Framework of Digital Lean Construction and

Implementation of Its Management Platform

for the Construction Phase
Gang Liu 1; Zhiliang Ma 2; Jiayi Li 3; Songyang Li 4; Xinhui Zhou 5; and Yinhao Song 6

Abstract: In order to solve the problem of lack of appropriate tools in the lean construction of construction projects, a framework of digital
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lean construction is proposed as a whole, and its management platform is implemented for construction phase by integrating lean construction
with digital technologies. The concept of digital lean construction is proposed, its management model is constructed and refined, and the
corresponding management platform is implemented for the construction phase. The framework is verified by holding an expert workshop
and applying the management platform to typical construction projects. The research contributes not only to the establishment of the theo-
retical foundation to upgrade lean construction, but also to accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean construction. Two
directions of future research are expected, i.e., to enhance the integration of the lean tools and digital technologies and clarify the transition to
smart lean construction. DOI: 10.1061/JCEMD4.COENG-14164. This work is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Practical Applications: Due to the complexity of lean construction and the lack of tool support, its widespread application have not been
found significantly up to now. The development of digital technologies provides a potential solution to address this issue. Based on the
integration of lean construction and digital technologies, a framework that includes management models and a management platform for
digital lean construction was established in this paper. Then, a management platform was developed and applied to verify the management
framework. It facilitates not only the efficient collaboration of the participants, but also the easy application of lean principles in the
projects. The framework is expected to enhance quality, reduce management costs, and improve management capabilities in the projects.
It provides a theoretical foundation for lean management and digital transformation upgrades of enterprises to drive changes in construc-
tion industry production methods and the corresponding management practices, promoting the high-quality development of the construc-
tion industry.
Author keywords: Digital lean construction; Framework; Management model; Management platform.

Introduction
The construction industry carries out production and business ac-
tivities around construction projects. Normally, construction proj-
ects have the characteristics of long construction cycle, large capital
investment, scattered locations, multispecialty, and multiple partic-
ipants. Due to such characteristics, they are highly complex and
1
Graduate Student, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing
100084, China. Email: liug@glodon.com
2 to the construction industry, although “lean construction” had not
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing 100084,
China (corresponding author). Email: mazl@tsinghua.edu.cn
3
Graduate Student, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing
100084, China. Email: lijiayi22@tsinghua.tsinghua.edu.cn
4
Graduate Student, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua Univ., Beijing
100084, China. Email: skuyinlee@gmail.com
5
Senior Manager, Institute of Digital Buildings, Glodon Co. Ltd., Building
13, No. 10 Xibeiwang East Rd., Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
Email: zhouxh@glodon.com
6
Chief Specialist, Institute of Digital Buildings, Glodon Co. Ltd., Building
13, No. 10 Xibeiwang East Rd., Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
Email: songyh@glodon.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 28, 2023; approved on
January 17, 2024; published online on April 10, 2024. Discussion period
open until September 10, 2024; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction En-
gineering and Management, © ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364.
uncertain, making them prone to such issues as project delays, cost
overruns, quality defects, and safety accidents.
The lean principles of manufacturing industry have the poten-
tial to improve the situation when they are used in the construction
sector. In a retrospective examination of history, the Lean Construc-
tion Institute (LCI) uncovered their successful application during the
construction of the Empire State Building in 1931 (Merker 2018).
Danish scholar Lauris Koskela drew parallels between the con-
struction and manufacturing industries, recognizing their inherent
similarities (Koskela 1992). He proposed that effective manage-
ment practices from manufacturing could be adapted and applied
yet been explicitly coined (Koskela 1992). In 1993, Glenn Ballard
discussed the advantageous implications of substituting traditional
construction approaches with lean construction to enhance the
performance of engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC)
projects (Ballard 1993). However, he did not delve into a compre-
hensive definition of lean construction in his paper.
Building upon existing research findings, in 1999, Gregory A.
Howell formally defined lean construction as a novel construction
production management approach, with fundamental characteris-
tics such as clearly defined delivery goals, the pursuit of maximiz-
ing customer benefits, parallel design and production processes, and
comprehensive production control throughout the building’s entire
life cycle (Howell 1999). In 2000, Lauris Koskela introduced the
transfer-flow-value (TFV) theory, which emphasized the transfor-
mation process within lean construction flow and the elimination

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 of waste (Koskela 2000). This theory laid the theoretical foundation
for subsequent lean construction research, ushering in a period of
rapid theoretical exploration and practical application development
within the lean construction field (Koskela 2000).
Lean construction is aimed to realize value maximization and
waste reduction through a systematic, synergistic, and continuously
improved design and building processes and flows (Sbiti et al.
2021). As a result, a large number of lean construction techniques
have been developed for design and engineering, planning and
control, construction and site management, and health and safety
management (Bablola et al. 2019). However, their application in
real construction projects can only rarely be seen due to their com-
plexity of application and the lack of integrated tools.
Based on the literature review presented in the next section, it is
expected that the way toward smart lean construction is a gradual
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and long process, with digital lean construction representing an
intermediate stage resulting from the amalgamation of digital tech-
nologies and lean construction. Hence, it becomes imperative to
first explore and implement digital lean construction. In addition,
although existing research has made significant strides in integrat-
ing digital technologies and lean construction, there remains an
overall lack of systematic explorations into the integration of lean
construction and digital technologies.
The current application of digital technologies in lean construc-
tion predominantly remains at the technical level and has yet to
achieve the integration even in the level of management, organiza-
tion and processes. Particularly, digital technologies are primarily
employed in isolated instances within lean construction applica-
tions and lack the support of a comprehensive integration platform.
Consequently, there are two primary research gaps that need to be
addressed. The first involves the necessity to establish a lean con-
struction framework that fully incorporates digital technologies, and
the second centers on exploring the digital platform corresponding
to the digital lean construction framework, providing tools to facili-
tate the application of lean construction.
Hence, the objective of this paper is to establish the framework of
digital lean construction and a corresponding management platform
integrating lean construction principles with digital technologies.
The digital lean construction framework includes models such as a
conceptual model and management models for digital lean construc-
tion. Adopting a design research approach, this paper commences by
elaborating on the definition and characteristics of digital lean con-
struction and establish the conceptual model. Subsequently, a digital
lean construction management model is formulated, followed by a
refined focus on enhancing the digital lean construction manage-
ment model. Furthermore, the study places particular emphasis on
addressing the challenges associated with the absence of adequate
tool support within lean construction applications. It involves the
design and development of the corresponding platform.
To validate the research, senior experts in the fields of engineer-
ing management and digitalization were invited to assess the frame-
work. Concurrently, typical construction projects served to verify
the practical aspects of the study. This research endeavors to furnish
a theoretical foundation and practical tools for the advancement of
digital lean construction, thereby contributing not only to the es-
tablishment of the theoretical foundation to upgrade lean construc-
tion, but also to accelerating the transition from lean construction to
smart lean construction.
Literature Review
Some studies focused on the interactions between lean construction
and digital technologies. Sacks et al. (2010) established an interaction
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matrix between 24 lean principles and 18 building information mod-
eling (BIM) functionalities to investigate the effect of value maxi-
mization and waste reduction through a systematic literature review
and real construction projects investigation, of which 52 out of 56
interactions create positive synergies between lean construction and
digital technologies. By extending the interaction matrix, the sub-
sequent studies further explored the interactions between lean con-
struction and BIM from different perspectives, including operation
and maintenance (Oskouie et al. 2012), information management
for design (Mollasalehi et al. 2017), sustainability (Saieg et al.
2018), planning and control (Schimanski et al. 2020), virtual design
and construction (VDC) (Rodriguez et al. 2021), and megaprojects
(Evans et al. 2021).
In addition, Brissi et al. (2022) explored the interactions between
lean principles and other digital technologies, including robotic sys-
tems, modeling and simulation, digitalization and virtualization,
sensing, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. These stud-
ies showed that the implementation of lean construction provides a
better opportunity for the application of digital technologies, and
in turn, the application of digital technologies improves the effec-
tiveness and efficiency of lean construction.
Although studies based on interaction matrix mainly focused on
the interactions between a single lean principle and a single BIM
functionality, some more in-depth studies established an integration
framework for BIM and lean construction, in which the last-planner
system (LPS) is the most integrated lean technique (Ballard 2000).
Bhatla and Leite (2012) established a BIM-integrated LPS process,
in which BIM is leveraged for three-dimensional (3D) visualiza-
tion, four-dimensional (4D) simulation, and clash detection to im-
prove the robustness of the planned workflow. Wickramasekara
et al. (2020) established a simulation-integrated LPS framework, in
which BIM is the single data source for 3D rendering, 4D sched-
uling, five-dimensional (5D) cost estimation, and clash detection.
Furthermore, Sbiti et al. (2021) proposed to generate a phase plan
based on BIM and a work breakdown structure (WBS) database
to generate a looking-ahead plan based on an enterprise resource
planning (ERP) system and a document management system, and
to guide the plan execution based on a mobile application which
can exchange data with BIM to comprehensively automate the LPS
process. Besides LPS, some studies also established BIM-integrated
frameworks for Kanban (Toledo et al. 2016), sustainable lean (Heyl
and Demir 2019), lean design (Mellado and Lou 2020), and lean
project delivery system (LPDS) (Aslam et al. 2021), respectively.
Meanwhile, some studies have developed lean construction soft-
ware systems for both lean design management and LPS based con-
struction management. Wong et al. (2009) developed software named
SetPlan to extract information from BIM to conduct set-based design
(SBD). Plume and Mitchell (2007) applied an existing BIM collabo-
rative management platform in the design process to achieve collabo-
ration and identify the existing issues in the management platform. Ma
et al. (2018) developed a BIM based collaboration platform for inte-
grated project delivery (IPD) projects, in which the LPS- and SBD-
based integrated design processes are fully or partially automated.
Several studies have investigated the integration of lean con-
struction with digital technologies such as BIM, Internet of Things
(IoT), blockchain, mixed reality, and deep learning. Koseoglu and
Nurtan-Gunes (2018) explored the integration of BIM and lean
construction, with a specific focus on implementing mobile BIM
processes on construction sites. Their research found that not only
can achievements be realized at the technical level, but successful
implementation of lean construction principles can also be achieved
at the organizational level by leveraging BIM technology in the
lean construction. Xu et al. (2018) integrated internet platform tech-
nology into lean prefabrication production processes, proposing a
J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 cloud-based IoT integration platform and a cloud asset data model.
The study validated the feasibility and effectiveness of the research
through an actual prefabricated construction project.
Tezel et al. (2022) proposed a framework that integrated block-
chain and lean construction to focus on the interaction between them.
The research results indicated that blockchain can facilitate the im-
plementation of lean construction practices (for example, capturing
and accessing final planning data), and vice versa (for example, value
stream mapping facilitating the incorporation of blockchain into
processes). Carbonari et al. (2023) integrated mixed reality and lean
construction, and then validated in a renovation building project. The
research result showed that the integration can enhance communica-
tion efficiency, project monitoring, and supervision. Deng and Tan
(2023) proposed a framework that integrates BIM and deep learning
to lead lean production applications. Through a validation in a road
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maintenance project, the integration was confirmed to be efficient to
promote intelligent transformation of road maintenance.
Besides, as an extension of Industry 4.0 in the construction in-
dustry, Construction 4.0 takes cyberphysical systems as the core
driving force and digital ecosystems as the support, integrates a
number of element technologies, and provides concepts, technol-
ogies, and application frameworks for information exchange, mu-
tual benefit, and coprosperity in the construction field (Sawhney
et al. 2020). Recently, a collaborative monograph was published
named Lean Construction 4.0, which illustrated the new concept of
Lean Construction 4.0 comprehensively (Gonzalez et al. 2023).
This monograph integrated lean construction and Construction
4.0, and proposed a framework of Lean Construction House 4.0
to define four main upgrade goals of mindset, delivery, technology,
and products clearly. In the book (Gonzalez et al. 2023), the concept
of smart lean construction is defined as the incorporation of intelli-
gence and digital technologies in lean construction. The term “dig-
ital lean construction” was mentioned by Gonzalez et al. (2023), but
without elaboration.
In summary, lean construction has been integrated with various
digital technologies through multiple modes, achieving mutual ben-
efits and playing a positive role in waste reduction, efficiency im-
provement, quality enhancement, and cost reduction. However, the
way toward smart lean construction is a gradual and long process,
and no framework has been provided to integrate lean construction
with digital technologies in a comprehensive way up to now.
Methodology
The flowchart of the research methodology is shown in Fig. 1.
The major points of this flowchart are as follows:
• Establish the concept and conceptual model for the digital lean
construction. By carrying out the literature review, preliminary
Literature review Preliminary research
Theory support Research basis
Abstraction and induction
To establish definition and framework model for digital lean construction.
To propose model for digital lean construction management.
To refine model for digital lean construction management at construction phase.
To design preliminarily functions and data architecture of platform for digital lean
construction management at construction phase.
Verification
Fig. 1. Flowchart of research methodology.
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research, and a field investigation, digital lean construction is
defined through abstraction and induction, its characteristics
and connotations are analyzed, and its conceptual model is es-
tablished to show the key elements and their interrelationships
in the digital lean construction.
• Propose the management model for digital lean construction and
requirements analysis for management platform. On the basis
of the conceptual model for digital lean construction, in-depth
analysis is conducted to obtain the model for digital lean con-
struction management. The model is used to represent the key
management elements of digital lean construction and their in-
terrelationships. The functional requirements of the management
platform will be divided into two major categories to analyzed,
i.e., lean work package management and digital lean construc-
tion process support.
• Design the management platform for digital lean construction in
the construction phase. By focusing on the construction phase
and refining the model for digital lean construction management,
the minimum management unit is determined, and its classifica-
tion, role, and determination methods are clarified. Then, a data-
driven mechanism for digital lean construction management is
constructed to achieve in-depth and accurate expression of the
digital lean construction management in the construction phase.
• Implement the management platform for digital lean construc-
tion in the construction phase. Based on the aforementioned de-
sign, a management platform for digital lean construction in the
construction phase was developed using a platform as a service
(PaaS) platform.
• Verification and evaluation. The rationality and effectiveness of
the framework of digital lean construction was verified through
an expert workshop, and the feasibility of the framework and the
management platform was evaluated through typical construc-
tion projects.
Concept and Conceptual Model of Digital Lean
Construction
Concept of Digital Lean Construction
Because digital lean construction has not been defined yet, as a start
of the study, it is defined as follows: it is an advanced process for
construction projects in which lean construction is integrated with
digital technologies and a matching project delivery method is
adopted to reduce or even eliminate waste and meet customers’ needs
as much as possible. According to the definition, the major character-
istics of digital lean construction and the reason why it is defined in
this way can be summarized as follows.
• Lean construction as the core. Needless to say, the Toyota Pro-
duction System is one of the most successful experiences in
manufacturing industry (Sbiti et al. 2021). In essence, lean con-
Field investigation struction also promotes customer-centric and continual improve-
Best practices
ment by integrating production management theory, construction
management theory, and the particularity of construction projects
to maximize value and minimize waste. The core of digital lean
construction is lean construction because the aim of the integra-
tion of lean construction with digital technologies is to pursue
higher efficiency and effectiveness in projects compared with tra-
ditional management methods.
• Organic integration with digital technologies as the support. The
concept of digital technologies is apparently very important for
both Construction 4.0 and Lean Construction 4.0; however,
there has not been a single universally accepted and authorita-
tive definition for digital technologies in the related monographs
(Sawhney et al. 2020; Gonzalez et al. 2023). Generally speaking,
04024051-3 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 the concept of digital technologies refers to the diverse set of
tools, methods, and systems designed to acquire, store, process,
analyze, and manage data. These technologies span hardware,
software, and methodologies encompassing database manage-
ment systems, data analytics platforms, data warehousing, data
integration, data governance, and other related fields. The goal
of digital technologies is to enable organizations to handle effi-
ciently and effectively large volumes of data, extract meaningful
insights, and make informed decisions. Based on some industrial
reports (Report Committee 2017), relating to the construction in-
dustry, digital technologies mainly include BIM, big data, the IoT,
virtual reality (VR), indoor positioning, computer vision (CV),
artificial intelligence (AI), and various digitally integrated man-
agement platforms, some of which have adopted data-driven
mechanisms. To enhance the efficiency of the application, their
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organic integration with lean construction in a construction
project is essential. Besides, in the integration, a data-driven
mechanism should be introduced to drive the process of lean
construction for making it more efficient.
• Comprehensive project delivery method as the basis. Lean con-
struction is defined as the application of the principles and meth-
ods of lean production to the design, construction, and delivery
of capital-intensive goods and services, with the goal of im-
proving value, quality, and customer satisfaction while reducing
waste and environmental impact. Its main characteristics include
a focus on value, streamlined processes, cross-functional teams,
problem-solving mindset, faster decision-making, collaborative
relationships, continuous improvement, flexibility and agility,
sustained learning, and environmental sustainability. However,
up to now, no construction project delivery method has been
corresponded to lean construction yet. In order to maximize the
role of digital technologies, an advanced construction project
delivery method that matches digital technologies should be
used in lean construction so that the management staff from
multiple specialties and multiple participants can carry out ef-
ficient project management and collaborative work to eliminate
potential conflicts. In practice, it is required to specify the
project delivery method, so that we define the comprehensive
project delivery method as the one that facilitates the manage-
ment staff from multispecialties and multiple participants carry
out efficient project management and collaborative work to elim-
inate potential conflicts, the detail of which will be stated in the
section “Conceptual Model of Digital Lean Construction.”
Indeed, the IPD method is such a construction project delivery
method, in which the application of both BIM and management
platform makes it possible to share risks and benefits among
multispecialty and multiple participants and to facilitate collabo-
ration among them in order to maximize the benefits of construc-
tion projects through organizational restructuring and contract
constraints (Ma et al. 2018).
It deserves to be mentioned that the 14 principles of lean con-
struction are the foundation and important pathway for achieving
the goals of lean production (Sheikhkhoshkar et al. 2023; Peralta
and Mourgues 2022). Among them, those that are relevant to the
application of digital technologies include (1) use of a pull production
method to avoid overproduction, (2) even distribution of workloads,
and (3) standardization of work as the foundation for continuous
improvement and empowering employees. These lean construction
principles have actually been applied in the design of the platform.
Conceptual Model of Digital Lean Construction
Models are the simplified representation of complex things that help
people better understand and grasp them. To deepen the knowledge
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Lean construction
Digital lean
construction
Integrated
Comprehensive
project delivery application of
digital
method
technologies
Digital lean construction at design phase Digital lean construction at construction phase
Digital sample Physical project
Association Enhancing
Legend relationships relationships Inclusion Entity Features
Fig. 2. Conceptual model of digital lean construction.
about digital lean construction based on the aforementioned con-
cept, it is necessary to establish a conceptual model to clarify its
components and their interrelationships. Thus, the conceptual model
of digital lean construction is constructed in this study as
shown in Fig. 2.
In the model, digital lean construction is expressed as the inter-
section of lean construction, integrated application of digital tech-
nologies, and the comprehensive project delivery method. It consists
of two parts, i.e., digital lean construction in the design phase and
digital lean construction in the construction phase. The design re-
sults of construction projects, known as the digital sample, are ex-
ported through the digital lean construction in the design phase;
and the construction results, i.e., the physical project, are exported
through the digital lean construction in the construction phase. In
order to achieve effective synergy between the two parts to provide
necessary information to the management, a digital twin relationship
needs to be established between the digital sample and physical
project. That is to say, the digital sample is a twin mapping of the
physical project in a digital space, and the project is a physical rep-
resentation of the digital sample in a physical space. Compared with
the traditional design results in two-dimensional (2D) drawings, the
digital sample is characterized by its digital representation achieved
through the integrated application of digital technologies, which can
promote the efficient realization of the digital lean construction at
the design phase when connected with digital twins.
The comprehensive project delivery method can be reflected
differently depending on the phase of the project. In general, the
comprehensive project delivery method corresponding to the de-
sign phase takes the form of collaborative work, including the col-
laborative work among multispecialty and multiple participants for
parallel design, such as multispecialty and iterative design and mul-
tiparticipants’ collaborative work to optimize the design. The advan-
tage of the collaborative work is that it maximizes the value of the
digital sample, helps eliminate potential design change, and avoids
potential waste in the construction phase in advance. This form is
easily ensured through effective enterprise management processes.
The comprehensive project delivery method corresponding to the
construction phase takes the form more of unified management, char-
acterized by the unified scheduling of tasks of multispecialty and
multiple participants in the project under the same schedule, including
the unified allocation of construction machinery and working face oc-
cupancy time; and the unified procurement of construction materials
and onsite transportation which are coordinated and arranged by the
construction project management team on construction sites.
J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 The advantage of the comprehensive project delivery method is
that through contract constraints, incentive mechanisms, and pen-
alty measures, the multispecialty and multiple participants can be
organized into a construction project management team with con-
sistent goals, shared benefit and shared risk, so as to eliminate pos-
sible conflicts in construction processes to the greatest extent and
ensure the continuity of works in order to minimize the waste gen-
erated in the project and maximize the value delivery of the project.
Construction projects will generate a large amount of dynamic
data such as management data, status data, and process data during
both the design phase and the construction phase. On the one hand,
BIM and the management platform are the carriers of the data; on
the other hand, the data are also the core elements that drive the
design phase and the construction phase of lean construction, which
can make it possible to transform the construction phase from tradi-
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tional static human factors–driven to dynamic data-driven. As a re-
sult, the integrated application of digital technologies can not only
embed advanced work processes into the management platform in
advance to realize the automatic flow of work, which reduces time
waste, but also make full use of digital technologies, especially BIM
and big data, among others, so that all relevant participants can col-
laborate efficiently under the data-driven mechanism, with both the
efficiency and quality of lean construction management systemati-
cally improved.
Management Models for Digital Lean Construction
and Requirements Analysis for Management
Platform
Management Models for Digital Lean Construction
There is no doubt that management plays a crucial role in digital
lean construction. To fully reflect the management requirements,
this paper established management models based on the conceptual
model, which include the management models for the digital lean
construction in the design phase and that in the construction phase,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 3.
Management Model for Digital Lean Construction in the
Design Phase
Total value design (TVD) plays a significant role in lean design by
aligning with the principles of value creation, streamlined decision-
making processes, cross-functional team collaboration, problem-
solving mindset, and faster decision-making. With the current
conditions of information technology application, design work can
be implemented entirely in a digital space. The full use of digital
Output
Digital lean Data-driven
construction process Design
deliverables
at design phase
Supporting Carrying
Management platform at
design phase
(Digital space)
Model of digital lean construction
management at design phase
Fig. 3. Management models for digital lean construction and their interrelationships.
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space contributes to not only streamlined decision-making, but also
cross-functional team collaboration. Under this premise, the man-
agement model for digital lean construction in the design phase
mainly includes three parts, i.e., design deliverables, digital lean
construction process in the design phase, and management plat-
form for the design phase, as shown in Fig. 3.
The design deliverables are the minimum management units that
need to be delivered in the digital lean construction process in the
design phase. The standardization of the design deliverables and
the operational processes is beneficial to faster decision-making.
A management platform for design phase can be used to facilitate
this point. Besides, the design deliverables need to be completed by
the designers on their specialized software and then submitted in
batches or one at a time to the management platform. Therefore,
each design deliverable is associated with a series of management
data (e.g., designer, submitter, submission date, connection with
other design deliverables, and so on) in the management platform
for the design phase.
The management data need to be used to realize the data-driven
mechanism in the environment. The association of management
data meets the requirements of cross-functional team collaboration
and decision-making efficiency, which will attribute to provide the
maximum value to the customer eventually. To this end, the man-
agement platform for the design phase carries the design deliverables
and their management data on the one hand, and supports the digital
lean construction process in the design phase on the other hand.
Management Model for Digital Lean Construction in the
Construction Phase
The management model for the digital lean construction in the con-
struction phase mainly includes three parts, i.e., lean work packages,
the digital lean construction process in the construction phase, and
management platform for construction phase, as shown in Fig. 3.
Among them, the lean work package is adopted as the minimum
management unit for the digital lean construction process in the con-
struction phase and is carried out through the execution of the digital
lean construction processes. In this study, specific meanings are as-
signed to the lean work package beyond traditional definition of
work package, which will be explained in the section “Definition,
Classification and Determination of Lean Work Package.”
Different from the design phase, the digital lean construction
process in the construction phase consists of task management in
the digital space and task execution in the physical space. In the
digital space, the management data associated with lean work pack-
ages are used to realize the data-driven mechanism for the digital
lean construction in the construction phase. On the one hand, the
(Physical space)
Completed
Data-driven Digital lean
Lean work
package construction process at
construction phase
Carrying Supporting
Management platform at
construction phase
(Digital space)
Model of digital lean construction management
at construction phase
04024051-5 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 management platform for the construction phase carries the man-
agement data of lean work packages and supports the digital lean
construction process in the construction phase on the other hand.
Refinement of Management Model for Digital Lean
Construction in the Construction Phase
To implement digital lean construction, it is necessary to refine its
management models. This paper concentrates on digital lean con-
struction within the construction phase. It is mainly for two reasons.
Firstly, space constraints of the paper have led to a focus on only
one of the phases. Secondly, the construction phase represents the
primary locus of waste generation and is particularly susceptible to
process deviations, so that the construction phase is more urgent
than design phase to be studied.
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Definition, Classification, and Determination of
Lean Work Package
Normally, it is needed to break down the construction work to ob-
tain minimum management object, i.e., tasks, when the construc-
tion of projects is scheduled. Theoretically, the breakdown can be
done in any granularity. In general, if the granularity of tasks is too
rough, the requirements for refined management can hardly be
achieved; otherwise, if it is too fine, the management cost may be-
come very high. According to our research and practice, the lean
work package is defined and proposed to be the minimum manage-
ment unit in digital lean construction in the construction phase.
Namely, the construction work is broken only down into tasks at
the lean work package level, which includes execution tasks, in-
spection tasks, and rectification tasks. Obviously, it is crucial to
determine lean work packages in a reasonable manner for effective
digital lean construction.
Definition of Lean Work Package
According to the Project Management Institute, a work package is
defined as the “lowest level of the work breakdown structure for
which cost and duration are estimated and managed” (PMI 2017).
Based on the management model for the digital lean construction in
the construction phase and best engineering practices, in this paper,
the term lean work package is defined as follows: it is a process that
is obtained by breaking down the construction work based on the
principle of executable, measurable, and deliverable, and that meets
the conditions of occurring at a workable construction site, being
performed by using a set of tools and methods, and by a specialty
team at the same time. According to the definition, lean work pack-
age is a kind of work package, but it pays attention to the way how
the work package is implemented, thus paving a way to use the
digital technologies to refine the management.
It is clear from its definition that the lean work package is not
only the minimum management unit for the delivery of construc-
tion results in digital lean construction in the construction phase,
but also the basic unit corresponding to the data-driven mechanism
that is used to drive the process. The definition is used to specify
the granularity of work packages that are utilized in digital lean
construction in the construction phase. Construction project man-
agement typically involves the elements of personnel, machinery,
materials, methods, and the environment, as well as the manage-
ment of the schedule, cost, quality, and safety aspects. According
to the definition of the lean work package, these management ac-
tivities need to be implemented around the lean work packages in
digital lean construction in the construction phase.
It deserves to be explained that the concept of lean work pack-
age has come from our best engineering practices. In recent years,
we have been involved in establishing the best classification of
management unit for construction projects. We obtained the idea
© ASCE 04024051-6
J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051
for the classification from a veteran manager and practiced the idea
in five real construction projects of building, where refined project
management was achieved successfully for each project.
The following explains the reasons for choosing the lean work
package as the minimum management unit of the digital lean con-
struction in the construction phase through an example. Taking
construction operation works as an example, a working process
(e.g., wall construction process) with coarser granularity than the
lean work package contains many steps (such as steel bar binding
and formwork supporting), which will involve different specialty
teams, tools, and methods. Thus, it may only achieve more exten-
sive management because it is difficult to clarify responsibilities
among different specialty teams. However, if the management is
based on steps (such as a concrete pouring step), it will be too
finely managed, so that it may lead to the problems of too exten-
sive time and management cost.
Classification of Lean Work Package
Usually, the construction plan is formulated for the construction op-
eration work, and the supporting technical service work and resource
procurement and supply work are handled as constraints attached
to the construction operation work. It is assumed that the constraints
can be met when the construction operation work begins. In fact, this
assumption is sometimes difficult to uphold. Therefore, the time con-
sumption of the latter two kinds of construction work and their log-
ical relationship with the construction operation work need to be
considered for refined management. Thus, it is necessary to include
them into the master planning and management process. On account
of this, the construction work carried out in the construction phase
is divided into three categories in this study, i.e., technical services
work, resource procurement and supply work, and construction op-
eration work. Obviously, the division is corresponding to the works
included in the EPC method, respectively.
Determination of Lean Work Package
As the fundamental management units throughout the construction
process, the lean work package can be recognized to be the starting
point of management, which needs to be determined through a work
breakdown. Moreover, every lean work package has to confirm what
the deliverables are, what needs to be done during construction, who
is responsible, when it should be done, and what operation standards
should be upheld. Additionally, a lean work package has to contain
the required resources and their associated costs for completing a
specific work process. Normally, there are two ways of work break-
down in the management of construction projects:
• Project breakdown structure (PBS). Namely, the project entity is
broken down. It can be divided into four levels from coarse to
fine, i.e., project, system, floor/flow section, and component,
such as Wall A of Section A in the second floor of the structural
system of Building A.
• Work breakdown structure (WBS). The work breakdown is car-
ried out based on the construction organization plan. It can nor-
mally cover five levels from coarse to fine, i.e., project, phase,
process, lean work package, and step.
The PBS results cannot cover all information in a construction
organization plan because PBS focuses more on the breakdown
of project deliverables rather than the management aspects of the
project. Information in a construction organization plan can be as-
sociated with a lean work package of the construction operation
work when used in management as a complementary or more de-
tailed management structure that works in tandem with the PBS. In
the lean work package related management data, the executor can
be associated with the project’s organizational breakdown structure
(OBS), the working materials can be allocated with the project’s
resource breakdown structure (RBS), the time plan can be connected
J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 + Construction organization
information
PBS
+ Lean work package
Project template
e.g. Building A
System
e.g. Structure
Floor/flow section
e.g. Floor2 of Section A
Coarse-grained
Component
e.g. Wall A
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Medium granularity
Not constructable.
To be associated with solid
construction lean work
package.
Fine-grained
Fig. 4. Illustration for breakdown of construction operation work in construction projects.
with the project’s time breakdown structure (TBS), and the settle-
ment amounts can be linked to the project’s cost breakdown struc-
ture (CBS), as shown in Fig. 4.
Thus, the lean work package fits the concept of refined manage-
ment of projects, which requires making use of PBS (Hu and He
2014), WBS (Wickramasekara et al. 2020), OBS, RBS, TBS, and
CBS (6BS) (He et al. 2011) information, as shown in Fig. 4. There-
fore, it is anticipated that by adopting the lean work package as the
minimum management unit of construction projects on worker
power-machine-material, method, environment, schedule, cost, qual-
ity, safety, and other aspects, the accountability and efficiency of
management can be enhanced and reworks can be avoided, thus
ultimately contributing to the reduction of waste in the construction
project.
Obviously, it takes time or even needs experiences to determine
the lean work packages. To quicken determination of lean work
packages, a lean work package template library is provided that
categorizes and includes various types of lean work package tem-
plates. Lean work package templates contain common standard
processes and their related data, such as the name, type, steps, stan-
dards, quotas, and logical relationships of the processes. When man-
aging projects, management personnel can utilize the lean work
package template library to quickly establish lean work packages
based on the project type.
Overall Workflow for Digital Lean Construction in the
Construction Phase
The overall workflow for the digital lean construction in the con-
struction phase is complex in the sense that there are intertwined
and cross-nested lean work packages. Based on the task workflow
of an individual lean work package, the control principle of a closed-
loop system has been formed for the overall workflow of the digital
lean construction in the construction phase. It focuses on the man-
agement work, that is, the planning and control of work, and is di-
vided into four steps: plan, do, check, and act (PDCA), as shown in
Fig. 5. The specific implementation process is described as follows:
1. In the plan step, the master control plan, hierarchical plans,
and construction organization plan are first formulated in the
© ASCE
J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051
Legend
WBS
Illustration
Project
Relevance
e.g. Construction of
building A Combination
Inclusion
Phase Breakdown
e.g. Construction of
structure
The team, tools, and methods are
Process different, and it is difficult to clarify
e.g. Construction of responsibilities.
walls Executor OBS
Implement assignment
Lean work package and working materials RBS
e.g. Concrete of walls
and columns Time plan TBS
Settlement amount CBS
Step
e.g. Concrete pouring Difficult to measure time and cost.
construction preparation stage, then the construction work break-
down is conducted to determine the lean work packages of the
project. Then, the weekly work plan is formulated by optimizing
the schedule with lean work package–related tasks.
2. In the do step, the three types of tasks of lean work packages are
carried out according to the weekly work plan.
3. In the check step, the completed lean work package is checked
against the weekly work plan to determine whether the planned
lean work package has been completed complying with the rel-
evant standards. If it has, the lean work package is completed.
4. In the act step, if the task has not been fully completed, the state
of “to be rectified” will be activated, and the content in the tem-
plate will be adjusted appropriately according to the execution
situation. If problems are found in the standards in the template,
they will be corrected in the template library. Namely, if the ac-
tual execution time and the estimated one of a process do not
match each other, the quota data in the lean work package tem-
plate will be adjusted. Finally, the workflow will return to the
beginning to enter the next cycle after completion.
Lean construction tools, such as LPS, pull planning, and just-in-
time systems in lean construction can be utilized in the PDCA
workflow through unifying the lean work package–level planning
and control. For example, utilizing VDC tools from lean construc-
tion, the overall construction schedule can be simulated, optimized,
tracked, and dynamically adjusted. In addition, digital technologies
can be integrated in the overall workflow; for instance, artificial
intelligence algorithms may be used to optimize the schedule and
big data analysis for real-time rectification, the coordination of mo-
bile app and the management platform can achieve task reception
and feedback, and big data are available for plan execution analysis
and real-time course correction. Furthermore, a management plat-
form can serve the overall workflow control of construction works.
Functional Requirements of Management Platform for
Digital Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
Normally, the requirements for systems should be established based
on requirement analysis, in which the major aspects such as users,
04024051-7 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 Comprehensive project delivery method (contract constraint + incentive mechanism + penalty measures)
Pattern basics - overall management and collaborative work

Plan Do Check Act

Start (Perform process-specific
tasks in a unified manner)
Formulate master
control plan, Perform execution
hierarchical plan , type of tasks in
construction weekly work plan
Lean work organization plan
package task YES
execution Judge To be confirmed
process Work breakdown Perform rectification
determines lean work type of tasks in NO
package weekly work plan

Weekly work plans are Perform inspection Check and evaluate Update optimization
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developed based on type of tasks in completion of lean work package

optimized schedule weekly work plan weekly plan template as needed

Pull plan Just in time Continuous improvement

Lean tool Virtual Design and Construction (VDC): Used to simulate, optimize, track and dynamically adjust construction
schedules

Last planner system

Artificial intelligence: Mobile APP: feedback Big data analytics: plan execution consultation
Digital for optimal scheduling for work task reception analysis and process template data optimization
technology
Common data environment for construction

Legend Association Separation

Activity Inclusion State Judge relationships relationships

Fig. 5. Overall workflow of digital lean construction and application of lean tools and digital technologies.

functions, and performances need to be investigated and analyzed.
Nevertheless, as far as the functional requirements are concerned,
they are determined mainly by analyzing the management models
for digital lean construction in the construction phase, especially the
refined management model for digital lean construction in the con-
struction phase, because it sets up a new framework for management
of projects, which the management platform should serve.
Considering that the lean work package is the minimum man-
agement unit, it is necessary to support the digital lean construction
process by using the management platform for digital lean con-
struction in the construction phase. Based on the preceding analy-
sis, the functional requirements of the management platform can be
divided into two major categories, i.e., lean work package manage-
ment and digital lean construction process support. This high-level
classification helps in comprehending the overall functional require-
ments of the management platform, facilitating further refinement
and clarification of the specific requirements of the management
platform.
The category of lean work package management can be divided
into the functional requirements of lean work package generation,
maintenance of lean work package management data, and automatic
transition of lean work package status. Among them, lean work
package generation is a key requirement that involves utilizing the
lean work package template library, optimization algorithms, and
simulation techniques to break down the construction work into lean
work packages, ensuring smooth construction operations and opti-
mal utilization of resources.
The category of digital lean construction process support can be
divided into two subcategories, i.e., (1) work planning and control,
and (2) dynamic execution of tasks at the lean work package level.
The former can further be divided into (1) intelligent generation and
maintenance of work plans, (2) flow and push of tasks at the lean
work package level, and (3) analysis and correction of work exe-
cution. The latter can further be divided into (1) dynamic feedback
on the execution status of three categories of construction works,
i.e., technical services work, resource procurement, and supply
work, and (2) construction operation work. It also involves the col-
lection, storage, maintenance, and sharing of data related to the ex-
ecution of lean work package–level tasks.
Design of Management Platform for Digital Lean
Construction in the Construction Phase
Architecture of Management Platform
Up to now, there have been numerous management platforms
available for construction projects. Generally, these management
platforms include various functional modules for schedule manage-
ment, contract management, cost management, quality manage-
ment, safety management, procurement management, and materials
management to facilitate the collaboration among the multispecialty
and multiple participants. These functional modules need improve-
ment and enhancement under the management model for digital lean
construction. However, this does not mean one has to start from
scratch. Based on the functional requirements of the management
platform, traditional management platforms can be improved or en-
hanced to meet the requirement for digital lean construction in the
construction phase. Besides, rapid application development environ-
ments can be used to accelerate the development of the management

© ASCE 04024051-8 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.

J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051

 Application layer
Process-based planning, Process-based resource
Job standards and Process-based task
scheduling, and optimization procurement and supply
process breakdown execution and inspection
adjustments management

Business logic layer

Process-level schedule scheduling and Process-level task execution
Process-generated components
dispatching component engine

Data layer
Database application interface
Basic data Plan data Execution data

Fig. 6. Architecture of management platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase.
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platform while leveraging existing resources and capabilities. For
this purpose, this paper focuses on the architecture and distinctive
requirements of such a management platform, and covers only the
management aspects as mentioned previously. Accordingly, the ar-
chitecture of management platform for digital lean construction in
the construction phase is established as shown in Fig. 6.
The architecture consists of three layers, i.e., the data layer, the
business logic layer, and the application layer. The data layer is pri-
marily responsible for data collection, storage, processing, modeling,
and providing database application interfaces. The business logic
layer consists of modules that implement the main functional require-
ments of the management platform. Finally, the application layer fo-
cuses on the specific usage scenarios of the functional modules.
Data Layer
To support the functionality of the business logic layer and appli-
cation layer in the digital lean construction management platform
for construction phase, data layer needs to provide the following
three types of data, as shown in Fig. 7:
• Basic data. These are related to the three categories of lean work
package, i.e., technical service work, resource procurement and
supply work, and construction operation work. Each category
of lean work package includes such basic data such as work
content, work object, work space, work materials, execution stan-
dards, acceptance criteria, and logical relationships, and the con-
tinuous improvement of project management may be reflected as
the continuous improvement of basic data.
• Plan data. These are determined through optimized scheduling
based on the lean work package. Once the basic data are input-
ted, algorithms can be utilized to process and analyze the data,
resulting in a scheduling plan. The plan data include information
such as equipment allocation, responsible personnel, inspectors,
time schedule, and settlement amounts corresponding to each
task at the lean work package level.
• Execution data. These refer to the data used to identify the
execution status of task at the lean work package level. They
include seven different statuses, i.e., Pending/In Progress, Pend-
ing Inspection/Inspection in Progress, Pending Rectification/
Rectification in Progress, and Confirmed. After the generation

Basic data (determined through work breakdown) Plan data (Determined through schedule optimization)
Detailed/Conceptual design Equipment required for design
Resource procurement Work Equipment required for
Measure construction content Equipment procurement of resources
Physical construction Equipment required for measure
allocation construction
Objects and workload of design Technical services Equipment required for physical
Objects and workload of resource construction
procurement
Objects and workload of measure Work object Responsible Design personnel/crew
construction Procurement personnel/crew
Objects and workload of physical Lean personnel Construction personnel/crew
construction Resource
work procurement and Review personnel/crew
Generally, the project office determines
supply Scheduling Inspectors Inspection personnel/crew
the construction work area from package Acceptance personnel/crew
procurement to the site/workface based Work space
on the BIM model/drawings and Time Start time - End time - Duration
construction team. Output schedule
Models/drawings for design objects Construction Settlement amount after review
Relevant content related to resource operation approval
procurement objects in construction Settlement Settlement amount after inspection
organization design amounts approval
Corresponding detailed construction
Work Settlement amount after acceptance
drawings obtained through pre- materials approval
execution technical service processes
Construction materials determined based
on process quotas and quantities Pending Rectification/
NO
Rectification in Progress
Design standards Execution
Procurement procedure standards
Construction operation standards standards Pending/In Pending Inspection/
Inspection in Progress Confirm
Review standards Progress
Procurement inspection standards
Acceptance
Construction acceptance standards standards YES

Predecessor-successor relationship
Logical Execution Inspection
relationship standards standards Execution data
Legend Association relationships Inclusion relationships Entity Inclusion

Fig. 7. Data flow for breakdown, planning, and execution of operation work based on lean work package.

© ASCE 04024051-9 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.

J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051

 of lean work package–level tasks, the platform will allocate these
tasks to the appropriate workers and equipment through optimi-
zation calculations and drive the execution of each task accord-
ing to the predefined standards. The purpose of optimization
calculation is to evenly distribute workloads. The allocation of
lean work package–level tasks can contribute to the standardiza-
tion of work to empower employees. Each lean work package–
level task is associated with corresponding task status data, which
tracks the progress and status of the task throughout its execution.
Business Logic Layer
To address the three main functional requirements as mentioned
in the section “Functional Requirements of Management Platform
for Digital Lean Construction at Construction Phase,” i.e., lean
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promote the completion of the project as planned. When formulat-
ing the LPS, the construction work breakdown can be conducted
based on the lean work packages template, the construction organi-
zation plan, and the BIM model corresponding to shop drawings for
lean work packages to determine lean work packages and obtain
their basic data. By optimizing variables, objectives, and constraints,
an optimized schedule can be obtained for the activities, resulting in
the planned data for the tasks.
It should be noticed that the template library for lean work
packages plays a key role in determining the lean work packages
involved in a construction project. Its essential purpose is to
serve as a reusable database, allowing for the repetition and
standardization of lean work packages. It is also the foundation
for standardization of work. It facilitates project managers to

work package generation, maintenance of lean work package data,
and automatic transition of lean work package status, the business
logic layer is designed to contain modules, i.e., lean work package
generation module, scheduling and dispatching module at the lean
work package level, and task execution engine at the lean work
package level.
Lean Work Package Generation Module
The lean work package generation module is based on lean work
package templates and optimization algorithms and is used to break
down the construction work. The principles are illustrated in Fig. 8.
In addition to the master control plan and the hierarchical plan of
the project, the weekly work plan is another management means to
quickly determine the lean work packages without having much
experience.
An example of the template for lean work packages is given in
Table 1 for a construction operation work. The lean work package
of wall and column formwork contains four steps: independent col-
umn formwork positioning rib welding, column formwork assembly
and formwork joining, shear wall formwork assembly, and form-
work diagonal bracing setup. The template also includes operation
standards and lean work package acceptance criteria for each step a
d quota information for labor, machinery, and material costs, as well
as logical relationships. For example, the lean work package of
formwork at a certain location can only be executed after that of
reinforcement at the same location.

Project PBS
BIM model/ drawings Spatial location
Quantity of works
Construction Basic data
Lean work
Working face division work package
Construction breakdown Plan data
organization plan Project OBS
Project RBS Resource allocation
Optimization
variables Time allocation
Name Lowest cost
Type Schedule Optimization Shortest construction period
optimization goals
Template library for Step Resource balance
lean work package Standard Logical relationships
Quota Constraints Resource constraints
Logical relationship Spatial conflicts

Legend Inclusion relationships Association relationships Inclusion

Fig. 8. Illustration of determination method of lean work packages.

Table 1. Examples of templates for lean work packages

Lean work Logical
System Division Subdivision package Category Step Standard Quota relationship
Main Concrete Formwork Wall and Construction • Independent column Operation standards Worker power- After the operation
structure structure column operation formwork positioning (including safety) machine-material- of wall column
formwork work rib welding and acceptance worker hours reinforcement
• Column formwork criteria (including cost quota binding
assembly, formwork quality) of each
closing step.
• Shear wall formwork
assembly
• Formwork diagonal
brace settings

© ASCE 04024051-10 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.

J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051

 It is worth pointing out that due to the large variety and number
of lean work package templates, the preparation and maintenance
of the templates involve a huge workload. Fortunately, once a com-
plete template library is established, it is equivalent to having es-
tablished a sound knowledge base for project management, which
is convenient for the managers to efficiently manage the schedule,
cost, quality, safety, and other aspects of the project.
Scheduling and Dispatching Module at the Lean Work
Package Level
This module is used for tasks scheduling and dispatching at the lean
work package level. Firstly, to facilitate collaborative development
of the master control plan, the hierarchical plan, and the weekly
work plan, ensuring coordination among these three levels of plan-
ning. To breakdown the construction work based on the three cat-
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Task Execution Engine at the Lean Work Package Level
The task execution engine at the lean work package level is used to
track, analyze, correct, and optimize the schedule dispatching and
execution monitoring. It ensures the smooth completion of tasks
and optimal utilization of resources. The engine determines which
tasks have been completed and which tasks can be initiated accord-
ing to the scheduling plan. The related lean work packages will be
sent to corresponding workers as a start prompt, according to the
process of executing a work procedure and the conditions for tran-
sitioning between work procedures.
The execution of a single lean work package is the foundation
of the execution. The transition data of lean work package status
can be used to drive the execution control of related lean work
package–level tasks. The lean work package execution flow and
status transition process are illustrated in Fig. 10.

egories of works, i.e., technical services work, resource procurement
and supply work, and construction operation work. Executable tasks
at the lean work package level, such as the execution type of tasks,
inspection type of tasks, and rectification type of tasks, will be gen-
erated automatically corresponding to each category. Description for
different types of tasks at the lean work package level are listed in
Table 2.
Next, the modules will generate optimal scheduling plan at lean
work package level by using optimization algorithms, which can be
dispatched to the mobile client of the assigned workers automati-
cally. The scheduling plan can be analyzed and adjusted appropri-
ately according to the finished feedback data from the execution of
lean work package tasks. Throughout the schedule and task tracking
process, tools such as critical path analysis and look-ahead planning
are utilized to simulate and optimize the schedule. This allows for
dynamic calibration and adjustment of the schedule to ensure opti-
mal performance, as shown in Fig. 9.
In this process, lean tools, such as VDC, can be used to create
detailed construction drawings/virtual simulation and optimization
of specialized construction plans. Simultaneously, digital technol-
ogies, such as BIM, robots, IoT, artificial intelligence, big data,
blockchain, and mobile application (APP), can be integrated to im-
plement data collection, simulation analysis, optimization adjust-
ment, execution monitoring, and warning feedback during the
entire period of lean work package execution. For example, tech-
nologies such as sensors and the IoT can be used to timely collect
real-time data from the construction site.
Through the use of artificial intelligence and big data analysis,
various data related to construction site and lean work package–
level tasks are analyzed. Based on the analysis results, adjustments
and optimizations are made to the lean work packages, and various
inspection tasks for each lean work package are automatically gen-
erated to ensure the smooth completion of the lean work packages.
Through mobile applications, the task information and execution

Table 2. Three types of tasks for lean work packages level

Task type Technical services lean work packages
Execution type Designing: carry out detailed construction
of tasks drawing design or specialized scheme design
Inspection type Checking: review the completed detailed
of tasks construction drawings or specialized
schemes for design or modifications
Rectification Modification: modify the detailed
type of tasks construction drawing design or specialized
scheme based on the review results
Resource procurement and supply lean
work packages
Procurement and supply: carry out
procurement of resources or onsite supply
Checking: check the arrival of resources
and the status of workface placement
Supplement: supply the insufficient
resources in procurement and supply
based on the inspection results
Construction operation lean work
packages
Construction: carry out construction step
by step
Acceptance: conduct acceptance for
completed construction or rework
Rework: rework the work that did not pass
the acceptance

Lean work package Construction work Task dispatching at lean

template breakdown work package level
(message delivery)
Tasks scheduling and dispatching

Master control plan Hierarchical plan Weekly plan Feedback

development development development Execution
type tasks
Feedback Adjustment Feedback Adjustment
Inspection
type tasks
Simulation Optimization
Rectification
Schedule simulation
type tasks
Legend Association relationships Entity Inclusion

Fig. 9. Flowchart of lean work package–level scheduling and operation.

© ASCE 04024051-11 J. Constr. Eng. Manage.

J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051

 Lean work To be To be To be To be
package executed rectified checked confirmed

Lean work
package task NO
Status of last lean Perform Perform Perform Timely
execution check type Judge settlement of
process work package is execution rectification
confirmed type of tasks type of tasks of tasks payments
YES
Lean tools Virtual Design and Construction (VDC)

IoT/UAV/Surveillance Video/Sensor/
BIM 3D laser scanning Blockchain
Digital
technologies
Robotics / additive manufacturing (3D Artificial intelligence/big data
printing) / wearable devices analysis APP

Association Separation
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Legend Entity Inclusion State Judge relationships relationships

Fig. 10. Task execution, states transitions, and application of lean tools and digital technologies for individual lean work package.

Table 3. Work standard and lean work package generation

Application scenarios Key activities Application functions
Development of Establish and maintain lean work package template library 1. Develop lean work package templates
work standards 2. Maintain template library
Establish and maintain work standards library 1. Develop work standards
2. Maintain work standards library
Lean work package Generate construction lean work packages automatically based on the 1. Import template library
generation construction detailed design model and lean work package template library 2. Generate lean work package automatically
Check the integrity of lean work package technical services work, resource Validate lean work package
procurement and supply work, and construction operation work

status at the lean work package level are provided to the construction
management personnel in real time. Additionally, construction lean
work package–level task execution reports are generated to support
management personnel in making decisions and adjustments.
Application Layer
The application layer includes four categories, i.e., (1) construction
operation standards and lean work package generation, (2) sched-
uling and optimization adjustment, (3) resource procurement and
supply management, and (4) task execution and inspection. These
are described in the following subsections.
Construction Operation Standards and Lean Work Package
Generation
This category includes two application scenarios, i.e., operation
standard development and lean work package generation. Among
them, the former involves the establishment and maintenance of
lean work package template libraries and construction operation
standard repositories to ensure the consistence of operation stan-
dards for construction projects and support rapid construction
work breakdown. The application scenarios, key activities, and ap-
plication functions of the category of construction operation stan-
dards and lean work package generation are discussed, as detailed
in Table 3.
Scheduling and Optimization Adjustment Based on Lean
Work Package
This category includes two application scenarios, i.e., (1) scheduling
and lean work package–level task execution, and (2) schedule sim-
ulation optimization and monitoring adjustment. Among them, the
former ensures a unified plan for the entire construction project by
coordinating the three-level plans, namely the master control plan,
hierarchical plan, and last-planner system, to create and distribute
lean work package–level tasks. The latter involves utilizing the in-
terrelationships between various levels of plans to perform schedule
simulation optimization and drive adjustments in the plans at each
level, ultimately achieving the optimal project schedule. The appli-
cation scenarios, key activities, and application functions of the cat-
egory of scheduling and optimization adjustment based on lean
work package are discussed, as given in Table 4.
Resource Procurement and Supply Management Based on
Lean Work Package
This category includes four types of scenarios: (1) procurement of
labor, material, and machinery; (2) personnel entry; (3) material
supply; and (4) machine and tool setup. The procurement of labor,
materials, and machinery is ensured through contract planning,
tendering and procurement, and contract performance monitoring,
to ensure the procurement of project resources for labor, materials,
and machinery. Personnel entry is ensured by scheduling lean
work package–level tasks and reminding individuals to arrive on
time, thereby providing the necessary workforce for construction
operations according to the schedule. Material supply is carried
out through a pull-based approach by developing a supply plan.
Materials are timely arranged for onsite supply based on the re-
quired quantities, ensuring timely and adequate provision of ma-
terials for construction operations in the project. Machine and tool
setup is based on the scheduling of lean work package–level tasks,
where construction machinery and tools are scheduled to ensure
that the required equipment is available on time for construction.

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 Table 4. Scheduling and optimization adjustment scenario based on lean work package
Application scenarios
Scheduling and dispatching
of tasks
Schedule simulation optimization
and monitoring and adjustment
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Key activities Application functions
Develop a master control plan based on the planning template 1. Import planning templates
2. Develop the master control plan
Establish a hierarchical plan based on the master control plan, and establish Develop the hierarchical plans
the associated relationship with the nodes in the master control plan
Create weekly work plans for the last tasks that can be performed at the 1. Develop the last schedule
workface and distribute tasks 2. Dispatch tasks
Establish logical relationships among plans at various levels based on Schedule simulation and optimization
optimization algorithms, and optimize the higher-level plans through
feedback from lower-level plans
Provide real-time feedback on the actual progress, utilize optimized Schedule monitoring and adjustment
schedule to guide actual operations, and dynamically monitor the progress

Table 5. Resource acquisition and supply management scenario based on lean work packages
Application scenarios
Procurement of labor,
material, and machinery
Personnel entry
Material supply
Machine and tool setup
Key activities Application functions
Conduct contract planning and create a procurement list based on the project’s Contract planning
target cost
Identify qualified suppliers and products through source procurement options 1. Sourcing for procurement
and conduct bidding 2. Bidding and tendering
Sign contract with the winning bidders and monitor contract performance to 1. Contract signing
ensure timely measurement and payment 2. Contract performance monitoring
3. Measurement and payment
Team members obtain lean work package–level task information, accurately 1. Assignment of process-level tasks
determine the work area location, and safely arrive to start working 2. Onsite navigation
Develop a supply plan based on lean work package–level tasks and Material supply plan preparation
transportation lead time
Complete quantity and quality inspections quickly upon material arrival Material reception and inspection
Optimize material supply based on the execution status of lean work Material supply scheduling
package–level tasks
Schedule machinery and tools to be in place on time according to the lean Equipment deployment and scheduling
work package–level schedule

The application scenarios, key activities, and application functions
of the category of resource procurement and supply management
are given in Table 5.
Task Execution and Inspection Based on Lean Work Package
Two application scenarios are included in this category, i.e., con-
struction operations and inspection acceptance. The application
scenario of construction operations conducts lean work package
construction in accordance with operation standards to ensure tasks
are completed on time, with quality and quantity assurance, under
the premise of procurement of worker power-machine-material.
The application scenario of inspection acceptance involves in-
spectors conducting quality inspections and acceptance of completed
lean work package tasks in accordance with acceptance criteria. In
this scenario, inspectors assess the quality of the completed tasks
and provide feedback to the work team for necessary corrections in
case of any quality nonconformities, ensuring compliance with qual-
ity standards and requirements. The application scenarios, key ac-
tivities, and application functions of the category of task execution
and inspection are discussed, as given in Table 6.
Implementation of Management Platform for Digital
Lean Construction in the Construction Phase
Based on the aforementioned design, a management platform for dig-
ital lean construction in the construction phase has been developed
using the streamlined development tools provided in the Glodon
PaaS Platform (GBP), which was developed by Glodon Co. Ltd.,
with a front-end and back-end separation microservices architec-
ture. The platform interface is shown in Fig. 11.
The GBP provides the technology middleware, data middle-
ware, BIM middleware, and business middleware. The API of the
platform allows invoking common technical components of the
technology middleware, such as process management, messag-
ing, permission management, reporting, and authorization man-
agement. They can also leverage the components provided by the
GBP’s business middleware for project management functional-
ities. For supporting the function development of the application
layer, streamlined development tools are used to define and pub-
lish business modules for the business logic layer. The basic data,
planning data, and execution data of the data layer are established
to realize the integration, invoking, and analysis of data by utiliz-
ing the GBP data middleware. By utilizing the BIM middleware of
the GBP, it was made possible to achieve lightweight processing
of BIM models, model parsing, data querying, and visual browsing
functionalities.
As far as the database management system is concerned, MySQL
is adopted to store and access data. The front-end user interface is
implemented using the VUE framework. The back-end is developed
using the Java programming language. For mobile applications, the
WeChat miniprogram development is adopted to make it easier for
project personnel to use.

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 Table 6. Task execution and checking scenario based on lean work packages
Application scenarios Key activities Application functions
Construction operations The construction team should work on the workface and follow the 1. Work standards acquisition.
drawings and work standards to carry out construction operations. 2. Drawing browsing
After receiving lean work package–level tasks, the construction team 1. Task execution tracking
should execute, and provide feedback on the progress of the tasks. To 2. Task completion confirmation and reminder
complete the tasks on time, confirm the completion, and then notify the next
lean work package–level task to begin.
Inspection and acceptance Preset the required inspection items and query the quality acceptance 1. Presetting of quality inspection items
examination standards. 2. Querying quality acceptance standards
Conduct inspection and acceptance of the inspection items according to the Quality acceptance records.
acceptance standards, and record the acceptance results.
Generate an alert and create a rectification-type task to notify the 1. Quality rectification notification
construction team for rectification, when finding quality nonconformance. 2. Quality rectification tracking
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3. Rectification inspection and acceptance

Fig. 11. Interface of management platform for digital lean construction.

Verification and Evaluation
Considering that this research falls under the category of design
science research, direct and comprehensive validation is challeng-
ing. Therefore, a combined approach of expert workshop and typ-
ical construction project cases, both of which are normally used in
the verification of design science research, has been adopted as the
validation method to this study. This process has been determined
by referring to the literature (Peffers et al. 2012).
In order to fully leverage the extensive knowledge and practical
experience of experts in their respective fields, a comprehensive
evaluation of the design outcomes is conducted in the expert work-
shop. The list of the invited experts was determined according to
the following principles and the basic profile of the participating
experts is as detailed in Table 7:
• The participating experts should include established academic
experts and industry experts in the field of lean construction.
• The selection of experts should be based on a literature review,
aiming to choose internationally recognized scholars who are at
the forefront of the field and have significant influence.
• Industry experts should ideally include professionals from lead-
ing design firms and construction companies. Among them, ex-
perts from construction companies should possess extensive
experience in construction projects.
• The professional background of the experts should cover the
relevant disciplines as much as possible.
The workshop was divided into four steps, namely research pre-
sentation, question and answer, expert evaluation, and issuance of
expert argumentation opinions. First of all, a 45-min research pre-
sentation session was carried out to introduce the research back-
ground of the research project, report the research methodology,
put forward the concept of digital lean construction, explain the
characteristics, describe the obtained series of models systemati-
cally, and summarize the potential value and significance of digital

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 Table 7. Expert participation in expert workshop
No. Title Field
1 Professor Key institutions of higher education
2 Professor Key institutions of higher education
3 Vice general manager Construction enterprises
4 Vice general engineer Research institute of architectural
design standards
5 Chairman Engineering consulting firm
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Fig. 12. Evaluation results of framework of digital lean construction.
lean construction. In addition, a 30-min question and answer ses-
sion was held after the presentation to allow experts to fully under-
stand the research results and lay the foundation for subsequent
expert evaluation.
Then, an expert evaluation was conducted on the definition and
characteristics of digital lean construction, the management model
for digital lean in the design phase, and the overall and refinement
of the management model for the digital lean construction in the
construction phase. Three evaluation indicators of innovativeness,
rationality, and feasibility were set, five evaluation levels were as-
signed to each indicator, and the criteria for each level was expressed
on a five-point scale. Based on this, experts gave the score of each
index according to their analysis and evaluation. Then, the averaged
scoring method is used to find the total score of each evaluation item,
and finally obtain the evaluation results by averaging the scores, as
shown in Fig. 12.
Generally speaking, the evaluation results of the framework are
acceptable as a whole. However, the assessment of feasibility
yielded the lowest score of 3.8 points, as shown in Fig. 12, which
is not as high as expected. The experts give such a low assessment
mainly because it is not easy to determine the lean work packages.
We knew this in the experts’ discussion after the assessment. In
order to facilitate the determination of lean work packages, a lean
work package template library has been established for the man-
agement staffs to use, and it has been applied it in typical construc-
tion projects, through which the feasibility is thus justified.
Finally, the experts gave the following evaluation opinions after
a comprehensive discussion was conducted:
• This research integrates lean construction with digital technol-
ogies and defines the concept of digital lean construction. Based
on the concept, a series of models were established, including
the model for digital lean construction, management model for
the digital lean construction in the design phase, and manage-
ment model for the digital lean construction in the construction
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J. Constr. Eng. Manage., 2024, 150(6): 04024051
Years of work
Related experience experience
Digital technologies application research 30
IPD and research on project Implementation framework for 25
project coordination
Construction technology 16
Design standardization of BIM 20
Information consulting services for the whole life cycle of 25
the project
phase, respectively, and the preliminary design of the corre-
sponding management platform was carried out.
• The concept and the series of models of digital lean construction
proposed in this study are full of innovation, rationality, and fea-
sibility, and are of great value for the promotion and application
in both practice and research and the development of the man-
agement platforms. Meanwhile, it contributes greatly to the pro-
motion of the framework of digital lean construction and the
realization of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals in the
construction industry in China. As a whole, it contributes to
accelerating the transition from lean construction to smart lean
construction.
• This research fills a research gap in the field of lean construction
at both within China and worldwide.
• It is evident that the experts highly evaluated the research
outcomes.
In terms of evaluation through typical construction projects, the
developed management platform was first applied to the Glodon
Xi’an Tower in China, which is the self-built research and industri-
alization base for the Glodon Company’s smart construction prod-
ucts. The management platform was iteratively optimized throughout
the construction and application process of project.
The construction project of the Glodon Xi’an Tower covers an
area of approximately 13,667 m2, with a total construction area of
approximately 66,278 m2 and 12 stories, and it adopted a framed
shear wall structure.
The construction of the project commenced in September 2019,
with a construction duration of 3.5 years. It aims not only to be-
come a landmark in Xi’an, China, but also to achieve the goals of
green, energy-efficient, healthy, intelligent, and iconic architecture.
Additionally, it was dedicated to exploring the goals of the IPD
method, lean construction methods, and the integration of digital
technologies.
The project was led by Glodon Xi’an Technology Co., Ltd. as
the project developer, in collaboration with Huahui Engineering
J. Constr. Eng. Manage.
 Table 8. Performance of Glodon Xi’an Tower
No. Effectiveness
1 Reduction in project duration
2 Rework reduction
3 Collaboration efficiency improvement
4 Duration reduction
5 Personnel input reduction
6 Material conservation
7 Investment saving
Indicators
The actual construction duration is 6.8% ahead of schedule.
The total amount of changes was reduced by 80%.
A 70% increase in collaboration efficiency was achieved.
The duration of curtain wall construction was improved by 60%.
A 5% reduction in personnel costs was reduced.
Reduce template materials by 4,000 m2, wood materials by 141 m3, concrete material by 52 m3,
and steel material by 17 t.
2.72 million RMB was saved.

Design Group Co., Ltd. as the design unit. The construction was China. Thus, the generality of the management platform has been
carried out by Ruisen Construction Co., Ltd. The project was sup- proven preliminarily.
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ported by Beijing Guangsheng Engineering Project Management

Co., Ltd. as the consulting unit throughout the entire project.
A joint project management team was established, which applied
the management platform for digital lean construction in this study.
A whole-scale implementation was carried out in the construc-
tion project of the Glodon Xi’an Tower. A total of 680 lean work
package generation criteria were established, and 21,000 lean work
packages were obtained based on these criteria in this project. For
each lean work package, the responsible person, inspector, work
area, method requirements, and quality acceptance criteria were
clearly specified. The lean work package–level tasks were then
pushed to the workers’ mobile phones, taking into account the
schedule and constraints.
The application of the management system was an obvious suc-
cess. First of all, under the traditional management mode, the du-
ration of regular meetings, such as daily safety disclosure meetings,
weekly meetings, and monthly meetings, as well as various thematic
discussions, for project teams was at least 30 min. Due to the ap-
plication of the digital lean construction management platform, the
number of thematic discussions was effectively reduced, a 70% in-
crease in collaboration efficiency for project teams was achieved
because of the reduction of the duration of regular meetings.
Second, compared with the management goal of not exceeding
10% of the total project cost in terms of the amount of engineering
changes, which is a competitive figure in the industry, the total
amount of engineering changes in this project was only 2% of the
total project cost, thus reducing the total amount of changes by
80%. Among them, design changes decreased by 20%, schedule
changes decreased by 30%, and other changes decreased by 30%.
Third, in terms of construction duration, the planned construction
duration was 3.5 years, which was determined as to be the high-than-
average level, and the actual construction duration was 3.26 years,
which is 6.8% ahead of schedule. Fourth, in terms of cost, the ap-
proved investment budget was 660 million RMB, which is quite
competitive considering the green requirements for the building
are quite high, and the actual completion settlement amount was
657.28 million RMB. As a result, the total investment in the project
saved 2.72 million RMB, including a 5% reduction in personnel
costs, a 4,000-m2 reduction in template materials, and a 141-m3 re-
duction in wood materials. In addition, 52 m2 of concrete material
and 17 t of steel material were saved, as demonstrated in Table 8.
However, the management platform is not a tailored one for a
project. In order to prove the generality of the management plat-
form and to continuously iterate it, we validated the effectiveness
of the management platform successfully in three other different
types of projects, including the Lisui Resettlement Housing project
in Beijing, the Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Research and
Teaching Park project in Pingyin, Shandong Province, China, and
Pingan Home Residence project in Chengdu, Sichuan Province,
Conclusions
By integrating lean construction with digital technologies, this re-
search established a new framework for the management of construc-
tion projects, namely, the framework of digital lean construction. In
the paper, the research background was introduced, and the concept
of digital lean construction was defined. Then, the conceptual model
and management model for digital lean construction were estab-
lished. On this basis, the management model for the digital lean
construction in the construction phase was refined, and a manage-
ment platform for digital lean construction in the construction phase
corresponding to the framework was designed and implemented.
Finally, the rationality and effectiveness of the framework of digital
lean construction were validated through an expert workshop, and
the application of the framework and the management platform in
typical construction projects were demonstrated. The following con-
clusions can be drawn:
• The framework, including the concept and models for digital
lean construction, proposed in this paper is not only rational,
innovative, and feasible, but also valuable for both the applica-
tion in practice and research of lean construction.
• The refinement of the management model, the definition of lean
work packages, and functional requirement analysis of the man-
agement platform provide a solid foundation for the design and
implementation of the framework of digital lean construction.
• The designed and implemented management platform can be
used to achieve refined management of construction processes
in construction projects and facilitate the effective implemen-
tation of lean construction principles and successful project
delivery.
The framework and management platform contributes not only
to the establishment of the theoretical foundation to upgrade lean
construction, but also to accelerating the transition from lean con-
struction to smart lean construction. Two directions of future re-
search are expected, i.e., to enhance the integration of the lean
tools and digital technologies and clarify the transition to smart
lean construction.
Data Availability Statement
All data and models generated or used during the study appear in
the published article.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Glodon Co. Ltd., Beijing, China.

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