewholel engt
hofthef i
bre.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Fibr
eopt
ic

a)
. Communi
cat
ion-passi
ngsi
gnal
sasl
i
ghti
mpul
ses

118
 b)
. Medici
ne-usedtov i
ewinternalor
gansorconnect
edt
osur
gical
i
nst
rument stoenableoperati
onsofsuchorgans.
c)
. Per
iscope-vi
ewar oundobstacles
LENSESANDOPTI CALI NSTRUMENTS

Lensesaremadewi thagr eatofv ar

iet
yofshapesandordi f
fer
entki
ndsofgl
ass
buttheyallbelongt oeithertheconv erginggrouport hedi
vergi
nggroupof
l
enses.Theconv er
gingtypeofl ensconverges(bri
ngstoget
her
)raysofl
i
ghtand
thediv
ergi
ngtypediverges(spreadsout)raysofli
ght.

Ascanbeseeni nt
hefi
gurebel
ow,theconvergi
nglensesareallthickeri
nthe
centr
ethanatt
heedgewher
easthediv
ergi
nglensesareallt
hinnerinthecent
er
thanatt
heedge.

Lensshapes

Lensdef
ini
ti
ons

Thepri
ncipalaxi
sofalensistheli
nej
oini
ngt
he
cent
resofcurvat
ureofi
tssur
faces.

The opticalcentr
e ofa l ens L i
st he point
midway bet ween the lens surf
aces on i ts
pri
ncipalaxi
s.Rayspassingt hr
oughtheoptical
centerarenotdev
iated.

Thepri
ncipalf
ocusFofaconvergi
nglensi
sthe
pointt
o whichallraysinci
dentparal
leltot hepr
inci
palaxi
sconvergeaft
er
ref
ract
ionbythel
ens.Thi
sfocusisreal
.

Thepr i
nci
palf
ocusFofadi v
ergi
nglensi
sthepoi
ntfr
om whichal
lray
sincident
paral
lelt
othepri
nci
palaxi
sappeart
oconvergeaf
terr
efr
act
ionbythelens.This
focusisvi
rt
ual
.

Thefocall hfofal
engt ensi
sthedi
stancebet
weeni
tsopt
icalcent
reandt
he
pri
nci
palf
ocus.

NBAlenshastwopri
ncipalf
ocuses,
oneoneachsi
deofthelens.Whendrawing
r
aydi
agramsthepr
inci
palfocusFismar
kedonbothsi
deoftheprinci
pal
axis.

119
St
andar
dray
s

I
nr aydiagr
ams,anyt
wooft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
aysar
eneededt
ofi
xthei
mage
posit
ionandsi
ze:

1.Ar
aypar
all
elt
othepr
inci
pal
axi
spassest
hroughFaf
terl
eav
ingt
hel
ens.

2.Ar
ayt
hroughF’
leav
est
hel
enspar
all
elt
othepr
inci
pal
axi
s.

3.Ar
ayt
hrought
hecent
repassesst
rai
ghtt
hrought
hel
ens.

NB:

 Forsimpli
cit
y,r
aysar edrawnf r
om j
ustonepointontheobject
.Inr
eal
i
ty
raysarefr
om everydiff
erentontheobject
.
 Onlytworaysareneededt ofixwherethei
magei s.
 Forsimpli
cit
y,r
aysar eshownbendingattheli
net hr
oughthemiddl
eofthe
lens.I
nreal
it
y,bendingtakesplaceateachsur
face.
I
magesformedbyconv erginglens

Obj
ectO,
uses Raydi
agr
am I
magei

120
a)obet
weenFandL i
)vi
rt
ual

i
)magni
fyi
nggl
ass i
i)
erect

i
i)
inst
rumentey
e i
ii
)magni
fi
ed
pi
ece
i
v)onsame
i
ii
)Spectacl
es si
deoflensas
corr
ecti
onforlong- Oandfurther
si
ghtedness away

b)OatF

Producesaparal
l
el
beam ofli
ghtasi
na
spotli
ghtwit
hlamp Ati
nfi
nit
y
atO.

c)Obet
weenFand i
)real
2F
i
i)i
nver
ted

i
ii
)magni
fi
ed
i
)pr
oject
or
i
v)onopposi
te
i
i)micr
oscope si
deoflenst
o
obj
ecti
velens O,bey
ond2F.

i
)real

d)Oat2F i
i)i
nver
ted

i
ii
)Samesi
ze
asO.
Cameramaking
equal
sizecopi
es i
v )onopposi
te
sideofthel
ens
toO,at2F.

121
e)Obey
ond2F i
)real

i
i)i
nver
ted

i
)camer
a i
ii
)di
mini
shed

i
i)t
heey
e i
v)onopposi
te
si
deofl
ens,
bet
weenFand
2F.

Thi
sisdi
agr
am
c)r
ever
sed.

f
)Oati
nfi
nit
y i
)real

i
i)i
nver
ted

Object
ivel
ensofa i
ii
)di
mini
shed
t
elescope.
i
v)onopposi
te
si
deofl
ensat
F.

Thi
sisdi
agr
am
b)r
ever
sed

122
 COMMONPROPPERTI
ESofELECTROMAGNETI
C(WAVES)SPECTRUM

Ther
eexi
stsaf
ami
l
yofwav
esr
esul
ti
ngf
rom magnet
icandel
ect
ri
cf or
cesof
mattercal
l
ed
El
ectromagnet
ic
waves.

Thi
sfami
l
yof
wav
esi
scal
l
edt
heEl
ect
romagnet
icspect
rum.

Al
loft
hesewav
eshav
ethecommonpr
oper
ti
es

a)Theyar
eal
ltr
ansv
ersewav
es,
Theyt
rav
elatv
eloci
tyofl
i
ghti
nvacuum
( )
b)Theycanber ef
lect
ed,r
efr
actedanddi
ff
ract
ed
c) Theyobeythewaveequat
ion
NAMEAND
TYPI
CAL
SOURCES DETECTORS SPECI
ALPROPERTI
ES
WAVELENG
TH

*
ver
ypenet
rat
ing

Gammar ay
s Nucleiof Photographic *verydangerouswhenused
-
12
()10 m radi
oacti
ve fi
lm and withoutcontrol
atomsand Geiger-Mul
ler
*usedtkilldanger
ousgr
owthse.
g.
cosmic (GM )tube
cancercells
rays
*usedtf i
ndf l
awsinmetals.
Specialdetector
scanreveal
weaknessi namet al
.

*usedtosteri
li
seequipment
,they
cankil
lbacter
iaandv er
y
danger
ousmi cro-
organisms

*
verypenet
rat
ing,soover
exposur
e
t
othem canbev er
ydangerous
Phot
ographi
c
fi
l
m and *
usedtot
akeX-rayspi
cturesin
X-r s10-
ay X-
rayt
ube
10
fl
uor
escent ordert
odetectbonefr
actures,
lung
m

123
 scr
een di
seases,
stomachdi
seases

*
usedt
otr
eatski
ndi
sor
der
s

*usedt
ostudycr
yst
alstr
uctur
esi
n
soli
dsbyX-
raycr
yst
all
ography

*i
tisabsorbedbytheglassanda
consi
derableamountofthat
comingfrom thesunisabsor
bed
bytheatmosphere’supperl
ayer
s
whichcontainaveryl
arge
concent
rateofOzonegas.
Ultr
avi
olet Sun, ver
y *causesmanychemi calreactions,
radi
ati
on hot somemat eri
alsfluorescewhen
Photographi
c
(UV) objects, theyabsorbultravioletr adiati
on.
fi
lm,
electr
ic Forexampl e,washi ngpowder
10--8m phot
ocel l
arcsand contai
nchemi calswhi chf luoresce
fl
uorescent
sparks, whent heyabsor bUV, theymake
chemicals
mer cury clot
heslookwhi tert hanwhi tein
vapour dayli
ghtandgl owwhendi scol i
ght
s
l
amps stri
kethem.

*UVfrom t
hesunisusedbythe
ski
nt opr
oducevit
aminD,but
causessuntan.

*UVl ampsareusedinmedi ci
nefor
skintreat
ment,butexcessi
s
harmf ul
,andcancauseskin
diseasesanddamaget hereti
na.

*UVisfr
equent
lyusedtoki
ll
bact
eri
aandliv
ingcel
ls

*canbeusedagai
nstfraudin
i
dentif
yfal
sesi
gnatur
esi nbank
cheques

*essent
ialf
orphot
osy
nthesi
sand
plantgr
owth

124
Vi
sibl
eli
ght Sun,hot Phot
ographi
c *usedforcommuni cati
onsystems:
-
8
0.
6*10 m obj
ects, fi
lm,ey
eand l
asersandopt i
calfibr
es(ver
yt hi
n
l
ampsand phot
ocell
s glassr
ods,withinwhichli
ghtor
l
asers l
asercanbet otall
yint
ernal
ly
refl
ect
ed)

*usedinidenti
fyi
ngsubst
ancesi
n
chemistr
yf l
amet est
s

Special Ast het emperatur

erise,
anobj ects
photographic giveoutmor eandmor eI
R,the
I
nf ra-
red Sun,war m
fi
lms, wav elengthsbecomeshor tersince
radiati
on(I
R) andhot
semiconduct themol ecul
esvibr
atemor e
objects o
10-4m ordev i
ces vigorously.Atabout700 Ct he
suchas
suchasLDR radiationchangesint
ov i
sibleli
ght.
fi
res,
(l
ight
people, *usedforphotographythr
ough
dependent
animals hazeandfog,itisnotscatt
eredas
resi
storor
muchasv isi
bleli
ght.
photoresi
stor
)photodiode *usedtopr ov i
despecial
andskin i
nf or
mat i
on, suchasinfected
crops,contrastingvegetat
ionand
soonbymeansofphot ographs
takenbysat ell
ites

Mi crowav e *longandmedi um wav eswill

ov ens,TV diffr
actaroundahi llsothata
Aerial
s
andr adios, signalonar adiowav ecanbe
connectedto
Radi es t
owav r
ansmi tt
er detectedev enwhenahi l
lblocks
tunedelect
ri
c
susi ng thedirectroutefrom the
3m cir
cuiti
n
electri
c transmitt
ingaer i
al.
(Dif
fract
ionis
radi
oandTV
circuit
s whenawav epassest heedgeofan
sets
andaer i
als object)
wher e
Longandmedi um wavesar ealso
electrons
refl
ectedbylayersofcharged
aref orced
parti
clesintheeart
h’supper
toosci ll
ate
atmospher esothatlongdistance
receptioni
salsopossibledespite

125
 thecur
vatur
eoft
heear
th’
s
surf
ace.

*VHFandUHF( TV)wav eshave

shorterwavel
engt hs.Theyar enot
ref
lectedbyupperat mospher i
c
l
ay er
sandar ediffractedonly
sli
ghtlybyhil
ls.Goodr ecept
ions
areonlypossibleforst rai
ghtpaths
ofwav es.

*micr
owav esareusedf i
rcooking,
tel
ephone,satel
lit
es
communi cati
ons,radardetect
ion
ofships,
aircr
afts,missi
les…..

*
radiowavesar
eusedi
n
r
adioast
ronomy

Sound
Soundistheenergyproducedbyv
ibr
ati
ngsour
cese.
g.dr
um ski
n,gui
tarst
ri
ng,
coneofloudspeakeretc.

Thei
l
lust
rat
ionbel
owshowshowconeofal
oudspeakerpr
oducessound.

Thechangi ngalternati
ngcur rentf
rom theampl i
fiermakest heconet ov i
brate(i.
e.
pushingforwar dandbackwar dsrepeatedl y
).Whent heconepushesf orwardit
pushestheai rmol ecul
escl osetogether( ontoeachot her)creati
ngahi gh
pressur
er egioncal l
edcompr essi
on.Whent heconepul l
sbacki tcr eatesa
temporaryv acuum infrontofi t
.Airmol eculesthenspr eadi nt
othisv acuum
whichleadst oal owpr essureregi
oncal ledr ar
efacti
on.Thecont inuedv ibrat
ions
oftheconel eadt oaser iesofcompr essionsandr ar
efactionsasdenot edbyt he

126
“
C”sf
orCompr
essi
onsand“
R”sf
orRar
efact
ionsi
nthedi
agr
am bel
ow.

Thecompr essi
onsandrarefact
ionsevent
uall
yreachtheearandmakeit
s
consti
tuentpar
tstovi
bratethesameway .thebrainsensest
hesevi
brat
ionsand
i
nterpr
etthem asapart
icularsound.

Poi
ntsofnot
e

1.Thedirecti
onofvibrat
ionoftheloudspeakercone,hencetheair
moleculesthr
oughwhi chsoundt r
avel
s,isparal
lel
tot hedir
ecti
onof
9
propagati
on(tr
avel)ofthesound.Thussoundi sal ongit
udinalwav
e.

2.Soundt r
avel
sbypushi ngt ogether(compressing)orpulli
ngapar t
(decompressi
ng)t hepar t
iclesofamedi um throughwhichi ttr
avels.Soa
mat er
ial
medium i srequiredf orthetransmissionofsoundwav es.
3.Becausesoundt ravelsbycompr essinganddecompr essingparticlesofa
mat er
ial
medium, t
heni tsufficesthatsoundt ravel
sfastestinsolids.This
i
sbecausepar ti
clesofasol idarecloselypackedal r
eadysocompr essi
ng
anddecompr essingthem t akesashor t
erti
me.Soundt rav el
sslowestin
gases.Theor derofmagni tudeofsoundi nst atesofmat teri
sshown
below.

Exper
iment
:Speedofsoundi
nai
r

9
Al ongit
udinalwav eistheoneinwhichthedi
rect
ionofpropagat
ion(t
ravel
)ofthewav
ei s
parall
eltothedirecti
onofv i
brat
ionofthemedium t
hroughwhichi
tpropagates.Whenthese
di
rectionsareper pendi
culart
hewav eissai
dtobetransver
se.

127
Ai
m:t
odet
ermi
net
hespeedofsoundi
nai
r

Appar
atus

 St
art
er’
sgun( t
oprovi
dethesound)
 Measuri
ngtape(t
omeasur ethedi
stance)
 St
opclock(tomeasur
ethet i
me)
 Wall
(toactassoundbar
rier)

Set
-up;
theappar
atuswer
eset
-upasshownbel
ow,

Pr
ocedur
e

Thestar t
er’sgunwasposi t
ionedadi stance, d=200. 000m from thewall,
measur edusi ngameasur ingt apeandr ecorded.Thest ar
ter
’sgunwasf i
redand
thestop-clockst art
edatt hesamet ime.Thest op-
clockwasst oppedupon
heari
ngt heechof rom thewal l.Thet i
me, t,takenbysoundt ot ravelt
othewall
andbackwasr eadf rom thest op-clockandr ecorded.Thispr ocedurewas
repeatedfivet i
mesandt heav er agetime, <t>,takenbysoundt otrav
eltothewal
l
andbackcal culatedandr ecorded.Thedi stance, S,t
ravell
edbysoundt othewal
l
andbackwascal culatedfrom f ormul a,S=2d, andrecorded.Thespeedofsound,
v,wascal culatedf r
om formul a,v, andrecorded.

Resul
tsandAnal
ysi
s

Di
stanceoft
hest
art
er’
sgunf
rom t
hewal
l
,d= m

Di
stancet
rav
ell
edf
rom t
hewal
l S=2d=
andback, m

Tabl
eofr
esul
ts

Readi
ngno 1 2 3 4 5 Av
erage

128
t
imet t(
aken, seconds)

Di
scussi
ons

St
udentsaret
ocompletet
hetablebel
owbystat
ingt
hepossi
blesour
ce(
s)of
er
rorandthepr
ecaut
ionst
heytooktomini
miset
heeffect
sofsucher
ror
s.

Possi
blesour
cesofer
ror Pr
ecaut
ionst
aken

Paral
l
axerr
orinthe Alargedist
ancewasusedsothat
measurementofdi
stancef
rom percent
ageerrorduet
opar
all
axwill
besmal
l
thewall

Humanreact
iont
imei
nthe Sever
alr
eadi
ngswer
etakenandt
heav
erage
measur
ementofti
me used

Concl
usi
on

Thespeedofsoundi
nai
rwasf
oundt v=
obe, m/
s

Audibl
er ange
Notallsoundscanbehear
d.Onl
ysoundshavi
ngfrequenci
eswit
hinacer
tai
n
rangecanbeheard.Thi
srangei
scal
ledAudi
bleRange(audi
blemeanshear
-
able)
.

HumanAudi
bler
ange(
20Hzt
o20000Hz)

Theaudi
blerangeforhumansis20Hzt o20kHz.Thi
smeansthathuman
bei
ngscan’thearsoundshav
ingfr
equenci
eslesst
han20Hzorgreat
ert
han20
kHz.

Exampl
e1

Det
ermi
newhet
hersoundcanbehear
difi
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
requenci
es

129
 (v
) 4Hz
(vi
) 180Hz
(vi
i
) 40kHz
Sol
uti
ons

Soundcanbehear
d,i
ff(
ifandonl
yif
)it
sfr
equencysat
isf
iest
hei
nequal
i
ty20Hz

<f<20kHz

(
v) f=4Hz<20Hzsoi
t’
stool
owt
obehear
d.i
.e.i
twontbehear
d
(
vi) f=180Hzwhi
chf
all
swi
thi
nt ange20Hz<f<20kHz.Soundwi
her l
lbe
hear
d.
(
vi) f=40kHz>20KHzsoi
i t’
stoohi
ght
obehear
d.i
.e.i
twontbehear
d
Exer
cise

Det
ermi
newhet
hersoundcanbehear
difi
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
requenci
es

(
i) 1Hz
(i
i) 150Hz
(i
i
i) 2500Hz
(i
v) 70000Hz
(v) 3GHz
Experi
ment:HumanAudi
bleRange

Ai
m:t
odet
ermi
net
heaudi
bler
angef
orhumans

Appar
atus

 Powe rsupplyuni
t(tobeasourceofelect
ri
cit
y)
 Signalgenerat
or(t
ov ar
ythefr
equencies)
 Louds peaker(t
oproducethesound)
 Conne ct
ingwire(t
ocompletetheci
rcuit
)

Set
-up;
theappar
atuswer
eset
-upasshownbel
ow,

130
Pr
ocedur
e

Theappar atuswer econnectedasshownabov e.Thef requencyofthesi gnal

generator,f,wassett o10Hzandr ecorded.Thepowersuppl yswitchedonand
theloudspeakerl i
stenedt osoast odet er
mineifitproducesanyaudi blesound,
theresult
swer erecor ded.Thepr ocedurewasr epeatedwi t
hthefrequency
sett
ing,f,ofthesignal gener
atorincr
easedat1Hzi nterval
suntilt
hel oud
speakerpr oducedsomeaudi blesound.Thef requencyset t
ingofthesignal
generatorwast henv ariedbythesmal l
estdivi
sionwithineachpoweroft enunti
l
theloudspeakernol ongerproducedaudi bl
esound.

Resul
tsandAnal
ysi
s

Tabl
esofr
esul
ts

Fr
equency
,f ×1Hz

(
Hz) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3

Soundhear
d?

y
es(√)ORno
(
×)

Fr
equency
,f ×10Hz ×100Hz

(
Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 0

Soundhear
d?

y
es(√)ORno
(
×)

131
Fr
equency
,f ×1000Hz ×10000Hz

(
Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 0

Soundhear
d?

y
es(√)ORno
(
×)

Di
scussi
ons

Student
saretofil
li
nt het
abl
ebel
owbyst at
ingt
hepossi
blesour
ce(s)ofer
ror
andtheprecaut
ionstheyt
ooktomini
misetheef
fect
sofsucherr
ors.

Possi
blesour
cesofer
ror Pr
ecaut
ionst
aken

Concl
usi
on

Thehumanaudi
bler
angewasf
oundt
obe Hzt
o Hz

Audi
bler
angef
orot
herani
mal
s

Humanbei ngscanonl yhearsoundshav i

ngf r
equenci
esgreaterthan20Hzand
l
esst han20kHz.Thi sr ange,20Hzt o20kHz, narr
owsf ur
therwithage.
Howev er,
someani mal scanhearsoundshav i
ngmuchhi gherfrequenci
esthan
20kHz.Forexampl e,dogscanhearsoundshav ingfr
equenciesupt o50kHzi.e.
50kHz .Thusabur glaralarm setat40kHzwoul dalertaguarddogoft he
i
nt r
uder’
spresence.Thedogwi l
lheartheloudri
ngingofthealarm at40kHzbut
theintr
uderwil
lhearnot hing(completesil
ence).Batscanhearsoundsofev en
higherfr
equencies,
upt o150kHzi .
e.150000Hz .

132
133
 MAGNETI
SM

Amagneti
saobjectthatat
tract
scer
tai
not
hermat
eri
alswhi
char
emadef
rom
magnet
icmat
eri
als.

a.Magneti
cmat er
ial
Magnetsonl
yattractstr
onglycer
tai
nmater
ial
ssuchasi
ron,
steel
,
ni
ckel
,cobal
twhichar ecal
ledfer
ro-
magnet
ics.

b.Magneticpoles
Theseareplacesinamagnett owhichmagnet
icmater
ial
sare
att
ract
ed.Theyar eneartheendsofabarmagnetandoccuri
n
pai
rsofequal st
rength.

Note:Ther
ecanneverbeaonepoleexi
sti
ngonit
sown(monopol
e),
i
famagneti scuti
ntosmal
lpi
eceseachpiecewi
l
lhav
eit
sown
SouthandNorthpol
e.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Pol
esofabar
magnet

c.Nor thandSout hpole

Ifamagneti ssupport
edsot hatitcanswinginahorizont
alplanei
t
comest orestwithonepole,thenorth-
seekingpol
eorNor t
h(N)
polepoint
ingroughlytowardstheEar th’
snort
hpole,asouth-
seekingpoleorSout h(S)polepointi
ngtowardstheEart
h’ssouth
pole.Amagnetcant hereforebeusedasacompass.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Sout
handNor
thpol
es

d. Lawofmagnet i
cpoles
I
ftheNpol
eofamagneti
sbr
oughtneartheNpol
eofa

134
 suspendedmagnetr epulsi
onoccursi.
e.thesuspendedmagnet
mov esaway .Thetwosouthpolesalsorepel
.Bycont r
ast
,NandS
polesalway
sat tr
act.Thelawofmagnet i
cpolessummar i
sest
hese
factsandstatesthat:

Note:A magneti
cmat er
ialisatt
ract
edt obothSouthandNor t
h
polesofamagnetbyinducinganoppositepol
eont henearendof
themagneticmater
ial
.Thismeansat tr
acti
oncannotbeusedt o
deter
mi newhet
heranobjectisamagnetornot .Theonlyr el
iabl
e
testforamagneti
sREPULSI
ON si
ncesimil
arpol
eswoul drepeleach
other.

Li
kepol
esr
epelandunl
ikepol
esat
tract

Magnet
icandNon-
magnet
icmat
eri
als

Amagneti
cmat er
iali
sonewhichcanbemagneti
zedandisattract
edtomagnet
s.
Al
lst
rongl
ymagnet i
cmater
ial
scontai
nir
on,
nickel
,orcobal
t.Forexampl
e,st
eel
i
smainlyi
ron.

St
ronglymagneti
cmet al
sli
ket
hesear
ecall
edfer
romagneti
cs.Theyar
edescr
ied
ashardorsoftdependi
ngonhowwellt
heykeept
heirmagneti
sm when
magnetized.

135
Hardmagneticmat
eri
alssuchasst
eelandall
oyscal
ledAl
comaxandMagnadur
aredif
fi
cul
ttomagnet
izebutdonotreadi
l
ylosethei
rmagnet
ism.Theyar
eused
forper
manentmagnet
s.

Sof
tmagneticmateri
alssuchasironandMumet al
arerel
ati
vel
yeasyto
magneti
zebutthei
rmagnet i
sm i
st empor
al.Theyareusedinthecoresof
el
ect
romagnetsandtransfor
mersbecauset hei
rmagneticef
fectcanbeswit
ched
oorofforr
eversedeasil
y.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Har
dandsof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
al

I
ntheabov
edi
agramsitshowst
hati
roni
sasof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
alwhi
l
est
eel
is
ahar
dmagnet
icmater
ial
.

Non-magnet
icmateri
alscannotbemagneti
zedunlikemagnet
icmat
eri
als.
Thesei
ncl
udemetalssuchascopper
,brass,
zinc,
tinandalumi
nium.

MAGNETI
CPROPERTI
ESOFI
RONANDSTEEL

Pr
ocedur
e:

Ast
ri
pofi
ronandast
ri
pofst
eel
oft
hesamedi
mensi
ons,bothi
nit
ial
ly
unmagnet
isedareplacedsi
deby
sidei
ncontactwi
thapoleofa
magnetasshownbel ow.

136
Obser
vat
ions:

Bothstri
psbecomemagnet izedbyi nduct
ion,andondi ppingthei
rfreeendsinto
i
ronfil
ingsiti
snoti
cedthatslightl
ymor ecli
ngtot hei
ront hansteel
.Ifbothstr
ips
areheldfi
rmlyint
hefi
ngerswhi l
ethemagneti sremovedi tisnoti
cedthat
pract
ical
lyall
thei
ronfi
l
ingsf allf
rom their
onst r
ipwhil
ef ewf al
lfr
om steelst
rip.

Concl
usi
on:

I
roni
sasof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
alwhi
l
est
eel
isahar
dmagnet
icmat
eri
al.

I
NDUCEDMAGNETI
SM

Materi
alsl
ikeir
onandsteelareat
tractedt
oamagnetbecauset heythemsel
ves
becomemagnet izedwhenamagneti snearby.Themagnetinducessome
magnetism i
nthem.Theinducedpolenearestthemagneti
soppositeoft
hepole
ofthemagnet.

I
nducedmagnet
ism canbeusedt
ofr
om a‘
magnet
icchai
n’asshownbel
ow.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Inducedmagnet
ism

137
 DOMAI
NTHEORYOFMAGNETI
SM

Thedomai ntheoryofmagnet i
sm regardseachindi
vi
dual atom ormol eculeofa
magnet i
cmat eri
alasasmal lmagnetwi t
hnorthandsout hpole,i.
e.asadi pole.
Aclosegr oupofat oms( domain)mayhav ethemagnet i
caxi sinthesame
dir
ection(fi
g.a) .Gi
v enthattheheadsoft hearr
owsr epresentthenor t
hpol es,
theneteffectoft hedomai nisrepresentedbyasingl
ear row.Inanun-
magnet i
zedspeci ment heaxesinthedomai nsli
einclosedchai ns,orpoint
ingin
random directionstherebycanceli
ngoutorgi vi
ngverysmal lnetmagnet i
sm ( f
ig.
b).Whenal l t
hedomai nsareali
gnedinonedi r
ecti
ont hespecimeni smagnet i
zed
withthepol esneart heend( f
ig.c)
.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Domai
ntheor
yofmagnet
ism

MAGNETI
CSATURATI
ON

Notal
l t
hedipol
esandordomai nsofamagnet i
cmateri
alcanbeal
ignedinone
di
rect
ion.Thi
smeanst her
eisamaxi mum al
ignedofdomainsandordipol
esofa
magneticmater
ial
.Whennof ur
theral
ignmentofdipol
esispossi
blethemater
ial
i
ssaidtobemagnet i
call
ysatur
ated.

Met
hodsofMagnet
izat
ion

Therear
etwomet
hodsofmagnet
izat
ionwhi
char
etheel
ect
ri
cal
andst
roki
ng
methods.

138
a)
Elect
ri
cal
met
hod

Thebestmethodofmaki
ngamagneti st
ouset
he
magneti
ceff
ectofanel
ectr
iccur
rent
.

Procedur e:Asteel bari

sputinsi
deasol enoid(a
cyl
indricalconductingcoilwoundwith500ormor e
tur
nsofi nsul
atedcopperwi r
eisconnect edinseri
eswit
ha6or12Vel ect
ri
cal
batteryandswi tchedonasshownbel ow) .Ashor
tbutveryl
ar gepul
seofel
ectr
ic
currentthrought hesolenoi
dproducesast r
ongmagneti
cf i
eld.Thi
smagneti
zes
thesteel barbyal i
gningthemagneti
cdipol esi
ntheir
oncor e.

Ar
ulef
orpol
es:
TheRI
GHT-HANDRULE

Thepol ar
ityofthemagnetdependsonthedi r
ect
ionofflowoft heelectr
ical
curr
ent.Thisisdetermi
nedbytheright
–handr ul
e.Itst
atesthatifthefi
ngersof
theri
ght -
handgr i
pthesol
enoi
dinthedirect
ionofthecurrent(convecti
onal-
fl
ows
from posit
ivetonegati
vet
erminal
)theTHUMBpoi ntstotheNor t
hpole.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
TheRi
ght
-Handr
ule

b)
Str
oki
ngmet
hod

Twomet
hodscanbeused;

i
)Si
nglet
ouch:int
hismethod,
a(steel)baris
st
rokedf
rom oneendtoendsever
al ti
mesi nthe
samedi r
ection
withonepol e
ofamagnet
Between
successi
v estr
okest hepol
eisl
if
tedhigh
abovethebar ,otherwi
semagnet
ism alr
eady
i
nducedi nitwilltendt
obeweakened.

139
Thedi
sadvantageoftheabovemethodist
hatitpr
oducesmagnet
sinwhi
chone
pol
eisnearertheendofthebart
hantheother
.

i
i)
Divi
dedt ouchisbet
tert
hansingl
etouch.I
nthi
smethodt
he(steel
)bari
s
st
rokedfrom thecent
reoutwar
dswithunli
kepol
esoftwomagnets
si
multaneouslyasbel
ow.

NB:Thepol
arit
yproducedatthatendofthebar
(f
orbothmethods)wherethestr
okingf
ini
shesi
s
opposi
teki
ndtothatofthestr
okingpol
e.

DEMAGNETI
ZATI
ON

Anythi
ngwhi
chtendst
odi
sar
ranget
hepar
all
elmagnet
icdi
pol
esi
namagnetwi
l
l
reducei
tsmagnet
ism.

 Stor
ingamagnetwi t
houtkeeper swill
weakeni t
smagnet i
sm ov eraper i
od
ofti
me.
 Heatingamagnett oahight emper at
urecausesgr eat
lyi
ncreased
vi
brationsofit
satomswhi chwi ll
total
lydestr
oyanymagnet izati
onoft he
material.
 Droppingandknockingmagnet scandisarr
angetinymagnet i
cdipoles.
 Analternati
ngcurr
entinanel ectr
omagnetcanbeusedt odemagnet i
ze
magnet s.Thechangeindirecti
onofcur r
entdisorgani
zesthedipolesand
domai ns.

MAGNETI
CFI
ELDS

Thespacesurr
oundingamagnetwherei
tpr
oducesamagneti
cfor
cei
scal
l
eda
magneti
cfi
eld,andcont
ainssomet
hingwecal
lmagnet
icf
lux.

Magneticf
luxi
savectorquanti
tyand,
li
keal
lvect
ors,hasmagni
tudeand
di
rect
ion.I
tmayberepresent
edbymagneticf
il
edlines.

Di
rect
ionofMagnet
icFi
l
edLi
nes

140
Thedi
rect
ionoft
hefi
eldatanypoi
ntshoul
dbet
hedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orceonaN
pol
eanditcanbedet
erminedby;

a)Plot
ti
ngcompass
Apl
otti
ngcompassi
sasmal
lpi
vot
edmagneti
nagl
asscasewi
thnon-
magnet
icmetal
wall
s.

Pr
ocedur
e;

 Placeabarmagnetonasheetof
paperanddrawit
soutl
ine.
 Posit
iont
heplott
ingcompassnear
onepoleofthemagnetandmark dotsA
andB attheendofi
tsneedl enands
ei
poles
 Posit
iontheplotti
ngcopassneedl epol
eoriginall
yatAnowatB
andmar kwi t
hanot herdot( C)t
heposit
ionoft heotherneddl
e
pole.
 Conti
nuet oplotpointsinthedir
ecti
oni
ndicatedbyt heNpoleof
thecompassneedl eunti
lreachi
ngtheNpol eofthemagnet .
 Joinupthedot stoshowt he
magneticfiel
dlines.

b)I
ronf
il
ingmet
hod

Pr
ocedur
e;

 Placeasheetofpaperont opofabarmagnet
.
 Sprinkl
eir
onf i
l
ingsthi
nlyandevenl
yont
othepaper
.
 Tapt hepapergentl
y.
Obser
vat
ions:

Their
onfil
ingsshouldf
orm pat
ter
nsoftheli
nesoffor
ce.Eachfi
l
ingt
urnsi
nthe
dir
ect
ionofthefiel
dwhenthepaperi
stapped.Thi
smethodisqui
ckbutnouse
forweakfi
elds.

Ty
pical
Fiel
dPat
ter
ns

141
 a)Si
ngl
ebarmagnet

b)Combinedmagnet
icfi
eldduetotwonei
ghbour
ingmagnet
scanal
sobe
pl
ott
edtogiv
epatt
ernsliket
hoseshownbel
ow.

Infi
gur
ea,wheret
woli
kepol
esarefaci
ng
eachot
her
,thepoi
ntXi
scall
edneut
ralpoi
nt.

AtXthef
iel
dduetoonemagnetcancel
soutt
hatduet
oot
herandt
her
ear
e
nol
i
nesoffor
ce.

ELECTROMAGNETS

Anel
ect
romagneti
sacoi
lofwi
rewoundonasof
tir
onorMumet
alcor
e.

NB.I
fanelect
ri
ccurrenti
spassedthroughawi
re,
aweakmagnet
icf
iel
dis
pr
oduced.Thefi
eldhasthr
eefeat
ures:

 Themagnet
icfi
eldl
inesar
ecir
cul
ar
 Thef
iel
disstr
ongestcl
osetot
hewir
e

 Incr
easingt
hecurrentincr
easesthest
rengt
hofthefi
eld
Thedi
rect
ionofthemagneti
cf i
eldproducedbyacurr
enti
sgiv
enbyRI
GHT
HANDGRIPRULE, asonthefigureabove.

Acurr
entpr
oducesastrongermagneti
cfieldi
nasolenoidthani
nonestr
aight
wi
re.Themagneti
cfi
eldbyacurrent
-car
ryingcoi
lhasthesefeat
ures:

Thefi
eldi
ssimil
art
othatofabarmagnet
,andt
her
ear
emagnet
icpol
esatt
he
endsofthecoi
l
.

142
  I
ncreasi
ngt
hecur
renti
ncr
easest
hestrengthofmagneti
cfi
eld
 I
ncreasi
ngt
henumberoft
urnsonthecoili
ncreasest
hestr
engthoft
he
f
iel
d

Unlikeanor di
narypermanentmagnet ,an
electr
omagnetcanbeswi tchedonoroff.
Whencur rentflowsthrought hecoi
l,i
t
producesamagnet icfiel
d.Thismagnetizes
thecore,creati
ngamagnet i
cfi
eldabouta
thousandtimesst rongerthecoilbyit
sel
f .
Wi t
hani r
onorMumet alcore,t
hemagnet ism
isonlytempor ary
,andi slostassoonast he
curr
enti
sswi
tchedof
f.St
eel
wouldnotbesui t
ableasacor ebecauseitwoul d
becomeper
manentl
ymagneti
zed.

USESOFELECTROMAGNETS

a)Themagnet
icr
elay

WhentheswitchSintheinput
ci
rcui
tiscl
osed,acur
rentfl
ows

143
t
hroughtheelect
romagnet.Thi
spull
stheir
onarmatur
etowardsit
,whi
chcl
oses
t
hecontactsC.Asaresultthecur
rentf
lowsthr
oughthemotor.

b)Theci
rcui
tbr
eaker

Acir
cui
tbr eakeri
sanaut omati
cswitchwhi
chcut soff
t
hecurrentinacircuiti
fthi
sri
sesaboveaspecif
iedvalue.
I
thasthesameef f ectasafusebut
,unli
keafuse,canbe
r
esetafterithast
ripped.

Inthetypeshownher e,thecurr
entflowst hroughtwo
contactsandalsothroughanelectromagnet .Ift
he
currentgetstoohi
gh, t
hepulloftheelectromagnet
becomesst rongenought orel
easet heironcatch,sothe
contactsopenandst opthecurrent
.Pr essingthereset
buttonclosesthecontactsagai
n.

c)El
ect
ri
cbel
l

Anelectr
icbel
lcont ai
nsanel ectromagnetthatrepeat edlyswitchesit
sel
foffand
onrapidl
y,movingt hebellhammerasi tdoesso.Thear rangementiscall
eda
‘
makeorbr eak’cir
cuit.Wheny oupr esstheswit
ch, cur r
entf l
owst hr
oughthe
el
ectromagnet,whichpul l
sthehammeracr osssot hati tstri
kesthegong.The
movementsepar atesthecont actsandswi t
chesofft heel ectr
omagnet.Sothe
hammerspr i
ngsback, t
hecont actsclose,
theelect
r omagnetpul l
sthehammer
acr
ossagain…..andsoon.

144
USESOFPERMANENTMAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generat
ors
 Ammet er
 El
ectri
cdril
l

MAGNETI
CSHI
ELDI
NG

Magnet icmat eri

alsaffectmagnet i
cfieldinwhichitisplaced.Theli
nes
offorcear edrawnt owar dsthemagnet i
cmaterialasshownbel ow.For
diagramsa)andb)t hebarmagneti nducesmagnet ism i
nthesoftir
on
mat eri
als.I
ndi agr
am c)t hel i
nesofforcemov esal ongthemat er
ial
of
theironr i
nganddonotpasst hr
ought hespacei nthemiddleofthe
ri
ng.Apl otti
ngcompasspl acedinthemi ddl
eoft her i
ngdoesnot
experienceanymagnet icef f
ectofthebarmagnet .Thiseffecti
scall
ed
magnet icshieldi
ng.

145
 Exer
cises:

Q1.Thedi
agram bel
owshowsanel
ect
romagnetandIi
stheconv
ect
ional
cur
rent
fl
owingi
ntheci
rcuit
.

a)Whatisthemethodusedt olocat
et hepolesofthebarmagnetcal
l
ed?
b)Descri
bethemethodidenti
fiedabovein(a).
c)Usethemethodtolabelthepolesresul
ti
ngi nthei
ronbar
.
d)Whatfactor
saf
fectthestrengthofanelectromagnet?

Q2.Thediagr
amsbel
owshowt
hedi
rect
ionofmagnet
icf
orcebet
weent
woends
ofbarmagnet
s.

146
a)Whatarethepolar
iti
esat
(
i) ai s--
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
-pol
e
(
ii
) bi s--
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
-pol
e
b)Whatisposi
tionXcalled?
c)Descri
beandexplai
nwhatwoul dhappenwhenaf
ewi
ronf
il
ingsar
e
pl
acedatpointX.

d)Compl
etet
hefi
eldpatt
ernbet
weenthepol
esofbarmagnet
sbel
owby
i
ndi
cat
ingt
hedi
recti
onofthemagneti
cfor
ce.

Q3.Thediagr
am bel
owshowst
wosof
tir
onnai
l
shangi
ngf
rom t
heendofa
magnet.

a)Whatistheeff
ectthatthemagnet
hasonthenai
lscal
led?
b)Whatarethepolesatthefr
eeends
thenai
l
s?
c)Whatwouldhappenwhenanot her

147
 nai
li
sbroughtinver
yclosetothefr
eeendsofthenail
s?Expl
ain.
d)Whatisdif
fer
encebetweenthemagneti
cpropert
iesofir
onandsteel
?
e)Whatisl
ikel
ytohappenbetweenthefr
eeendsoft hei
ronnai
lsinthe
di
agram bel
ow?

f
) Whatar
ethepol
ari
ti
esat
(i
) ais-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-
pole
(i
i
) bis-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-
pole

Q4.Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowsamet
hodof
magnet
izi
ngast
eel
bar
.

a)Ont
hedi
agr
am abov
e
(i
)Showt hedi rection
ofthecurr
ent .
(i
i)Label
thenor t
hpol e
ofmagnetizedst eel bar
.
b) Expl ai
nhowy ouar rivedat
youranswert o(a)(
ii
).
c) St atetwousesofan
elect
romagnet .
d) Whatwoul dbet heef fectof
usi
ngasof
tir
onbari
nst
eadofst
eelbar?

Q5.
Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowsamet
hodofmagnet
izat
ion.

148
 a)Namet hemet hod.
b)WhatpoleisinducedatB?
c)Thediagram belowshowsabarmagnett
hati
st hencuti
nto
hal
ves.Labelthepolesoft
hehal
vesandexpl
ainhowy ou
arr
ivedatthelabel
ing.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Magnet
icscr
eeni
ngbysof
tir
onhol
l
owbox

Q6. a)Whati
smagnet
icshi
eldi
ngandt
hemat
eri
alused
i
nmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng?

b)St
ateoneappl
i
cat
ionofmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng.

149
 ELECTRI
CITY

ELECTROSTATI
C(STATI
CELECTRI
CITY)

All
mattercont
ainmanyelect
rons.Whensomeofthem ar
etransf
err
edf
rom t
hesurface
ofoneobjectt
othesur
faceofanother
,theypr
oducewhati
sknownasstat
icelect
ri
city
.

St
ati
cel
ect
ri
cit
yist
ransf
erofchar
ge(
elect
rons)

STATI
CCHARGE

Thi
sref
erstochar
gethati
snotmov
ing.Thechar
gei
sabsor
bedi
nmat
eri
alst
hathav
e
ver
yfewfreeel
ect
rons.

I
fasweat
eri
stakenoffacrackl
ingsoundmaybeheardand,
ifi
ndar
k,mayseespar
ks.
Aper
sonsomet
imesfeelsanelectr
icshockaf
terwal
ki
ngacr
ossanyl
oncar
pet.

Intheseexamplesy
ouhavebecomechar
gedbyfr
ict
ion(
rubbi
ng)
.Ther
eisat
ransf
erof
elect
ronsbetweenyouandy
oursweat
erory
ouandthecarpet
.

 I
famat
eri
algai
nsel
ect
ronsi
tbecomesnegat
ivel
ychar
ged.

 I
f el
ect
ronsar
elostt
hebodybecomesposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged.

TYPESOFELECTRI
CALCHARGE

Ther
ear
ety
pesofel
ect
ri
cal
char
ges,
namel
y;

a)Negativecharge(-
)-whi
chiscarr
iedbyanel
ectron.
b)Positi
vecharge(+)–whichiscarri
edbyapr
oton.
TheSIunitofchargeisthecoul
omb( C)
.Coulombi
st hequant
it
yofel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.The
symbolofchargeisQ.

Exampl
e

Ifapol
ytheneisrubbedwi thadusteri
tbecomesnegati
vel
ycharged(gai
nsel
ectr
ons),
buti
fanacet ateorperplexrodisrubbedwit
ht hesamedusteritbecomesposi
ti
vel
y
char
ged(loosesel
ectrons).Whydoesthi
shappen?

Expl
anat
ion

I
nanat om negati
vel
ychargedel
ect
ronsorbitasmallbutmassi
venucl
eusthatcont
ains
posi
ti
velychargedpr
otonsandunchargedneutr
ons.Thesizeoft
hechargeonan

150
el
ect
ronisequali
nsi
zet
ot hechargeonaprot
on.Ther
eareequal
numberofel
ect
rons
andprot
ons,soanat
om i
suncharged(el
ect
ri
call
yneut
ral
).

Therefor
e,whenpolythenei sr
ubbedwi t
hadust er
, el
ectronsruboffthedustermore
easil
ythantheyruboffthepolythene.Thepolyt
henet hereforegai
nselectr
onsand
becomesnegat i
vel
ychar ged.Thedusterlooseselectr
onsandbecomesposi ti
vel
y
charged.Howeverthedust eri
snotagoodi nsulat
orandel ectronsfr
om theeart
h
quickl
ypassthroughthehandt hatholdsitandneut r
ali
set heposit
ivechar
ge.

Exerci
se:Explai
nhowt heacet
aterod
acquir
esthepositi
vechargeandhow
andwhyt hedusterremains
uncharged(neutr
al)
.Usediagr
am b).

N.B.*
onlyel
ectr
onscanmov
e
betweenrubbedobj
ect
s.

*
rubbi
ngmater
ial
stoget
herdoesnotmakeel
ect
ri
cal
char
ge.I
tjustsepar
ateschar
ges
t
hatar
eal
readyther
e.

*
anegat
ivel
ychar
gedobj
ecthasat
omswhi
chhav
emor
eel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons.

*
aposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedobj
ecthasat
omswhi
chhav
efewerel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons.

For
cesbet
weenChar
ges

Pr
ocedur
e:

 Rubt wopol
ythenerodswit
hacl oth
 Balancet
hetwochar gedpoly
thenerodsonpivots.
 Bri
nganotherchargedpol
ythenerodnearonepol y
thenerodanda
chargedper
plexrodnearanotherchar
gedpoly
t henerod.

Obser
vat
ions:

Concl
usi
on:Likechar
gesrepel
;unl
ike
char
gesatt
ract(Thi
sstat
ementis

151
somet
imescal
l
edt
heLawofel
ect
ri
cchar
ges)

I
NDUCEDCHARGE(
ELECTROSTATI
CINDUCTI
ON)

Char
gesthat“appear
”onobj
ect
sbecauset
her
eisachar
gedobj
ectnear
byar
ecal
l
ed
i
nducedcharges.

Exampl
eofEl
ect
rost
ati
cInduct
ioN

Theexampl
ebel
owshowshowi
nducedchar
gemayr
esul
tinat
tract
ion.

Thediagram ont helef

tshowswhathappensi fapositi
vel
ycharged
rodisbroughtnearasmal lpi
eceofaluminium foi
l.Elect
ronsinthe
foi
larepull
edt owardstherodwhichleavesthebot t
om ofthefoilwit
h
anetpositi
vechar ge.Asaresul
t,thetopofthefoili
sat t
ract
edtot he
rod,whil
ethebott
om isrepel
led.Howev er,
theatt
racti
onisstrongerbecausethe
attr
act
ingchargesar
ecloserthant herepel
li
ngones.

Exerci
se:Dr
awt hearrangementofposi
ti
veand
negati
vechargesinthespheri
calbal
land
expl
aintheobservat
ionthusmade.

DETECTI
ONOFCHARGE

El
ect
rostat
icchar
gecanbedet
ect
edusi
ngagol
dleaf
el
ect
roscopeasshownbelow.

I
fachar
gedobjecti
splacedneart
hecap, char
gesareinducedin
t
heel
ectr
oscope.Thoseinthegol
dleafandmet al
plat
er epel
,so

152
t
hel
eafr
ises.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Gol
dLeafdet
ect
ingchar
ge

CONDUCTORSANDI
NSULATORS

Conductors:ar
ematerial
sthatletel
ectr
onspasst hem.Met al
sar ethebestel
ectri
cal
conductor
s.Someoft hei
relect
ronsaresol oosel
yheldtotheiratomsthattheycan
passfreel
ybetweenthem (metalsgeneral
l
yhav easeaofel ectr
ons).Thesefree
el
ectronsalsomakemet al
sgoodt hermalconductors.egsi
lver,gol
d,copper,
al
uminium

I
nsulat
ors:
Thesearemateri
alsthathardl
yconductatal
l.Theirelect
ronsaret
ight
lyhel
d
toatomsandarenotfr
eetomov e,
alt
houghtheycanbet ransfer
redthroughr
ubbing.
Carbonist
heonlynonmetalthatconductsel
ectr
ici
tyi
nt heform graphit
e.

Char
geDi
str
ibut
iononDi
ff
erent
-ShapedConduct
ors

Theamountofchar
get
hataccumul
atesatanygi
venpoi
ntonasur facedependsont he
curvatureatt hatpoint.
Thegr eat ert hecurvature
i
.e.thesmal l
erther adius,
thegreat ert hechar ge
concent rationatt hatpoi nt
.
Therei sther eforea
greaterconcent rati
onof
chargeatt hepoi ntedend
ofapear -shaped
conduct or .

Ef
fect
sofDischargi
ngof
Stat
icCharge

Acommonexampl
eofdi
schar
gingi
stheoccur
renceofl
i
ght
ning.

Atallbui
l
dingi
sprotectedbyali
ghtni
ngconductorconsi
stingofathi
ck
copperstr
ipontheoutsideoft
hebuil
dingconnecti
ngmet alspi
kesat
thetoptoametalplat
ei nt
heground,
figur
ebelow.

Thundercloudscarr
ychargesandanegativ
elychargedonepassing
overheadrepelsel
ectr
onsfrom t
hespikestotheearth.Thepoint
softhe
spikesareleftwi
thalargeposi
ti
vecharge(char
geconcent r
atesonshar
p

153
point
s)whi chremov eselect
ronsfrom nearbyairmolecul
es,sochar gingthem
posit
ivel
yandcausi ngthem tober epell
edfrom thespi
ke.Thi
seffect ,
call
edact i
onat
point
s, r
esult
sinan‘ el
ectri
cwind’ofpositi
veairmolecul
esstreamingupwar dsto
cancelsomeoft hechar geont heclouds.I
faflashdoesoccuriti
sl essv i
olentandt
he
conductorgivesitaneasypat htoground.

El
ect
ri
cfi
eldsandf
orces

Wehaveseent
hatachargedobjectcanaf
fectot
herobj
ectsnearbywi
thouttouchi
ng
t
hem.Thi
sacti
onatadistancecanbeexpl
ainedbywhatiscal
ledtheel
ectr
icfiel
dof
t
hechar
gedobject
.

Anel ect
ri
cchargesetsupanel ect
ricf
iel
dinthespacesurr
oundi
ngitandanel
ect
ri
c
forceisexer
tedonanychar gedbodyplacedonthefiel
d.El
ect
ri
cfiel
dsmaybe
represent
edbyelectr
icfi
eldlines.

 Anelectri
cfiel
dlinei
sal i
nedr awninanelectri
cfiel
dsucht hati
tsdir
ectionat
anypointgivesthedirectionoftheelect
ri
cfieldatthatpoint
.
 Thedirecti
onofanel ectricfi
eldatanypointisthedirect
ionoftheforceona
smallposit
ivechargepl acedatthepoint.
 Suchasmal l (
point
)posi ti
vechargewouldber epell
edbyposi t
ivechargeand
beattr
actedt onegati
v echarge.

El
ect
ri
cfi
eldofpoi
ntposi
ti
veandnegat
ivechar
ges

I
nter
act
ionofUnl
i
keandLi
kechar
ges

At
tract
ion r
epul
sion

154
 Unl
i
kechar
ges l
i
kechar
ges

Belowar
etwoparal
lelel
ect
rodeswi
thunli
kechar
ges,thearrowsshowt hedi
rect
ionof
theel
ect
ri
cfi
eld.Whenheelect
ri
cfi
eldsl
i
nearecloseritshowsastrongerel
ectr
icfi
eld.

155
Exer
cises

1.

2.

1. Twomet alspher essupportedbyi nsul

ating
standsarehel dincont actt oeachot heranda
negativ
elychar gedr odpl acednearspher eBasshown.
a) Drawt hei nducedchar gesi nbothspher e
andexpl ai
nhowt hischaredistri
but i
onr esult
s.
[5]
b) Thespher esaresepar atedbyt heirstands
whilethenegat ivelychargedr odi sinproximityof
spher
eB.Drawt
henetchargesi nthesepar atespheresaf tertheyar e
separ
ated. [4]

4.Aposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedr
odi
sbr
oughtneart
hecapofagol
dleafel
ect
roscopeasshown

156
bel
ow.

Onthel
eftsideofthediagr
am abovei
ndi
catebyadiagr
am t
hepossi
bleobser
vat
ion
madeandchar gearr
angementinthegol
dleaf
.Expl
aint
hearr
angementi
ntermsof
char
gemov ement. [8]

5.Thedi
agr
am showsal
i
ghtunchar
gedal
umi
nium bal
lsuspendedwi
than
i
nsul
ati
ngt
hread.Anegat
ivel
ychar
gedpl
atei
shel
dneart
hebal
l
.

Whathappenst
othebal
l
?

A I
tmov
est
owar
dst
hepl
ate.

B I
tmov
esawayf
rom t
hepl
ate.

C I
twi
l
lswi
ngt
oandf
ronextt
othepl
ate.

D I
tdoesnotmov
e.

6. Thedi agram belowshowsa

negat
ivel
ychar
gedst r
iphel
dneara
metalr
od,EF.

Whi
chst
atementcorr
ect
lydescr
ibest
he
mov
ementofcharge?

157
A.Theposi
ti
vechar
gei
nthechar
gedst
ri
pmov
est
owar
dsE.

B.Theposi
ti
vechar
gei
nthemet
alr
odmov
est
owar
dsE.

C.Thenegat
ivechar
gei
nthemet
alr
odt
owar
dF.

D.Thenegat
ivechar
gei
nthemet
alr
odmov
est
owar
dsE.

6.Anair
craf
tfl
i
esbel
owanegat
ivel
ychar
gedt
hundercl
oud.Mov
ementoff
ree
el
ectr
ons

causesel
ect
rost
ati
cchar
gest
obei
nducedi
ntheai
rcr
aft
.

a) Showt heposit
ionsandsignsoftheinduced
chargesontheai
rcraf
t.
[2]
b) Expl ai
n,i
ntermsoft hemov ementofelect
rons,
thedist
ri
buti
onofthechargesyouhav eshown. [ 1]

_
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___

c)Whatwil
lhappent
othei
nducedchar
geswhent
heai
rcr
aftf
li
esawayf
rom t
he
cl
oud? [
1]

158
 CURRENTELECTRI
CITY

CommonCi
rcui
tr
ysy
mbol
s

ELECTRI
CCURRENT

El
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sther
ateoff
lowofchar
georel
ect
rons.

 Theelectronsmov ef
rom negati
vet er
mi naltotheposit
iveter
minal.
 Themov ingelectr
onsarethelooselyheldorv alenceel
ectr
ons.
Thechargethatproducesatt
racti
onandr epulsionbetweenchargedobjectsal
so
produceel
ectri
ccurrent
swheni tfl
owsinconduct or
s.

159
El
ectr
icchargecanf
lowcont
inuousl
yonl
yroundunbr
okenconduct
ingpat
hscal
l
ed
cl
osedcircui
ts.

Thequant
it
yofel
ect
ri
cchar
geQi
smeasur
edi
nCoul
ombs(
symbol
C)

 -
19
1C =1/1.
6*10 elect
rons
1018el
 6* ect
rons=1C

Thesi
zeor‘
str
engt
h’ofanel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
,I,
ismeasur
edi
namper
es(
symbol
A).

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenIandQ

Cur
rent=Char
ge/t
ime

OR

I=Q/t

Acur
rentof1amper
eisaf
lowofchar
geatar
ateofonecoul
ombpersecond.

Exampl
e

I
fachar
geof180Cf
lowst
hroughal
ampev
ery2mi
nut
es,
whati
stheel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
n
t
hel
amp?

Q=180C

t=2mi
nut
es=2*
60s=120s

usi
ngI=Q/
t  I=180C/
120s =1.
5A

Abatt
eryci
rcul
ateschargeroundacir
cui
tfor30s.I
fthecur
renti
ntheci
rcui
tis5A,
what
quant
it
yofchargepassesthrought
hebatt
ery?

Q=I
t=5A*
30s =5C/
s*30s =150C

Cur
rentdi
rect
ion

Someci r
cui
tdiagr
amshavearr
owheadsmarkedonthem.Theseshowtheconventi
onal
curr
ent(I)dir
ecti
on:
thedi
rect
ionf
rom +t
o–r oundtheci
rcui
t.El
ect
ronsact
uall
yfl
ow
theotherway.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
dir
ect
ionofconv
ent
ionalcur
rent

160
TYPESOFCI
RCUI
TS

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofci
rcui
ts,
namel
y;

a)Seri
escircui
t:Aci
rcui
tthatcontai
nsonlyonepath.
b)Parall
elci
rcui
t:Aci
rcui
twithmor ethanonepat
h.
I
ll
ustr
ati
on:Seri
esandParall
elCir
cuit
s

Cur
rentMeasur
ement

Ammet er
s,asthei
rnamesuggest ,are‘
ampmet ers’
andmeasurecur
rentinamperes.
Theamper e(A)istheSIunitofcur r
ent.Thecur r
entmaybemeasuredwi t
hanammet er
placedinseri
eswithotherelectr
icalappl
iances.Anammet erhasal
owr esi
stance,
so
thatiti
ntr
oducesaslit
tl
eresistanceaspossi bl
einaci r
cui
t.

Rem:
thesy
mbol
forammet
eri
s

Anammet erhasbothnegat i
veandposi
ti
veter
minal
sandshouldbeconnect
edin
seri
eswit
hot herel
ectri
calcomponent
sobserv
ingpol
ari
ty.Ther
ear
eammet erswi
th
dif
fer
entr
angesasi l
lustr
atedbel
ow.

161
Measur
ementofCur
renti
nSer
iesCi
rcui
t

Connectt
heci
rcui
tasshownbel
ow.Measur
ecur
rentatdi
ff
erentposi
ti
ons(
1,2,
3,et
c).

Resul
ts:
Typi
cal
resul
ts

Posi
ti
on Cur
rent(
A)

Hence;
A=A1=A2=A3

162
Concl
usi
on:
Cur
renti
sthesameatev
erypoi
nti
naser
iesci
rcui
t.

Measur
ementofCur
renti
nPar
all
elCi
rcui
t

Connectt
heci
rcui
tasshowni
nthef
igur
eandmeasur
ecur
renti
nther
espect
ivepat
hs
andcomparet
hem.

El
ect
romot
ivef
orce(
e.m.
f)

Inacel
lorbatt
ery(
orothersour
cesofel
ectri
calener
gy)chemical
changest
akepl
ace
whi
chproduceener
gyneededtodri
vechargeroundtheci
rcui
t.

Theel ect
romotiv
ef orceisdefi
nedasthet ot
alenergyexpended( workdone)per
coulombofel ect
ricit
ywhenchar geisdri
venform negat
iveterminalt
opositi
vetermi
nal
i
nsidet hecel
l.Wor kisdoneagainstel
ectr
icfi
eldwhichisdirect
edf r
om posit
ive
ter
mi naltonegati
vet er
minal.

e.
m.fi
smeasur
edi
nvol
ts,
e.m.
fisnor
mal
l
ydenot
edwi
thE.

Ei
sal
way
sgr
eat
ert
hanVunl
essnochar
gef
lowsont
heci
rcui
t,whenE=V.

Ther
ei sastepofenergyfr
om thenegat
ivetotheposit
ivetermi
nalwhi
chi
sobtai
ned
fr
om thechemicalr
eacti
oninthecell
.Thi
sstep-upofenergyput
stheposi
ti
vet
erminal
atahighpotent
ial
diff
erencet
odr i
vethechargeroundthecir
cui
t.

Theenergypercoul
ombrequir
edtodri
vethechargefrom posi
ti
vet
othenegat
ive
ter
minali
ntheexter
nalci
rcui
tist
hepotent
ialdi
ff
erence(p.d)
.

163
Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence(
p.d)

Elect
ri
icpotenti
al,
workisdoneagainstel
ectr
icfiel
dwhenchargeismov edfr
om a
l
owerpot enti
all
evelt
oahi gherpot
enti
all
evel.Thedif
fer
encebetweenthetwolevel
sis
knownast hepotenti
aldif
ference(
p.d)orvol
tage,andismeasuredinv
ol t
s(V).

I
fonejoul
eofworki
sdonei
nmov i
ngonecoul
ombofchar
gebet
weent
wopoi
nts,
then
t
hep.dbetweent
hetwopoi
ntsi
sonevol
t.

OR

Thep.
dbetweentwopoint
sinacir
cui
tisonev
olti
fonej
ouleofel
ect
rical
ener
gyis
tr
ansf
err
edtootherf
ormsofener
gywhenonecoulombpassesf
rom onepoi
nttoot
her
.

i
.e.

Vol
t=Joul
e/Coul
omb

I
nsy
mbol
s

V=W/
Q {
ener
gyperuni
tchar
ge}

I
tfol
l
owsfr
om t
hedef
ini
ti
ont
hat
,if2Cofchar
gei
smov
edbet
weent
wopoi
nts,
2Jwor
k
i
sdone.

V=W/
Q but Q=I
t

Subst
it
uti
ngQ,
weget
;

V=W/
t*1/
I

Ther
efor
ep.
dmayal
sobedef
inedast
her
ateofdi
ssi
pat
ionofener
gyper

uni
tcur
rent.

OR

W =V*
I*t

164
Vol
tagesr
oundci
rcui
ts

a)Ser
ies

Thevol
tageatter
minal
sofabatter
yequal
sthesum oft
hevol
tagesacr
osst
hedev
ices
i
ntheexter
nalcir
cui
tfr
om onebatt
eryt
ermi
nalt
otheother
.

V=V1+V2+V3

b)Par
all
el

Thev
olt
agesacr
ossdev
icesi
npar
all
eli
naci
rcui
tar
eequal
.

V=V1=V2

165
C)Cel
l
sinser
ies

V=V1+V2+V3

Gr
eat
erv
olt
agesar
eobt
ainedbyconnect
ingcel
lsi
nser
ies.

d)cel
l
sinpar
all
el

Ift
wo1.5Vcel
lsar
econnect
edi
npar
all
elasabove,t
hev ol
tageat
ter
minal
sP,Qissti
l
l1.
5V butt
hear
rangementbehavesli
kealar
ge
cel
landwil
ll
astl
onger
.

Vol
tmet
ers

166
Av ol
tmeterisusedtomeasurethep. dbet
weentwopointsinacir
cuit
,soobvi
ouslyi
t
shouldbeplacedinparal
lel
(oracross)wit
hwhateveri
sbetweenthetwopoint
s.
Incl
udingthevolt
meterinacir
cuitmustnotal
terthep.
ditissupposedtomeasure.

Vol
tmeter
sli
keammetershavepol
ari
ty,
i.
e.+(red)oft
hevolt
met
eri
sconnect
edtot
he
+ofthepowersour
ce,
simil
arl
y–(bl
ack)ofthevolt
metert
othe–oft
hepowersour
ce.

Rul
e:avolt
met
ershouldhav
eav
eryl
arger
esi
stanceand
beconnect
edi
nparal
lel
.

Readi
ngv
olt
met
ers

Volt
meter
shav
edif
fer
entr
angesandscal
esdependi
ngont
heamountofv
olt
agei
tis
i
ntendedt
obemeasur
ed.

i
.e.

167
 Resi
stance

Electr
onsmov emor
eeasilythr
oughsomeconduct or
sthanother
swhenp.disappl
ied.
Theoppositi
onofaconductortocurr
entiscal
ledresist
ance.Agoodconduct
orhaslow
resist
anceandapoorconductorhashighresi
stance.

Ther esistancei swheretheelect

ronsgi
veupthep.
dtheycarr
yf r
om thebatt
ery(power
source) .E.g.theresi
stanceofalampcausest
heelect
ri
calenergytochangetoother
for
ms, suchasheatandl ight
.Ifalampfi
l
amenthadnoresi
stance,noenergychange
coul
doccuri nitanditwouldnotli
ghtup.

Exper
iment

Tit
le:
Inv
est
igati
onofOhm’slaw,
bymeasur
ingr
esi
stance
usi
ngammet erandvol
tmet
er.

Appar
atus:

168
  ammet er
 volt
met er
 rheostat
 fi
xedresister
 connect i
ngwires
 batter
y

Pr
ocedur
e:

 Arrangeappar atusasshownbel ow.

 Afterclosingtheswi t
ch,adjusttherheostat(
var
iabler
esi
stor)unti
lasuit
able
current,I
,isrecor dedont heammet er.
 Recor dbot hthisreadingandt hereadingsofIandV.suit
ablevaluesofIare0.2,
0.4,0.6,0.
8and1. 0A.
 Tabulatether esul t
sinat ableandcalculatet
hevalueV/I
.
 Plotagr aphofVagai nstI
 Drawaconcl usion

Resul
tsandanal
ysi
s

Vol
tage(
V)/
V Cur
rentI/
A V/
I=R(
Ω)

0.
2

0.
4

0.
6

0.
8

1.
0

Gr
aphofVusI

Gr
adi
ent=V/Iwhi
chi
sther
esi
stance.

Not
e:Ohm’
slawi
sR=V/I
.

169
Thet
hreequant
it
iesar
erel
atedasshowni
nthet
ri
angl
ebel
ow.

Theohm i
stheresi
stanceofaconduct
ort
hroughwhi
cht
hecur
renti
s1Af
lowwhent
he
p.
d.bet
weentheendsi s1vol
t.

Exampl
es

1.Ifacur
rentof4Afl
owst hr
oughacarheadl
ampwheniti
sconnect
edto12Vcar
batt
ery
,provi
dingavol
tageof12Vacr
ossthel
amp,whatisi
tsr
esi
stance?
Sol
uti
on:

2.Whatv olt
agewoul
dbeneededt
odr
iveacur
rentof0.
2At
hroughat
orchl
ampof
resi
stance22.
5 ?
Sol
uti
on:

3.Whati
sther
esi
stanceoft
her
esi
stor
?

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heResi
stanceofaConduct
or(
Wir
e)

170
 Ther
esi
stanceofaconduct
ordependsont
hreet
wof
act
orsorpr
oper
ti
es:

a)it
sdimensi
ons(l
engthandcrosssecti
onarea)
b)thet
ypeofmateri
alornatur
eofsubstance
c)temper
atur
e
Exper
iment
shaveshownthattheresi
stanceofawir
eofagi
venmat
eri
ali
s

(i
)directl
yproport
ionalt
othelength ie. .
I
tthereforef
ollowsthatalongwireshoul
dhav
emorer
esi
stancet
hanashor
twi
re
ofthesamemat er
ial.

(
ii
)Inv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
toi
tscr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaA,
ie .
Thismeanst hatathi
ckwi
rehaslowr
esi
stancewhi
l
eat
hinwi
rehashi
gh
resi
stanceofthesamemateri
al.

Combi
ning(
i)and(
ii
)gi
ves

wher
e:Ri
sther
esi
stance(
in )

(
in m )i
saconst
ant,
cal
l
edt
her
esi
sti
vi
tyofamat
eri
al.

Ai
scr
osssect
ional
area(
inm2)

i
shtl
engt
hofmat
eri
al(
inm)

Resi
stor
sinser
ies

Resistor
sshwonar einseries,t
he
samecur r
entIfl
owsthrougheach
andt hetotal
volt
ageVacr ossall
thr
eeequal sthesepar
atev olt
ages
acrossthem, i
.e.

V=V1+V2+V3 ……….
.1

ButVI=I
R1,V2=I
R2,V3=I
R3 ………….
2

Subst
it
uti
ngequat
ion2i
n1,
weget
:

171
 V=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3,
sinceRi
sthecombi
nedr
esi
stancewecanwr
it
e,

I
R=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3

Di
vi
dingbyIt
hroughoutweget
:

R=R1 +R2+R3

Resi
stor
sinpar
all
el

I
ngener
alt
heef
fect
iver
esi
stanceofr
esi
stor
sinpar
all
eli
sgi
venby
;

wher
eNr
epr
esentt
henumberofr
esi
stor heNthr
sort esi
stor
.

I
nter
nalResi
stance

Rem:Wor ki
sdoneagainstelect
ri
cfi
eldwhichinsi
det
hecellt
odri
vechargefr
om
negat
ivetoposi
ti
veter
minal.Therei
sther
eforesomeint
ernalr
esi
stancerofthe
el
ectr
olyt
ewithi
nthecell
.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Int
ernal
resi
stance,
r

Exer
cise

Thedi
agr
am bel
ow showst
hest
ruct
ureofamai
nsl
i
ght

172
bul
b.

a)Whateff
ectofelect
ri
cit
yisusedduri
ngbytheli
ghtbul
binoper
ati
on?
b)Wri
tethemainenergychangesint
hebulb?
c)Whati
st hepur
poseofusingacoil
edwirefi
lament?

COLOURCODEDRESI
STORS

Practi
calresi
stor
shav ecolourcodesr
epr
esenti
ngtheirv
alues.Thefir
stthreecol
our
s
st 2nd t r
d
givethe1 di gi
t, di giandt he3 numberofzer
os,thefourt
honei favai
labl
egiv
e
tol
eranceandnor mal l
y:sil
ver=10%,gol
d=5%, r
ed=2%andbr own=1%.

Summar
yoncol
ourcodesf
ror
esi
stor
s

ou 1stband=1st
±+col 2ndband=2nd 3rdband=
r digi
t digi
t zeros

bl
ack 0 0 none

br
own 1 1 one

r
ed 2 2 Two

or
ange 3 3 Thr
ee

y
ell
ow 4 4 Four

gr
een 5 5 Fi
ve

bl
ue 6 6 Si
x

v
iol
et 7 7 Sev
en

gr
ey 8 8 Ei
ght

173
whi
te 9 9 Ni
ne

Exampl
e:Whati
sthev
alueofar
esi
storcol
ourcodedv
iol
etgr
eenor
angegol
d?

Thev
alueoft
her
esi
stori
s750005%

Exer
cise:

a)Whati
sthev
alueofr
esi
storcol
ourcodedgr
ey whi
te whi
tesi
l
ver?

b)Gi
vet
hecol
ourcodeofa24M10%r
esi
stor
.

I/VGr
aphs:Ohm’
slaw

a)Met
all
icconduct
ors(
Ohmi
cconduct
ors)

Metal
sandsomeall
oysgiveI-
Vgr aphswhichareastrai
ghtli
net hr
oughtheori
gin,
so
l
ongastemper
atur
eisconstant.Ii
sdirect
lypr
oport
ionaltoVi.e.IαV.Doubl
ingV
doubl
esI
,et
c.Suchconductor
sobeyOhm’ slaw,st
atedasf ol
lows;

Thecur
rentt
hroughamet
all
i
cconduct
ori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hev
olt
age

acr
ossi
tsendsi
fthet
emper
atur
eandot
hercondi
ti
onsar
econst
ant
.

Theyar
ecal
l
edOhmi
corLi
nearconduct
orandsi
nce ,i
tfol
l
owst
hat
constant
.Theresi
stanceofanOhmi
cconduct
ort
her
efor
edoesnotchangewhen
vol
tagedoes.

174
b)Non-
Ohmi
cconduct
ors

Non-
Ohmi
c mat
eri
als hav
e a non-
li
near r
elat
ionshi
p’.One common semi
conducti
ng devicet
hathasnon-
li
near char
act
eri
sti
csi
sthej
unct
iondi
ode
(semiconduct
ors)

Theresistanceforthisdeviceisl
owf orcurrentsinonedi
recti
onandhighf orcurr
entsi
n
thereversedir
ection.Infact,mostmoder nelectroni
cdevi
ces,suchastransist
ors,hav
e
non-
linearcurrent–pot entialdi
ff
erencer el
ationshi
ps;t
heirproperoperati
ondepends
onthepar ti
cul
arwayIwhi chtheyvi
olateohm’ slaw.

Li
mit
ati
onsofOhmsl
aw

Ohmicr esistorswi ll
becomenon- ohmi cifthey
becomev eryhot ..Undernormal wor king
condi
tionsar esistorisohmi c,i
tsrésistancedoes
notdependont hecur rentorthep.d.appl i
edtoit.
I
ftoomuchcurrentf
lowst
hroughtheresi
stor,i
twi llbecomet oohotandi tsr esi
stance
wi
llst
artt
oincr
easeasshownbelow.

For‘
nor
mal
’cur
rent
s(0t
oX)t
her
esi
stori
sohmi
c(i
.ep.
d.i
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
toI
).I
f

175
thecurr
entexceedsX,t
heresi
storst
art
stoheatupandbecomenon-
Ohmi
c(i
.ep.
d.i
s
nolongerpr
oporti
onal
toI)
.

EXERCI
SES

1)St
udyt
heci
rcui
tbel
owandanswert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions.

a) Fi
ndI1andI3.
b) Fi
ndthep.d.across
(
i) R1,R2
c) Fi ndR1andR2.
2)Thefi
gur
esa)andb)belowshowsomeel ect
ri
cal
component
s
connect
edt
ogether
.Drawthesameci r
cui
tsusi
ngel
ect
ri
cal
sy
mbol
s.

176
 PRACTI
CALELECTRI
CCI
RCUI
TRY

ELECTRI
CPOWER

Poweri
stherat
eatwhichener
gyistr
ansf
ormed(
changedf
rom onef
ormt
oanot
her
).
TheSIuni
tofpoweri
sthewatt(W).

andi
nsy
mbol
s but

or or

177
Not
ethat

Emustbei
njoul
es,
Iinamper
esandVi
nvol
ts.

Exampl
es

1.Cal
cul
atet
hepoweroft
hel
ampi
ntheci
rcui
tbel
ow.

Sol
uti
on:

Tocalcul
atepowerofanel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ance,
mul
ti
plyt
hecur
rentIt
hroughi
tbyt
he
p.
d.acrossit
.

Thelampistr
ansf
err
ing60Jofel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
ntoheatandl
i
ght
eachsecond.

2.Howmuchel ect
ri
cal
ener
gyi
njoul
esdoesa100wat
tlampt
ransf
eri
n
a)1second
b)5seconds
c)1minute
sol
uti
ons:

178
 3.Whatist
hepowerofanappl
i
ancer
ated12V3A?
Sol
uti
on:

4.Howmanyj
oul
esofel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyar
etr
ansf
err
edpersecondbya6V0.
5A
l
amp?

Sol
uti
on:

3j
oul
esar
etr
ansf
err
edpersecond.

PAYI
NGFORELECTRI
CITY

El
ectri
cal
supplycompani
esuset
hekil
owat
t-
hour(
kWh)
,rat
hert
hant
hej
oul
e-second
asthei
runitofener
gymeasur
ement
.

Onekil
owat
t-
hour(kWh)i
stheener
gysuppl
i
edwhenanappl
i
ancewhosepowerr
ati
ng
1kW i
susedfor1hour
.

Ener
gyi
nki
l
owat
thour
siscal
cul
atedasf
oll
ows:

179
Not
e:1kJ=1kWh

Exampl
e:

Whati
stheener
gysuppl
i
edt
oa2kW heat
erusedf
or3hour
s?

Thecostofel
ect
ri
cit
y

Thecostofr
unni
ngi
ndi
vi
dual
elect
ri
cal
appl
i
ancescanbecal
cul
atedasf
oll
ows.

Not
e:auni
tofel
ect
ri
cit
y=1kWh.

Exampl
e:Theener
gycostperuni
tis10t
hebe.Cal
cul
atet
hecostofusi
ng

a)anelect
ri
cal
fir
erat
ed3kW f
or5hour
s.
Sol
uti
on:

b)550wbul
bsf
or12hour
s.

180
 c)a1200whai
rdr
yerf
or15mi
nut
es.

ELECTRI
CALHAZARDSANDSAFEUSEOFELECTRI
CITY

USESOFELECTRI
CITY

Thesear
esomeoft
hemanyusesofel
ect
ri
cit
y:

(a)Li
ghting
(b)Operati
onofmachines
(c)Securit
y
(d)Communi cat
ion(
e.gtel
ephones)
(e)
ELECTRI
CALHAZARDS

Thesearecondi
ti
onsandsi
tuat
ionst
hatmaket
heuseofel
ect
ri
cit
yunsaf
eor
danger
ous.

Themai
nel
ect
ri
cal
hazar
dsar
e: (
i)damagedi
nsul
ati
on

(
ii
)ov
erheat
ingofcabl
es

181
 (
ii
i)dampcondi
ti
ons

(
iv)ov
erl
oadi
ngofsocket
s

1.Ifcabl esar eworn( insul at

ionstrippedoff)andonl yafewst r
andsar ecarr
ying
current ,
thent heresi stancebecomesmuchhi gher.Thewirebecomeshotwhen
currentpassest hroughandcoul dcausef ire.
2.Ov erloadingofcabl esi softenduet oput t
ingt oomanyappl i
ancesinonemai ns
socket .Ifallappli
ancesar eusedatonce, t henal argecurr
entwi l
lfl
ow,whichwi l
l
over heatthecabl e,leadi ngt ofi
reoutbreak.
3.Dampcondi ti
ons:Ify ourhandorbodyi swet ,thebodyresistancedecreases.If
yout hent ouchabar ewi rethecur r
enti
sl ikelytof l
owthroughy oucausingeither
sev erebur ningorhear tattack.Forthi
sr eason, toil
etorbathroom swit
chesar e
eit
herpul lcordsorout sidether oom.
ELECTRI CALSAFETY

FUSE

Sy
mbol
:

Funct
ion:Topr
otectappl
i
ancesf
rom excessi
ve(
over
loadof
)cur
rent
.

Howi tworks:Af useisawi r

emadeofamat erialwithlowmelti
ngpoi nt
.Ifafuseispart
ofthecir
cuit
,themet alwil
lev entuall
ymeltasi toverheatsduetoi ncr
easeincurrent,
andbreakthecircuit
.Currentwi l
lthenstopf l
owi ngbecauseoft hegapwhi chresult
s
ther
eaft
er.Fusesmustbeconnect edtotheLivewi re.Thisensuresthatwhent hefuse
melts,t
heappl i
anceisisolatedf rom theli
veter minal.

FUSERATI
NGS

Plugsarenormall
yfit
tedwit
h3Aor13Afuses.Theval
ueprint
edont
hefusetel
lst
he
valueofcurr
entneededto“bl
ow”(
melt
)thefuse.Afuserat
ed3Awil
lmeltwhena
currentof3Afl
owsthroughit
.Afuserat
ed13Awi l
lmeltwhenacur
rentof13Afl
ows
throughit
,andsoon.

Not
e:Thevalueofthef
useshoul
dalwaysbemor
ethant
heact
ualcur
rentdr
awnby
t
heappli
ance,butascl
oseaspossi
ble.

THEEARTHWI
RE

Funct
ion:saf
etyandpr
event
ionofel
ect
ri
cal
shocks.

Howitwor
ks:Mostappl
i
ancesareconnect
edtot
hewir
ecal
ledtheEARTHWI RE.One
endoft
heear
thwir
eisconnect
edtothemetal
caseoft
heappli
ances.Theot
herendi
s

182
connect
edv
iat
hewal
lsocket
stot
hemet
alpi
peout
sidet
hehouse,
thent
othegr
ound.

Theearthwir
epr ovi
desapat hofzeroelectr
icalresi
stancefrom t
hecaseoft he
appli
ancetotheground.Iftheearthwireaccidental
lytouchesthemet alcaseofthe
appli
ance,al
argecur rentwil
lfl
owt hr
ought heear t
hwi r
eandt hefusewi l
lmelt
,
i
solati
ngtheappliance.Wi t
houttheearthwirethecasewoul dbecomel iveandanyone
touchi
ngitwouldhav eadangerouselectr
icshock.

DOUBLEI
NSULATI
ON

Mostmoder nappl
i
anceshaveplasticcases.Ther
eisnori
skofgett
ingshockfrom a
pl
asticcasesi
nceiti
saninsul
ator.Suchmat er
ial
saresai
dtohaveadoubleinsul
ati
on
because:

(
i) Thel
iveandneutralwi
resar
ecover
edinaninsul
ati
ngsheet
(pl
ast
ic)
(
ii
) Theappl
iancei
tselfi
scover
edbyaninsul
ati
ngcase.

THETHREEPI
NMAI
NSPLUG

Thet
hreepi
nmai
nspl
ughast
hreepi
nsconnect
edt
oLi
ve,
Neut
ral
andEar
thwi
res.

Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowsacor
rect
lywi
redt
hreepi
nmai
nspl
ug.

LI
VEwir
e(Iti
sbrowincolour
):Thisisthemostdangerouswi
rewhi
chcar
ri
esand
bri
ngsalt
ernat
ingcurr
ent(a.c.
)atahi
ghv ol
tage.

NEUTRALwi re(Iti
sBl ueincolour)
:Aft
ert
he
appl
iancethecurrentflowsthroughthe
neut
ralwir
e.Thev olt
agei szerointhe
neut
ralwir
e.Itcompl etesthecir
cuit
.

183
EARTHwire(I
tisGreenorGr
eenwit
hYellowstri
pesi
ncol
our
):I
tconduct
scur
rentl
eaks
i
ntothegroundandst
opsel
ectr
icshocks.

Thedi
agram abov
eshowshowt
hewi
resoft
het
hreepi
npl
ugf
iti
ntoanel
ect
ri
cal
appl
i
ance.

AHOUSEELECTRI
CITYSUPPLY

Thehousehastwoort hreeringmaincircuits,whichsupplyallthewallsocket
s.On
eachri
ngmainthereusuallyabouttensocket s.Not i
cethatal
lthesocketsareinparall
el,
sotheful
lmainsvol
tagei ssuppl
iedtoev erythi
ngt hati
spluggedi nt
othesocket.The
advant
ageofusingaringmai ncir
cuiti
st hatcurrentcanf l
owtwoway sint
oapar ti
cul
ar
socket
.Sotheconnectingwirescanbethi nner,becausetheycar r
yasmal l
ercurrent

184
t
hant
heywoul
ddoot
her
wise.

Inaddit
ionthel
i
veandneut
ral
wir
es,
ther
ingmai
nci
rcui
tcar
ri
esanear
thwi
re(f
or
safet
yreasons)
.

Thelightsofahousehavet
hei
rowncircui
t.Againeachli
ghtf i
tt
ingi
sinparal
lel
,sot hat
eachlightbul
brecei
vest
hemainsvolt
ageof240V.Li ghtbulbsdrawasmal l
current
(about0.4Afora100W bul
b)soabouttenli
ghtscanbesaf elyrunt
hrougha5Af use.

Not
e:al
lfusesar
econnect
edt
othel
i
vewi
re.

Faul
tfi
ndi
ng

Whenanappl
iancestopsworkingi
tmaybeduet oafaul
tthati
seasytorect
if
y.Bef
ore
r
unni
nghel
terskel
terlooki
ngforatechni
cian,
iti
swi
setotrytodi
agnoseafault
.

Di
agnost
icst
eps;

 Checkthattheappli
anceisswitchedon.
 Checkthatthepowerison,.Doot herappli
anceswor k
 Checkthefuse.Ifi
tisbl
ownr eplaceit.I
fthenewf useblowscheckforashort
ci
rcui
t.
 Checkthattheplugiscorr
ectl
yconnect ed,withnoloosewir
esoruntidyst
rands
ofwir
est i
ckingout.
 Checkthatthecableconnecti
ont otheappl i
anceisfi
rm
 Checkthattheinsul
ati
onisingoodcondi tion.I
fitl
ookswornortornrepl
aceit
wit
hasi mil
arcable.

I
faft
erchecki
ngal
ltheabov
e,t
heappl
iancei
sst
il
lnotwor
king,
takei
ttoat
rai
ned
t
echni
cian.

185
 ELECTROMAGNETI
CEFFECTS

El
ect
romagnt
icI
nduct
ion

1)I
nducede.
m.f
.andcur
renti
namov
inga)wi
reandb)
coi
l

Whenawi rei
smov edacrossamagnet i
cfield,asshownbel ow,asmal l
e.m.
f(vol
tage)
i
sgener atedi
nt hewire.Theeffectiscall
edELECTREOMAGNETI CINDUCTION.Stri
ctl
y
speaki
ngwesay‘ ane.m.fisinducedi nt
hewi r
e’.I
fthewi ref
ormspartofacomplete
ci
rcuit
,thee.m.fmakescur r
enttofl
owandcanbedet ectedbyagalvanomet
erwhichis
sensi
tivetosmal l
currents.Thepointermov est otherightorl
eftoft
hezerodepending
onthedi r
ecti
onoft hecurrent.

Not
e

186
Thei
nducede.
m.forcur
rentcanbei
ncr
easedby
:

 mov i
ngt hewirefast
er
 usingast r
ongermagnet
 i
ncr easingthelengthofthewir
einthemagneti
cfi
eld–forexampl
e,byl
oopi
ng
thewi rethroughthefiel
dsever
alt
imes,asshownabove.

2)I
nducede.
m.f
.andcur
renti
nacoi
lduet
oamov
ingmagnet

I
fabarmagnetispushedi
ntoacoil,asshownbelow,ane.m.fi
sinducedint
hecoil
.In
t
hiscase,
iti
sthemagneti
cfi
eldthatismovingr
atherthanthewir
e,butther
esul
tsare
t
hesame; magnet
icf
il
edli
nesarebeingcut.

Thei
nducede.
m.forcur
rentcanbei
ncr
easedby
:

 mov i
ngthemagnetfast
er
 usi
ngast r
ongermagnet
 i
ncreasi
ngthenumberoftur
nsofthecoi
l
(ast
hisi
ncr
easest
hel
engt
hoft
hewi
re
cut
tingt
hroughthemagneti
cfi
eld)

Di
rect
ionofi
nducedcur
rent

Thedi
rect
ionoft
hei
nducedcur
rentdependsont
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors.

 t
hedirecti
onofmot i
onoft
hewire
 magneticfi
elddir
ecti
on
Thedi
rect
ionofcurrentcanbepr
edi
ctedusi
ngFLEMI
NG’
SRI
GHTHANDRULEas
shownint
hedi agr
am below.

187
Not
e

Exper
iment
swi
tht
hemagnetandt
hecoi
lhav
eal
sogi
vent
hef
oll
owi
ngr
esul
ts

 Ifthemagneti spul l
edoutoft hecoil
,thedir
ect
ionoftheinducede.m.f(and
current)i
sreversed.
 IftheSpol ei susedr athert
hantheN poleispushedintothecoil,t
hisalso
reversesthecurrentdi
recti
on.
 Ifthemagneti sheldstil
l,nomagnet
icfi
ledl
inesarecut
,sothereisnoinduced
e.m.forcurrent
.
GENERATORS

Mostoft heel
ect
ri
cit
ycomesf rom hugegener at
orsi
npowerst at
ions.Ther
earesmall
generat
orsincar
sandsomei nbi cycl
es.Thesegenerator
s,ordy namos,alluset
he
el
ectromagnet
ici
nducti
on.Whenturned,theyinduceane.m.
f(volt
age)whichcanmake
curr
enttofl
ow.Mostgenerat
orsgiv
eoutal ter
nati
ngcurr
ent(a.
c.)

ASI
MPLEA.
CGENERATOR(
alt
ernat
or)

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
A.Cgener
ator

188
Asimplea.
cgeneratorconsi
stsofarect
angul
arcoi
lbet
weenthepol
esofamagnet.
Theendsofthecoilarejoi
nedtoatwosl i
pri
ngsontheaxl
e.Car
bonbrushespr
ess
agai
nstt
hesli
pri
ngs.

Howi
twor
ks

Thefi
gureabov eshowsthedesignofav erysi
mplealter
natingcurrent(a.c.)gener
ator.
Byturni
ngtheaxl eyoucanmakeacoi lofwiremov ethrough(cut)amagnet icfi
eld.
Thi
scausesav ol
tage(EMF)t obeinducedbetweent heendsoft hecoil(thismakesa
cur
renttofl
ow) .Thesli
pringsarefi
xedt othecoilandrotatewithit.Thebr ushesar e
twocontact
swhi chrubagainstt
hesli
pr i
ngsandkeept hecoilconnectedtot heout
side
par
tofthecircuit
.

Youcanseehow t hev
olt
agewav
efor
m,pr
oducedbyt
hisgener
ator
,looksonan
osci
l
loscopescr
een.

189
  Inpositi
on(i)t hecoi li
sv erti
calwi thABandCD.I nthisposit
ionthesidesCD
andABar emov i
ngpar all
elthemagnet icfi
eld.Nov ol
tageisgener at
edsi
ncet he
wiresarenotcuttingacrossthemagnet i
cfi
eldli
nes.
 Whent hecoi lhasbeenr otatedt hrougha¼ t urntoposi ti
on(i i),thecoil
producesitsgreatestvolt
age.Nowt hesidesCDandABar ecutti
ngthr
ought he
magnet i
cfiel
datt hegreatestrate.
 Inposit
ion(ii
i),thecoili
sagai nv er
ticalandnov olt
ageispr oduced.
 Inpositi
on(i v)amaxi mum v oltagei sproduced,buti ntheoppositedi
recti
on.
SideABi smov i
ngupwar dsandsi deCDdownwar ds.

Thef
oll
owi
ngal
li
ncr
easet
hemaxi
mum EMF(andcur
rent)
:

 I
ncreasi
ngt henumberofturnsint
hecoi
l
 I
ncreasi
ngt heareaofthecoil
 Usi
ngast rongermagnet
 Rot
atingthecoilfast
er

Fast
err
otat
ional
soi
ncr
easest
hef
requencyoft
hea.
c.

THETRANSFORMER

Sy
mbol
:

Functi
on:Toincr
ease(stepup)ordecr
ease(
stepdown)
vol
tagesuppl
i
edt oappl
iances.

St r
uctur
e:A transformerismade up oft wo colsof
insulat
edcopperwi rewrappedar oundal aminatedsof
t
iron core.An alter
nati
ng currenti s suppl
ied tothe
pr
imar
ycoi
landanal
ter
nat
inge.m.fandcurr
entisinducedinthesecondar ycoil
.

190
I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Transf
ormer

Howi
twor
ks:Thet
ransf
ormerhast
wocoi
l
swoundar
oundt
hesamei
roncor
e.

Theprimar
ycoili
sanelect
romagnet:ifanalt
ernat
ingcurrentf
lowsthr
ought hecoi
la
magneti
cfi
eldi
sproducedarounditandtheir
oncor ebecomesmagnet i
zed.Sincet
he
cur
renti
sconst
antl
ychangi
nginsizeanddir
ecti
on,thefi
eldisal
soconst
antlychangi
ng.

Thesecondarycoi
liswoundar oundthesamei r
oncor e.Thechangi
ngmagneticfi
eld
fr
om t
heelectr
omagnetinducesane.m.finthesecondarycoi
l.Thei
nducedcur
rentwil
l
al
soalt
ernat
ebecausethefiel
disalwayschangi
ng.

Note:thet
ransfor
meronl
yworkswhenanal ter
nati
ngcurr
enti
ssuppli
ed.Theoutput
e.
m. fandcurr
entwil
lal
sobealt
ernat
ing,andwiththesamefr
equencyasthesupply
cur
rent.

St
ep-
upandst
ep-
downt
ransf
ormer
s:

Whenthepr i
mar
yandsecondar
ycoil
shaveexactl
yt hesamenumberoft
urnst
he
out
putvol
tagewi
l
lbeexact
lyt
hesameast
heinputv
oltage.

I
fthesecondary(output)coilhasmoret urnsthant hepri
mary(
input
)coiltheoutput
vol
tagewi
llbehigherthantheinputv
oltage.Thet r
ansfor
merhasi
ncreasedthevol
tage.
Thi
st y
peofatransfor
meri scall
edastepupt ransfor
mer.

I
fthesecondar
y(output)coi
lhasfewert
urnsthanthepri
mary(i
nput
)coiltheoutput
v
oltagewi
llber
educed.Thist
ypeoftr
ansf
ormeriscal
ledast
epdowntransf
ormer.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Stepup/
downt
ransf
ormer
s

191
Thet
ransf
ormerEquat
ion

Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hev
olt
agesandnumberoft
urnsi
nthecoi
l
sisgi
venby
;

Example:At
ransf
ormerhas1000t
urnsont
hepr
imar
ycoi
land2500t
urnsont
he
secondar
ycoil
.

(
a)I
sthisast epuporst
epdowntransf
ormer?Stepup
(
b)I
fthetransfor
merisusedona220Vmai nssuppl
y,whatwi
l
lbet
heout
put
v
oltage?

Sol
uti
on;

Theout
putvol
tagewi
llbe550V.

Cur
rentChangesi
nTr
ansf
ormer
s

192
Ifatr
ansf
ormeris100%ef f
ici
ent,
theel
ect
ri
calpowerinputi
nthepr
imar
ycoi
lwi
l
lbe
equal
toel
ectr
icalpoweroutputt
hatcomesoutofthesecondar
ycoi
l.

I
naSt epUpt
ransfor
merthevoltagei
sincreased.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hecur
rentmustbe
r
educedinor
derfortheequat
iontoremainbalanced.

I
naStepDowntr
ansfor
merthevol
tageisreduced,
sot
hecur
rentmustbei
ncr
easedi
n
or
derf
ort
heequati
ontoremai
nbalanced.

Thef
ormul
acanber
ear
rangedt
ogi
ve;

Exampl
e:

A100%eff
ici
entt
ransf
ormeri
ncr
eases25000Vt
o400000V.Thecur
renti
nthe
pr
imar
ycoili
s200000A.

a)Whattur
nsrat
ionisneeded?
Rat
iooftur
nsinsecondarycoi
ltot
urnsi
npr
imar
ycoi
li
s

Ther
ati
oofNst
oNpi
s16t
o1

i
e

b)Whati
sthei
)poweri
nputandi
i
)powerout
put
?
i
)

193
 6
not
e:M =Mega=10

i
i
)thet
ransf
ormeri
s100%ef
fi
cienthence;

Thepowerout
puti
s500MW

c)Howmuchcur
rentf
lowsoutoft
hesecondar
ycoi
l
?

1250Af
lowsoutoft
hesecondar
ycoi
l
.

d)Whati stheadvantageofst
eppi
ngupt hev ol
tageinpowert
ransmissions?
Thisreducescurrentandmakesitcheapertotransf
erpowerusingthinnerand
l
ightercablesasopposedtoheavier,
thickandexpensi
vecablesneededf or
tr
ansmi ssi
onofpowerathighcurrent.

Not
e:

 Ifv
oltagei
sincr
eased,curr
entmustdecreaseandvisav
ersa.
 Ifv
oltagei
sdoubled,
currenti
shalved.I
fvolt
agebecomes10timessmal
l
er,
curr
entbecomes10t i
mesgr eat
eretc.

194
 RADAI
TIONPHYSI
CS

RADI
OACTI
VITY

Radioacti
vi
tyi
sthespontaneousemissi
onofradi
ati
oninthefor
m ofpar
ti
clesorwav
es
(el
ectromagnet
icr
adiat
ion),orbot
h,bysomeunstabl
enuclei
.

Whydounst
abl
enucl
eidi
sint
egr
ate?

Radioacti
vedecayi
sthel
ossofpar
ti
clesf
rom unst
abl
enucl
eusi
nor
dert
oachi
eve
greaterst
abil
it
y.

I
fanucl
eusi
sunst
abl
eitmaydecayby
;

 Losi
nganal
pha( α)part
icl
e
 Losi
ngabeta(β)part
icl
e
 Somenucl
earchangeswhi chpr
oducegamma(
γ)r
ays

ALPHA( )DECAY

Anucl
eusemit
ti
nganalpha( )part
icl
elosest
woprotonsandtwoneut r
ons.The
par
ti
clei
sposi
ti
vel
ychargedsi
ncei
tsimil
artot
hehel
i
um nucleus.Ther
efore;

 t
heatomicnumberZdecreasesby2
 t
hemassnumberAdecr easesby4
 t
heneutr
onnumberNdecr easesby2
Al
phapar
ti
clei
snotthatpenet
rat
iveandcaneasi
l
ybest
oppedbycl
othi
ng.

Al
phar
adi
ati
oncanbedef
lect
edbyel
ect
ri
candmagnet
icf
iel
dsbecausei
tischar
ged.

Thedecaycanbegener
all
ywr
it
tenas;

Exampl
e:Showt
hedecaypr
ocessofRadi
um 226t
oRadonbyemi
tt
inganal
phapar
ti
cle.

195
BETA( )DECAY

Theotherpar
ti
cleemissi
onisbet
adecay.Whenanucl
eusgoest
hroughbet
adecay
,a
neut
ronchangesint
oapr ot
onandanelect
ron.

Theelect
ronleavesthenucleusatver
yhighspeedwhi l
etheprotonstaysinthenucleus.
Asaresultbetaparti
clesar
emor epenetr
ativet
hanalphapart
icl
es.Thebet apart
icl
es
canhowev erbestoppedby3mm ofal uminium oranymetal
.Sincebeta-par
ti
clesare
negat
ivel
ychargedtheycanal sobedefl
ectedbyelect
ri
candmagnet i
cf i
elds.

Not
e: -
par
ti
clesar
efastmov
ingel
ect
rons.

Thechangeofneut
ront
opr
otonandel
ect
roncanbe
shownasfol
lows;

Not
e: -
decayi
ncr
easest
heat
omi
cnumberby1.

Theat
omi
cmassoft
hepar
entnucl
eusdoesnotchange

Thegener
alequat
ionf
orbet
adecaycanber
epr
esent
edas;

Exampl
e:Showt
hedecaypr
ocessofI
odi
ne-
131decay
ingt
oXenonbybet
adecay
.

GAMMA( )RADI
ATI
ON

Gammar aysareverypenet
rativ
e, shor t
wavel
engthelect
romagneti
cr adiation.
Alt
houghiti
sreduced,gammar adi ationis
notst
oppedbyev enthi
ckpiecesofl ead.

196
Gammar adi
ati
oncannotbeaf
fect
edbyel
ect
ri
candmagnet
icf
iel
dsbecauset
heyar
e
notchar
ged.

Theatomicnumberandatomicmassofanucl
eusunder
goi
nggammaemi
ssi
ondoes
notchangeonl
yenergyi
slost
.

Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowst
hepenet
rat
ivepowerof , and r
adi
ati
ons.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Penet
rat
ivepowerof , and r
adi
ati
ons

DEFLECTI
ONbyELECTRI
CandMAGNETI
Cfi
elds

Thebehavi
ourofthethreeki
ndsofradi
ationinmagneticf
iel
dissummar i
zedbel
ow.
Thedefl
ecti
onsarefoundbyFlemi
ng’slefthandrul
e(taki
ngnegati
vechargemovi
ng
fr
om t
her i
ghtasequival
entt
oposit
ive(conventi
onal
)curr
enttothelef
t)

I
ll
ustrat
ion:
Defl
ecti
on
by
Magnetic
fi
eld

Note:Beta-
parti
cles
ar
edefl
ectedmoret
hant
heal
pha-
par
ti
clesbecausebet
a-par
ti
clesar
eli
ght
erthant he
al
pha-
part
icl
es.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Def
lect
ionbyEl
ect
ri
cfi
eld

197
 Al
pha( )
-par
ti
clesandbet
a( )
-par
ti
cles
aredeflect
edbyelectr
icfiel
dasshownabov e.
The - parti
clei
srepell
edbyt heposi
tiv
ely
chargedplateandatt
ractedtothenegativ
ely
chargedonebecauseit( )i sposit
ivel
y
charged.The - par
ti
cleissimil
arl
yrepell
ed
bythenegat
ivel
ychargedpl
ateandat
tract
edt
heposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedonesi
nei
tis
negat
ivel
ycharged.

BACKGROUNDRADI
ATI
ON

Ther
eisasmal
lamountofr
adi
ati
onar
oundusal
lthet
imebecauseofr
adi
oact
ive

mat
eri
alsi
ntheenv
ironment
.Thi
siscal
l
edbackgr
oundr
adi
ati
on.I
tmai
nlycomes

f
rom nat
ural
sour
cessuchast
her
ocks,
soi
l
,ai
r,bui
l
dingmat
eri
als,
foodsanddr
inks

andev
encosmi
cray
sfr
om space.

DETECTI
ON

Al
lthet
hreety
pesofr
adi
ati
oncanbedet
ect
edbyaGei
ger
-Mul
lert
ubeusi
ngt
hei
r
i
oni
singeff
ect.

Ioni
singef f
ect:I
felectr
onsbecomedet achedfrom molecul
einagas,ions(charged
part
icles)areproducedandt hegasisionised.Themol ecul
eswit
hmissingelectrons
arethepositiv
ei ons;
detachedelect
ronsj oi
nont oothermolecul
est
of orm negativ
e
i
ons.Asi onsinagasar efr
eetomov e,ani oni
zedgascanconductelectri
cit
y.

Whentheradi
ati
onfrom theradioact
ivesourcei
smeasured,t
hereadi
ngalsoi
ncl
udes
anybackgr
oundradi
ati
onpr esent.Soanav er
agereadi
ngfort
hebackgroundr
adi
ati
on
al
onemustbealsobef oundandsubt ract
ed.

I
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Gei
ger
-Mul
ler(
GM)t
ube

Themicaor“wi
ndow”isthi
nenought
oalleventhealphapart
icletopasst
hrough.
Whenanyoftheradi
ati
onenter
sthet
ubeiti
onizesthegasinside.Thi
sset
soffahigh-
vol
tagespar
kacr
ossthegasandapulseofcurrenti
nthecir
cuit.

Arat
emetercanbeconnectedt
ogivecountspersecondofradi
ati
on.Ascal
eronthe
ot
herhandgi
vesthet
otalnumberofpart
icl
esorburstofgammar adi
ati
ondetect
edby

198
t
het
ube.

Summar
y(page267compl
etephy
sics)

Pr
oper
ti
es Al
pha-
par
ti
cle( ) Bet
a-par
ti
cle( ) Gamma-
ray
()

Nat
ure: Posi
ti
vepar
ti
cle Negat
iveel
ect
ron El
ectr
omagnetic
waveofveryshort
wavel
ength

(
hel
ium nucl
eus)

Af
fectedby yessi
ncei
tis yessi
ncei
tis nobecauseofno
magneti
cand char
ged char
ged char
ge
el
ectr
icfi
elds?

notthat penetrati
vebut verypenetrati
ve
penetrat
ive-
easi
ly canbest oppedby canber educed
Penet
rat
iveef
fect
stoppedbypaper fewmm of butnotev en
orskin aluminium or stoppedbyt hick
othermet al l
ead

St
rengthof v
eryst
rong weak v
eryweak
i
onizat
ion

Danger
ous? y
es Yes yes(usedt okil
l
l
ivi
ngcel l
se. g.
microorganisms)

Speed: 10%speedofl
ight 50%speedl
ight Speedofl
ight

Det
ect
ors: Phot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm Phot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm Phot
ogr
aphi
cfi
lm

Cl
oudchamber Cl
oudchamber Cl
oudchamber

199
 Spar
kcount
er GM t
ube GM t
ube

Gol
d-l
eaf
el
ect
roscope

Thin-
windowGM
tube

USES

 Radioacti
vetr
aceri
n
Medici
ne:AsmallamountofIodine-
123isinj
ectedi
ntothepati
entandthi
swoul
d
beextr
actedbybothki
dneysandl at
erpasswithuri
ne.Theki
dneywhichshowsa
const
antcountr
ateof -part
iclesisbl
ocked.

Agricult
ure:radi
oacti
vefer
ti
li
zerscanbeinj
ectedinplant
sandthei
reff
ect
(absorpti
on)assessed(monit
ored)andusedtoproducebett
erf
erti
l
izer
s.

Det
ect
ingl
eaks:(e.
g.wat
er/
oilpi
pe)
;Abetaemi
tteri
sinj
ect
edi
ntot
hepipel
i
ne.
Any -par
ti
clesemit
tedwoul
dbeabsorbedbyt
hesoilwher
eas -r
ayswoul
dpass
t
hrought
hepi
pemat
eri
al.The –par
ti
clesar
epenet
rat
iveenought
ogot
hrough
t
hepi
peandsoi
landbedet
ect
edbyaGM-
tubedet
ect
or.

 Industr
ialUses
St
eril
isi
ng:

Gammar ayscanbeusedtoki
l
lbact
eri
a,moul
dandi
nsect
sinf
ood,
evenaf
tert
he
foodhasbeenpackaged.

Gammar aysar
eal
sousedt
osteri
li
zehospi
talequi
pment
,especi
all
ypl
ast
ic
syr
ingest
hatwoul
dbedamagedbyheati
ngthem.

Cancercel
lsi
nthepat
ient
’sbodycanbeki
ll
edbycar
eful
useof -
ray
s.Cobal
t-
60
i
susedasasour
ceof -
ray
s.

Thicknesscont r
ol:Bet
a-parti
clescanbeusedt ocont r
olthethi
cknessofpaperi
n
papermi l
l
sbymeasur i
ngt heamountofbet aradi
ationthatpassthoughthepaper
totheGM count er.Thecountercontrol
sthepressureoft herol
l
erstogivet
he
correctt
hickness.Inpaper,pl
asticoral
uminium factory
, - par
ti
clesar
eused.Ina
sheet
-st
eel
fact
ory -
ray
sar
eused,
why
?

200
 Smokedet ect
ion:smokealarmscontainaweaksourceofAmer ici
um-241.
thi
s
emits -parti
cleswhi
chionizetheair
,sothati
tconduct
selectr
icit
yandsmall
curr
entfl
ows.Ifsmokeentersthealarm,i
tabsorbs -part
icl
es,thecurr
entfl
owst
o
soundthealar
m.

Fl
awdet
ect
ion:
ifa -
ray
ssour
cei
spl
acedononesi
deofawel
dingorcast
ingand
aphotogr
aphi
cfi
l
m ont
heot
hersi
de,
weakpoi
ntsorbubbl
eswi
l
lshowont
hef
il
m
l
ikeanX-r
ay.

Radioacti
vedating:
uranium- 238i
nrocksdecaytoleadandt heamountoflead
presentcanbeuseddet erminetheageoftherock.Carbon-
14f oronce-
li
vi
ngandi
ts
decaying(hal
fli
fe5700y rs)canbeusedtodatebones, wood,paperandclot
h.

Producti
onofElect
ricit
y:Thenucl
eusofUr ani
um-235split
sand2neutronsare
emitt
ed.IfeachneutronhitsaUrani
um-235nucleustheyintur
nspl
iti
nachai n
react
iongiv
ingmoreneut r
ons.Thi
sspli
tt
ingiscal
lednucl
earfi
ssi
onandrel
eases
hugeamountofenergy.

I
nanuclearpowerst
ati
onthi
senergyisusedt
oboi
lwat
ert
ost
eam t
hatcant
urn
t
urbi
nesi
ngenerat
orstopr
oduceel
ectr
ici
ty.

DANGERSOFEXPOSURETORADI
ATI
ON

Thedangerofexposur et
oAlphapart
icl
esissl
i
ghtsincet
heyar
etheleast
penetr
ativ
e, butoncei
nthebodycancauseser
iousdamagetocel
lsduetothei
r
great
erionizingeff
ect
.

Largedosesofbetaandgammar adiat
ioncancauseradi
ati
onbur
ns.Gamma
radi
ationcanpenet
ratedeepi
nthebodyanddestroycell
sdeepi
nsi
dethebodyor
causecellst
omul t
ipl
yuncont
rol
l
ablyformi
ngcancerordamagechromosomes
causinggeneti
cdefects.

HANDLI
NGandSTORAGEofRADI VEMATERI
OACTI ALSi
nLABOATORY

Radi
oacti
vemateri
alsshoul
dalwaysbehandl
edcar
eful
l
yandst
oredsaf
elyt
hough
l
aborat
orysamplesemitlowlev
elsofr
adi
ati
on.

Handl
ing:

 Handler
adioact
ivemat er
ial
swit
hforcepsorspeci
algl
oves.
 Keepawayf r
om eyes.
 Donotpointsour
cet owardsanyper
son.
St
orage:

201
  Keepthesamplesinspecial
boxesl
inedwit
hlead
 Stor
eboxesinalockedcupboard
 Onespeci
fici
ndivi
dualshoul
dcontr
olthecupboar
dkey
s

DANGERSOFNUCLEARWASTESANDDI
SPOSAL

Theuseofradi
oacti
vemat eri
alsal
waysinv
olv
est hepr
oducti
onofradioact
ivewastes.
Thewastesfr
om nuclearf
issi
oncantakehundredsofyear
stobecomesaf e.Ifnot
di
sposedofsafel
ytheradi
oactivewast
esmayposet hefol
lowingdangers:

Danger
s:

 Comei nt
ocont actwithhumanscausi
ngcancerandgenet
icdef
ect
s
 Findit
swayi nt
opl antli
feandendi
nfoodchai
ns
 Getinmar i
neplantsandgetintomari
nefoodchai
ns
 Spil
lduri
ngtransportat
ioncasi
ngdi
saster
Di
sposal
:

 Low-l
evel
wasteisburi
edunder
groundorrel
easedi
ntot
hesea.
Hi
ghgradewast
efrom nucl
earpowerstat
ionsi
s

 buri
eddi
susedsal
tmi nesori
ngranit
ecaves
 beddedi
nconcreteanddumpedi ndeepoceans
 stor
edatspeci
alf
actori
esforr
e-pr
ocessi
ng

202