TGN-PG02

Weld Australia
Technical Guidance Note
Minimisation of
Fatigue in Welds

www.weldaustralia.com.au
1
Foreword
This Technical Guidance Note is a revision of Weld Australia’s various Technical Guidance Notes on fatigue
improvements of welds including the dressing of welds to minimise fatigue, originally published by the Welding
Technology Institute of Australia (WTIA). This guide is designed to assist the fabricator in the enhancement of weld
bead shape when conformance with AS/NZS 1554’s Category FP and fatigue improvement methods have been
specified.

Acknowledgement
The assistance of Mr Doug Hawkes of Structural Integrity Engineering, and Mr Andrew Davies, Mr Victor Blain and Mr
Ross O’Bryan of Weld Australia in the preparation of this Technical Guidance Note is gratefully acknowledged.

Future Revisions
This Technical Guidance Note will be revised from time to time and comments aimed at improving its value to
industry will be welcome. This publication is copyright and extracts shall not be reprinted or published without the
Publisher’s express consent.

Disclaimer
While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the accuracy of the material contained
herein, the authors, editors and publishers of this publication shall not be held to be liable or responsible in any way
whatsoever and expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for any loss or damage costs or expenses howsoever
caused incurred by any person whether the purchaser of this work or otherwise including but without in any way
limiting any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred as a result of or in connection with the reliance whether
whole or partial by any person as aforesaid upon any part of the contents of this Technical Guidance Note. Should
expert assistance be required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.

Editor
Mr Bruce Cannon
Technical Publications Manager, Weld Australia

National Library of Australia card number and ISBN 978-0-6452630-5-3.

Weld Australia
ABN 69 003 696 526
PO Box 197, Macquarie Park BC, NSW 1670
Phone: +61 (0)2 8748 0100
www.weldaustralia.com.au

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 2

About Weld Australia
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Further Information
For further information about Weld Australia and how we can help your business, visit: www.weldaustralia.com.au.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 3

1.0 Introduction
There are a number of recognised methods for reducing the risk of fatigue initiating at the weld toes and other
positions. Whilst control of weld bead shape is the most cost effective solution, additional weld treatments may be
specified by the client. The objective of this Technical Guidance Note is to provide guidance on these post weld
improvement techniques for welds including:
(a) Remelting of weld toes using a GTAW torch;
(b) Ultrasonic impact treatment of weld toes;
(c) Peening of welds;
(d) Post weld heat treatment; and,
(e) Dressing of welds using angle grinders and die grinders fitted with rotary burrs or mounted stones.

The techniques described can be applied to welds to improve their fatigue performance when surface-breaking
imperfections may result in the initiation of cracking. Whilst weld category SP (structural purpose) is suitable to
maximise the design life of most steel structures (i.e. design detail Category ≤112 of AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6),
weld category FP (fatigue purpose) of AS/NZS 1554 parts 4 or 5 is typically specified to maximise the design life of
structures subject to high levels of dynamic loading where the stress ranges exceed design detail Category 112 of
AS 4100, and in applications such as dragline booms and railway bridges.

NOTE: The term “FP” does not appear within AS 4100. In lieu, the standard refers to AS/NZS 1554.5 for
Detail Category 125.

This Technical Guidance Note also provides additional guidance on the fundamentals of fatigue (Appendix A) and the
associated joint design categories used in standards such as AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6 (Appendix B).

Whilst this Technical Guidance Note does not directly address fatigue provisions within the welding of stainless
steels, its principles can be applied when AS/NZS 1554.6’s category FA has been specified. Care must be taken
during the use of grinding media to avoid iron and carbon contamination, and oxidation. See also AS/NZS 1554.6.

2.0 Fatigue Basics

2.1 General
AS 4100 defines fatigue as damage caused by repeated fluctuations of stress leading to gradual cracking of a
structural element. This cyclic loading can lead to gradual cracking or even catastrophic failure of a structural
element. Fatigue accounts for more service failures than any other failure mechanism in engineered metal structures.

The fatigue strength of metals can be described by the number of cycles (e.g. 106 cycles) it can tolerate before failure
occurs at a given stress range. Some materials including steels, may have what is referred to as a fatigue endurance
limit where below a specific stress level, fatigue is unlikely to occur. Materials such as aluminium for example, do not
exhibit such a limit and are prone to fatigue failure under cyclic loading conditions.

The longest time period or “fatigue life”, is usually the period prior to a crack initiation. The controlling event that
determines the life of the component can either be the initiation event or the propagation event.

In a welded structure, there may be no specific initiation event since there are generally enough pre-existing
allowable imperfections (usually microscopic or non-visible) at the weld toes that the component is immediately
in the propagation phase. Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it then propagates under the action of the applied
fluctuating load. Fatigue crack propagation continues until the component has insufficient cross section to carry the
load and sudden failure can occur.

Further details can be found in Appendix A.

2.2 Weld Detail Category

Stress raisers and the operating environment also greatly influence the fatigue performance of structures, hence
welded components are less tolerant to fluctuating loads than their non-welded counter-parts for three reasons:
(a) Welds contain imperfections which can act as the initiation site for crack propagation;
(b) Welds create external stress raisers which act as the initiation site for crack propagation;
(c) The process of welding introduces residual stresses in the region of the weld exacerbating the applied
fluctuating stress.

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The fatigue tolerance of various joint types in welded structures can be classified into Detail categories (see Appendix
B) according to the type of weld and its orientation with respect to the applied fluctuating loads. The detail categories
for steel structures are found in AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6, and are used by design engineers when fluctuating
loads occur during service. The detail category for any given weld configuration is a number between 36 and 160
that represents the stress range in MPa that can be tolerated for two million (2x106) fluctuating load cycles.

Weld configuration therefore has a significant impact on the resultant fatigue performance. Table 1 provides some readily
available methods to improve or optimise the fatigue performance of a welded joint by changing the joint configuration.
An improved weld configuration should always be the first choice when striving to optimise fatigue performance.

For welded structures, it is also possible to apply post weld treatments to improve fatigue performance. These
treatments can be applied to welds in the as-welded condition by either removing crack initiators or reducing residual
tensile stresses, therefore increasing the cyclic stress range that the weld detail can tolerate for the given design life.

NOTE: The design standards AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6 do not provide guidance on the usage of these
post-weld treatments and if required, are matters that need to be resolved between the fabricator and client
(see Appendix D of AS/NZS 1554 parts 4 and 5). Specifiers should be aware that these treatments are time
consuming to implement and add significantly to the cost of fabrication.

Table 1: Simple measures to improve weld detail categories for welded connections

Detail Detail
Original Weld Improved Weld
Category Category

Complete penetration butt weld on a

Incomplete penetration butt weld 36 71
backing strip

Fillet reinforced complete penetration butt

Fillet weld transverse to loading direction 36 71
Weld transverse to loading direction

Fillet reinforced complete penetration butt All undercut, discontinuities and convexity
71 80
Weld transverse to loading direction removed by grinding

Complete penetration butt weld on a Single Vee butt weld (transverse to loading
71 80
backing strip direction)

Single Vee butt weld (transverse to loading

80 Double Vee butt weld 90
direction)

Butt weld with all reinforcement ground off

Single Vee or double Vee butt weld 80 or 90 112
flush with member

Intermittent fillet welds parallel loading Continuous fillet welds parallel to loading
80 90
direction made from one side direction without stop starts made from one side

Double sided fillet or butt welds parallel to Double sided fillet or butt welds made with
112 125
loading direction automatic methods with no stop-starts

Double sided fillet or butt welds parallel to Stop-starts and stress raisers removed by
112 125
loading direction grinding

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2.3 Weld Category
Design standards such as AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6 define stress ranges applicable to the weld categories
specified within the AS/NS 1554 series. Weld category SP (structural purpose) is suitable to satisfy design life
requirements of most steel structures where the stress ranges do not exceed design detail Category 112 of AS 4100
or AS/NZS 5100.6.

Weld category FP (fatigue purpose) is applicable where the stress range exceeds Category 112 (i.e. Category 125);
or where they exceed 80% of the permissible stress range for Category B of AS 3990. Weld category FP generally
requires weld surfaces to be smoothly blended with minimal reinforcement. Surface breaking imperfections are not
permitted.

Where weld procedures are well developed and suitably controlled (see Clause 3.1.1), it is possible to qualify weld
procedures conforming with weld category FP with minimal (if any) requirements for post-weld treatments. This can
be achieved using mechanised or automated welding processes, particularly when the joint is welded in the flat (PA)
position, or to a lesser extent and depending on weld size, for fillet joints in the horizontal-vertical (HV or PB) position.

Post-weld treatments are time-consuming and therefore add significant costs to the fabrication process. Their use
should be limited to situations where:
(a) The weld procedure does not conform with weld category FP; or,
(b) Where required to maximise design life when FP is specified.

3.0 Fatigue Improvement Methods

3.1 Welding
3.1.1 Weld Process Adjustment
The welding consumables and welding process should be selected to produce welds that result in weld beads that blend
into the parent metal (e.g. with an included angle of not more than 20°) without excessive reinforcement and without a
tendency to produce undercut. Automatic welding methods are preferable to manual or semi-automatic methods. Unduly
coarse weld ripples and stop-starts are detrimental to fatigue performance and should be avoided by careful selection
of welding position and process parameters. Removal of coarse weld ripple and stop/starts may be required by grinding
where these cannot be avoided.

Where possible, run on and run off tabs should be used for butt welds, and extend into the run on run off tabs
by a distance at least equal to that of the thickness of the parent material. The joint must be completely filled. On
completion of the weld, the run on and run off tabs must then be removed and the ends of the weld ground flush with
the grinding marks parallel to the direction of loading.

3.2.2 Tig Dressing

A gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW or Tig) torch may be used to remelt the toes of existing welds (Figure 1) or
welds that require repair e.g. poorly blended, exhibit
undercut etc. Such a remelting procedure should only
be performed using a qualified welding procedure by
a suitably qualified welder. Preheat may be required
depending on the materials being treated and the heat
input.

The process improves fatigue performance by

removing any weld toe imperfections by remelting
the material at the weld toe. It also reduces the
local stress concentration of the weld toe profile by
providing a smooth transition between the parent
plate and the weld face.

Figure 1: Optimum weld profile – before (left) and after (right).

Note: GTAW torch should be positioned ~0.5 to1.5mm from
the weld toe for optimum weld toe shape.

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3.2 Dressing of Welds

3.2.1 General
Welds, or any section of weld, considered to have excessive reinforcement or unacceptable profile should be
dressed in order to modify the surface profile and improve fatigue performance. Weld toes may also be ground, with
the burr grinder preferred for these situations.

Rough grinding may be carried out using a grinding stone or angle grinder, but care should be taken to ensure that
deep score marks are avoided.

For welds with a smooth surface profile and minimal reinforcement, rotary burring of weld toes generally provides the
minimum amount of dressing necessary to obtain an acceptable weld. Rotary burrs are generally tungsten carbide
tools that come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The type of rotary burr selected should be appropriate for the
particular application.

Final grinding can be carried out using barrel grinders, flap wheels or rotary burrs. The method should be selected to
ensure that the diameters are appropriate for the size of weld in question. Local burr grinding of the weld toes may be
carried out but thinning of the parent material in any instance must not exceed 5% of the wall thickness or 0.5mm.

Any grinding marks visible after completion of the work must be parallel to the loading direction. It is important to
note that a well-dressed weld can be related to an improved design detail Category (see Table 1).

3.2.2 Butt Welds – Weld Parallel to Applied Loading

Post weld grinding of butt welds subject to loadings
parallel to the direction of welding involves two steps.
Rough grinding to remove all stop/starts and large weld
solidification ripples and finish grinding in such a manner
that the resultant finish grinding marks are parallel to the
loadings that will be applied, Figure 2.
Figure 2: Grinding marks parallel to direction
3.2.3 Butt Welds – Weld Transverse to Applied Loading of cyclic loading – stop/starts and weld
ripples removed
Two methods are available to improve the fatigue
performance of butt welds subject to loading transverse to
the direction of welding. If the reinforcement on both sides
is completely removed a 40% improvement in fatigue
performance results. If the reinforcement is dressed
such that there is a smooth transition between the
reinforcement and parent metal with no undercut a
12% improvement in performance will result.

Rough grinding with an angle grinder can be used to

remove all excess metal but finish grinding must result
in all grinding marks running parallel to the direction of
applied load as shown in Figure 3. The grinding may
extend 20 mm or so either side of the weld to ensure a
smooth transition.
Figure 3: Grinding transverse butt welds can result
in a 12% improvement in fatigue
performance over the as-welded condition

As an alternative to grinding which can be noisy, time

consuming and laborious, a rotary burr can be used to
locally remove undercut and provide a smooth transition Figure 4: Finished cross-section of ground weld
from parent metal to weld reinforcement. An exaggerated
cross section is shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5. Rotary
burring will result in some local loss of wall thickness.
Because the area of metal loss has a round profile, as
opposed to a sharp notch like that produced by undercut
or lack of fusion, it has improved fatigue performance. Figure 5: Rotary burring to improve fatigue
Wall thickness loss should not exceed 5% of the section performance will introduce small
thickness, or 0.5mm, whichever is the lesser. reductions in wall thickness that need to
be kept to a minimum

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3.2.4 Tee Butt Welds or Tee Butt Corner Welds
The fatigue performance of fillet reinforced tee butt welds
or tee butt corner welds can be improved by grinding to
produce a smooth transition between the parent plate and
the weld. The technique is shown in Figure 6.

Similar improvements can be made with a rotary burr

concentrating on the removal of undercut and creating a
smooth transition between weld and parent metal.
Figure 6: Improving performance of fillet
Again, with this technique the dressing must not introduce reinforced Tee butt welds by grinding
grooves transverse to the applied stress. Finish dressing or burring to remove undercut,
needs to be carried out such that the resultant dressing stop-starts and establishment of a
marks are all parallel to the applied load. Such weld concave reinforcement profile
finishing techniques can improve the fatigue performance
by about 13%.

3.2.5 Fillet Welds and Incomplete Penetration Butt

Welds
Transverse fillet welds and incomplete (partial) penetration
butt welds have the worst fatigue performance of any type
of weld. When subject to fatigue loadings, the root gaps of
fillet and incomplete penetration butt welds should be no
greater than 1 mm.

Switching from an incomplete penetration weld to a

complete penetration weld made on a backing plate can
result in a significant improvement in fatigue performance.
Figure 7: Blending the ends of non-continuous
fillet welds parallel to fluctuating load
Similarly adopting a fillet-reinforced T-butt joint (i.e. a
compound joint) instead of a fillet weld will result in a similar
improvement in fatigue performance.

3.2.6 Stop/Starts
Weld stop/starts provide fatigue initiation sites so wherever
possible all welds should be continuous and all weld craters
fully filled. Where welds are not continuous the stop starts
of welds that are unavoidably left exposed should be
gradually tapered to an angle of not more than 45°. They
should not be dressed concave or scalloped but should
be in the shape of a diamond point (Figure 7). Stop/starts
should blend smoothly with each weld bead in multi-run
welds and should blend smoothly with the previous bead.
Stop/starts should not be positioned at the end of sections
such as stiffeners or gussets.

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3.3 Impact Treatments

3.3.1 Ultrasonic Impact Treatment

Ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) is a mechanical method
that can be applied to a weld to reduce tensile residual
stresses and locally modify the weld geometry to improve
fatigue performance.

UIT equipment consists of a generator and a hand-held

needle gun. UIT works by converting harmonic resonations
of an acoustically tuned body energised by an ultrasonic
transducer into mechanical impulses imparted into the
surface of the material being treated (Figure 8). In the
conversion process the energising ultrasonic frequency of
27 kHz is converted to a mechanical frequency of 200 Hz
which oscillates the transducer at an amplitude of 20-40μm.

UIT is carried out on the toes of welds where it modifies

the toe shape, reducing the acuity of the mechanical notch.
The UIT tool creates a zone of residual compressive stress
at the weld toe where stress concentration is greatest for
residual and applied tensile loads.

UIT provides two benefits with regard to fatigue Figure 8: UIT power supply and hand tool
enhancement. The first benefit is a localised improvement Photo courtesy of Applied Ultrasonics
in weld geometry (Figures 9 and 10). The second benefit
is a reduction in the tensile residual stresses created as a
result of welding.

UIT can be applied to a wide range of welded materials (Steel, Iron, Aluminium, Nickel, Titanium, Cobalt etc) for
applications in bridges, ships, earthmoving equipment, railcars and any other structures operating in a fatigue
environment.

Structures can be treated as part of the manufacturing process, or on-site work can be carried out. The equipment is
relatively simple and compact. Power requirements are low. UIT can be applied in a manufacturing facility or on site
as an enhancement to weld repairs.

The equipment is relatively simple and compact. Power requirements are low. UIT can be applied in a manufacturing
facility or on site as an enhancement to weld repairs.

Figure 9: Typical “as-welded” toe profile Figure 10: Rounded toe profile after UIT
Photo courtesy of Applied Ultrasonics Photo courtesy of Applied Ultrasonics

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3.3.2 Peening
3.3.2.1 Hammer Peening
Hammer peening can be used to improve fatigue performance by treating existing welds and repair welds on both
steel and aluminium structures. Minimum connection thickness is 4mm for steel and 8mm for aluminium.
The process induces compressive residual stresses by repeatedly hammering the weld toe region. It is particularly
effective where the joint is under tensile stress, however, compressive loading during peening will reduce the
effectiveness of the treatment.

The process is a manual operation that uses a pneumatic or hydraulic hammer (Figure 11) delivering 25 – 100
impacts per second. The hardened steel tool tip is hemispherical in shape with a radius of 3 to 9mm. It requires an
accurate positioning of the tool with the peening tool kept close to the weld toe. The hammer should be held at 45°
and perpendicular to the direction of travel. The resulting groove should be smooth and free from indentations and at
least 0.15mm deep, using a travel speed of 50 to 100mm/min.

Use of a combination of small and larger tools give best results. The process is assumed to be complete when the
weld toe has disappeared.

Figure 11: Hammer peening equipment Figure 12: Lap defects evident during MP examination

Care must be taken when hammer peening as poor technique can give rise to cold laps (Figure 12). As it is not
possible to satisfactorily visually inspect a hammer peened region for the presence of these cold laps, magnetic
particle testing is recommended on completion.

3.3.2.2 Needle Peening

Needle peening is similar to hammer peening but utilises a bundle of round tipped rods (Figure 13) for the peening
process to induce compressive residual stresses by repeatedly hammering the weld toe region. The process is
suitable for large treatment areas.

Needle peening uses a standard needle gun with modification to the chuck to aligns the rounded needles in a
rectangular pattern.

Before commencing needle peening, peaky high weld cap reinforcement should be lightly ground to avoid cold laps.
The peening operation will in turn fully clean the weld cap (reinforcement) and the adjacent parent material, removing
scale, spatter etc.

Noted for its good consistency and reliability, the process can be performed immediately after welding. Ideally, the
weld toe should be needle peened at least four times for optimum results. The resultant surface should be bright in
appearance and contain a uniform distribution of indentations.

On completion, the needle peened region should be visually inspected using a 5x – 10x magnifying glass. The
peened area should be inspected on completion using either the liquid penetrant test method or magnetic particle
inspection.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 10

Figure 13(a): Hammer peening tool Figure 13(b): The needles

3.4 Post Weld Heat Treatment

During welding, the development of residual tensile stresses approaching or exceeding the yield stress is common,
especially at weld toes, and particularly when welding thick sections. These residual tensile stresses can have a
deleterious effect on fatigue performance, particularly where a welded joint is subject to cyclic loadings. It is known
though that compressive residual stresses can increase the fatigue life as long as the load ratio is not too high.

For some industry sectors, particularly in pressure equipment applications, the existence of residual stress is
unacceptable and can lead to stress corrosion situations which can also initiate fatigue cracking.

In Australia, when a post weld or stress relieving heat treatment (PWHT) is specified, reference is usually made to
AS 4458 Pressure equipment — Manufacture, where the recommended heat treatment conditions are defined for a
range of materials. For carbon manganese steels, the temperature of heat treatment is typically 600°±20°C with a
defined time the material must be held at the required temperature (based on joint thickness).

When applied correctly, the residual tensile stresses in the weld joint will be minimised.

Whilst PWHT is mainly utilised in pressure equipment and related applications, it is occasionally applied to structural
applications where it can also be used to:
(a) Improve the diffusion of hydrogen out of weld metal;
(b) Soften the heat affected zone and thus improve its toughness (although not weld metal toughness);
(c) Improve dimensional stability during machining;
(d) Improve ductility;
(e) Improve the resistance to stress corrosion cracking; and,
(f) Reduce the effects of cold work.

Depending on the PWHT temperature and time at temperature, it can modify the microstructure of both the weld and
its heat affected zone, including tempering hardened structures. Common effects on the mechanical properties of the
welded joint include:
(i) Yield strength is decreased slightly, the effect falling off fairly rapidly with time;
(ii) The tensile strength is decreased;
(iii) The ductility is increased;
(iv) Hardness levels are reduced; and,
(v) Toughness is slightly reduced at short times, but the effect can be significant over longer times.

It is important to note that in many welding and related standards, the application of post weld heat treatment is
an essential variable. This means that the application of post weld heat treatment to a procedure or the removal
of it from a procedure requires re-qualification. This is because post weld heat treatment affects the mechanical
properties of the weld, and this is the whole purpose of procedure testing.

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3.5 Welding of Attachments

Special attention must be drawn to attachments welded

onto structural members subject to cyclic loads. As soon
as an attachment is welded onto a structural member, the
fatigue performance may drop significantly to a design
category of 45. Catastrophic structural failures have
occurred due to the addition of seemingly innocuous
attachments that have been welded to structural
members. Attachments should only be welded to a Figure 14: Attaching this stiffener to a structural
structure when specified and approved by the design member using a non-continuous fillet
engineer, and then, only welded in such a manner that weld significantly reduces the fatigue
the start and stop of the weld do not provide crack performance of the component
initiation sites at the corners of the attachment
(see Figure 14).

4.0 Non-Destructive Examination

Standards such as AS/NZS 1554 parts 4 and 5 (Category FP) provides requirements for non-destructive examination
(NDT) which should be carried out after all dressing has been completed. Equally important is performing 100%
visual inspection to ensure that no undercutting or gouge marks are evident after the dressing operations.

5.0 References
1. AS/NZS 1554.4, Structural steel welding — Part 4: Welding of high strength quenched and tempered steels,
Standards Australia, 2014.
2. AS/NZS 1554.5 Structural steel welding — Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue
loading, Standards Australia, 2014.
3. AS/NZS 1554.6 Structural steel welding — Part 6: Welding of steel stainless steels for structural purposes,
Standards Australia, 2012.
4. AS 3990 Mechanical equipment – Steelwork, Standards Australia, 1993 (reconfirmed 2016).
5. AS 4100, Steel structures, Standards Australia, 2020.
6. AS/NZS 5100.6, Bridge design Part 6: Steel and composite construction, Standards Australia, 2017.
7. AS 4458, Pressure equipment — Manufacturing, Standards Australia, 1997.
8. Roy S and Fisher JW, Enhancing fatigue strength by ultrasonic impact treatment.

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Appendix A Fundamentals of Fatigue

A.1 General
Fatigue is defined as cumulative, localised and permanent
damage caused by repeated fluctuations of stress
sometimes below the static design stress of the structure.
This cyclic loading can lead to gradual cracking or even
catastrophic failure of a structural element. Fatigue
accounts for more service failures than any other failure
mechanism in engineered metal structures.

The severity of the repeated fluctuations of stress can

be characterised by maximum stress, minimum stress,
stress range and the number of cycles, as shown in Figure
A.1. To determine a materials resistance to fatigue failure,
samples are prepared and subjected to a fluctuating
stress until failure occurs. Repeated testing at different Figure A.1: Idealised fluctuating load cycle
stress ranges results in a relationship between applied
stress and cycles to failure. Some materials such as
steel are said to have a fatigue endurance limit for a
stress below which fatigue is unlikely to occur, even for
an indefinitely large number of cycles. For steels, this is
typically around half of its tensile strength up to a value of
approximately 290MPa. Materials such as aluminium for
example, do not exhibit such a fatigue limit and are prone
to fatigue failure under cyclic loading conditions.

NOTE: Some researchers claim that fatigue limits do

not exist in practice and that ultimately, all materials
will fail by cyclic loading even at low loads if the
cycle continues for sufficient time.

Separate to fatigue endurance limit, the defined fatigue

strength of a material is the stress at which failure occurs
after a given number of cycles (e.g. 107 cycles), usually Figure A.2: Typical S-N curve for a structural steel
in an un-notched specimen. As can be expected, the presented on a log-log scale
smaller the stress range (as shown in Figure A.1), the more Note the scatter of results to create the
cycles the material can tolerate. The number of cycles the curve and the inclusion of a low probability line
material can tolerate increases in a logarithmic fashion as
the stress is reduced. Thus a log-log stress-cycle diagram
produces a straight line as indicated in Figure A.2. This
method of depicting fatigue performance is known as an S-N curve where S = Stress (range) and N = Number of
cycles to failure. To produce the S-N curve shown in Figure A.2 it is necessary to carry out many tests. There will
invariably be scatter in the results, thus it is necessary to establish a relationship that represents a conservative
tolerance level.

The predictable fatigue tolerance curve depicted in Figure A.2 is only applicable to identical smooth and uniform
fatigue specimens subjected to idealised fluctuating loads. In the real world, the fluctuating loads to which structures
are subjected vary both in intensity and duration. Also fabricated structures contain stress concentrations with the
result that welded components have a poorer tolerance to fluctuating loads than their non-welded counterparts.
Nevertheless there are ways to mathematically deal with fluctuating stresses of differing magnitudes and the S-N
curve provides a well-established, and now universal method of displaying fatigue tolerance for welded joints
provided a suitable lower bound failure probability is applied.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 13

A.2 Fatigue Initiation and Propagation
Fatigue has two parts, initiation and propagation. On a
sub-microscopic scale the imperfections in the metal’s
internal structure, known as dislocations, play a major role
in the fatigue crack initiation phase. After a large number
of loading cycles dislocations pile up and form structures
called persistent slip bands. These leave tiny steps in the
surface that serve as stress risers where fatigue cracks
can initiate.

Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it then propagates

under the action of the applied fluctuating load. Fatigue Figure A.3: Effect of surface finish and wet
crack propagation continues until the component has environments on fatigue performance.
insufficient cross section to carry the load. “Normal” fatigue strength refers to the
mirror polished reference sample. No
The longest time period or “fatigue life”, is usually the samples here contain welds
period prior to a crack initiating. The controlling event
that ultimately determines the life of the component can
either be the initiation event or the propagation event. In
a welded structure there is essentially no initiation event
since there are generally enough pre-existing allowable
imperfections at the weld toes that the component is
immediately in the propagation phase.

Stress raisers and the operating environment also greatly

influence the fatigue performance of steel structures.
The fatigue curves presented in Figure A.3 show the
deterioration of fatigue performance from a mirror
polished specimen tested in air to that exhibiting surface
roughening due to underwater salts.

A.3 Determining Fatigue Performance

of Welded Structures
A.3.1 General
Welded components are less tolerant to fluctuating loads
than their non-welded counter-parts for three reasons:
(a) Welds contain imperfections which act as the
initiation site for crack propagation;
(b) Welds create external stress raisers which act as Figure A.4: Example of a typical S-N curve for
the initiation site for crack propagation; steel under normal stress (Source:
(c) The process of welding introduces residual AS 5100.6-2004)
stresses in the region of the weld exacerbating the Note: Refer to the latest editions of AS 4100
and AS/NZS 5100.6 for current S-N curves.
applied fluctuating stress.

The fatigue tolerance of welded structures can be

classified into “detail categories” according to the type
of weld and its orientation with respect to the applied
fluctuating loads. The detail categories for steel structures
are found in AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6 and are used
by structural steel designers when fluctuating loads
occur during service. The detail category for any given
weld configuration is a number between 36 and 125 that
represents the stress range in MPa that can be tolerated
for two million (2x106) fluctuating load cycles. See
Appendix B for a description of the various weld detail
categories in AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 14

A.3.2 Designing Welded Structures Using Detail Categories
Figure A.4 shows a typical example of a compendium of S-N curves for all the detail categories including the base-
line Category 180 for a non-welded component (see Clause B2.1). With knowledge of the Detail Category, the
designer of a welded structure can either design for a fixed life expressed by a number of cycles or an indefinite life
based on the structure being able to tolerate up to one hundred million (108) cycles. If the design called for a fixed
life of 2 million cycles the Detail Category frn could be used. For a fixed life of 5 million cycles the fatigue limit f3 is
appropriate. If an indefinite life of up to 100 million cycles is required, then the cut off fatigue limit f5 is the stress
range to be applied. Table A.1 summarises how the tolerable stress range in MPa changes depending on the required
life of the component. The percentages given in brackets refer to the relative fatigue performance of the welded
connection compared to the base line Detail Category 180 for a fixed 2 million-cycle life.

Table A.1 can be used as a quick guide to determine the fatigue performance of a given weld configuration. For
example a fillet weld transverse to the fluctuating load is a detail category 36. This means it can tolerate a fluctuating
stress of 36 MPa (based on throat thickness) for a 2 million cycle life. This is 20% of the fatigue strength provided by
a non-welded category 180 component.

If an indefinite life of up to 100 million cycles is required for the same fillet weld, then the allowable fluctuating stress
must be reduced to 15 MPa. This is only 8% of the fatigue strength of the non-welded component with a life of 2
million cycles.

Table A.1: Relationship between tolerable stress range and design life for weld detail categories

Detail Category and stress range Tolerable stress range (MPa) for Tolerable stress range (MPa) for
(MPa) for up to 2x106 Cycles up to 5 x 106 Cycles up to 108 Cycles

180 (100%) 133 (74%) 73 (41%)

160 (89%) 118 (65%) 65 (36%)

140 (78%) 103 (57%) 57 (32%)

125 (69%) 92 (51%) 51 (28%)

112 (62%) 83 (46%) 45 (25%)

100 (55%) 74 (41%) 40 (22%)

90 (50%) 66 (37%) 36 (20%)

80 (44%) 59 (33%) 32 (18%)

71 (39%) 52 (29%) 29 (16%)

63 (35%) 46 (26%) 25 (14%)

56 (31%) 41 (23%) 23 (13%)

50 (28%) 37 (21%) 20 (11%)

45 (25%) 33 (18%) 18 (10%)

40 (22%) 29 (16%) 16 (9%)

36 (20%) 27 (15%) 15 (8%)

NOTE: Detail Category 180 may not be featured in Standards – see Clause B.2.1.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 15

Appendix B Classifying the Fatigue Tolerance of Welded
Structures Using the Detail Category
B.1 General
The following detail categories are extracted from the Australian design standards for steel, AS 4100 Steel structures,
and AS/NZS 5100.6 Bridge design Part 6: Steel and composite construction. The significant aspects of the detail
categories are:
a) Welds lying parallel or transverse to the applied cyclic loads;
b) Welds with or without external reinforcement;
c) Welds with or without external discontinuities such as stop-starts and undercut;
d) Fillet welds, incomplete penetration welds or complete penetration butt welds; and,
e) Structural members with or without welded attachments.

Examples of the detail Categories can be found in Clause B.2. Refer to AS 4100 and AS/NZS 5100.6 for a complete
description of each detail category and their variations.

B.2 Detail Categories

B.2.1 Detail Category 180
Plain steel component with all surfaces machined and polished. All changes in cross section are smooth and gradual.
A category 180 structural element is analogous to the uniform polished specimens used to create the S-N curves
depicted in Figure A.3. Such an element can tolerate a stress range of 180MPa for 2x106 and serves as a standard
baseline reference by which all weld details can be classified.

B.2.2 Detail Category 160

As-rolled and extruded steel components and seamless hollow sections with all sharp edges, surface and rolling
imperfections removed by grinding in the direction of applied stress.

B.2.3 Detail Category 140

Bolted connections and material with flame-cut or sheared edges without draglines, and all hardened material and
edge discontinuities removed by machining or grinding in the direction of applied stress. For rolled hollow sections,
they may contain a continuous longitudinal weld without stop-starts.

B.2.4 Detail Category 125

Steel component made with butt or fillet welds lying parallel to the fluctuating stresses made by automatic welding
processes without stop/starts.

B.2.5 Detail Category 112

(a) Steel component made with butt or fillet welds lying parallel to the fluctuating stresses made by manual or
semi-automatic welding processes containing stop/starts.
(b) As-rolled steel component with no flame cut edges joined with a complete penetration butt weld lying
transverse to the direction of the fluctuating stress with the weld reinforcement ground flush with the parent
metal.

B.2.6 Detail Category 90

As-rolled steel component joined with a complete penetration butt weld lying transverse to the direction of the
fluctuating stress with the weld reinforcement in the as-welded condition with the ends of the welds ground flush in
the direction of stress. Any change in width and/or thickness of plates is tapered where the taper is ≤ 1:4. The weld
may have been made by manual or semi-automatic welding processes in any welding position.

B.2.7 Detail Category 80

Similar to Category 90, for welded plate with any change in width and/or thickness tapered where the taper is > 1:4
and ≤ 1:2.5. The weld may have been made by manual or semi-automatic welding processes in any welding position.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 16

B.2.8 Detail Category 71
(a) As-rolled steel component joined with a complete penetration butt weld lying transverse to the direction of
the fluctuating stress made using a backing strip.
(b) A steel component carrying fillet welded non-loaded attachment(s).
(c) A complete penetration (fillet reinforced butt weld) cruciform joint with the welds transverse to the applied
stress.

B.2.9 Detail Category 45

Steel components under the action of fluctuating loads with attachments welded at the edge or close to the edge of
the component.

B.2.10 Detail Category 36

Components made with fillet welds or incomplete penetration butt welds lying transverse to the fluctuating loads.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 17

Weld Australia Technical Notes

TN 1 - The Weldability of Steels

Gives guidance on the preheat and heat input conditions (run size, current, voltage) required for acceptable welds
and to avoid cold cracking in a wide variety of steels. The Note is applicable to a wide range of welding processes.

TN 2 - Successful Welding of Aluminium

This note covers the major welding processes as they are used for the welding and repair of aluminium and its alloys.
Information is given on the processes, equipment, consumables and techniques. It also provides information on the
range of alloys available and briefly covers safety, quality assurance, inspection and testing, costing and alternative
joining processes.

TN 3 - Care and Conditioning of Arc Welding Consumables

Gives the basis and details for the correct care, storage and conditioning of welding consumables to control hydro-
gen and to ensure high quality welding.

TN 4 - The Industry Guide to Hardfacing for the Control of Wear

Describes wear mechanisms and gives guidance on the selection of hardfacing consumables and processes for a
wide range of applications. Includes Australian Hardfacing Suppliers Compendium 1998.

TN 5 - Flame Cutting of Steels

Gives a wealth of practical guidance on flame cutting including detailed procedures for efficient cutting, selection of
equipment and gases, practices for identifying and curing defective cutting, methods of maximising economy and
other important guidance on the use of steels with flame cut surfaces.

TN 6 - Control of Lamellar Tearing

Describes the features and mechanisms of this important mode of failure and the means of controlling tearing
through suitable design, material selection, fabrication and inspection. Acceptance standards, repair methods, spec-
ification requirements and methods of investigation are proposed. Appendices give details on tests for susceptibility
and the important question of restraint.

TN 7 - Health and Safety in Welding

Provides information on all aspects of health and safety in welding and cutting. Designed to provide this information
in such a way that it is readily useable for instruction in the shop and to provide guidance to management.
Recommendations are given for safe procedures to be adopted in a wide variety of situations in welding fabrication.

TN 8 - Economic Design of Weldments

Principles and guidance are given on methods and procedures for optimising design of weldments and welded joints
and connections to maximise economy in welding fabrication. Factors influencing the overall cost of weldments
which need to be considered at the design stage are discussed.

TN 9 - Welding Rate in Arc Welding Processes: Part 1 MMAW

Gives practical guidance and information on the selection of welding conditions to improve productivity during
manual metal arc welding (MMAW). Graphs are provided showing rates as a function of weld size. The graphs enable
a direct comparison of different types of welding electrodes when used for butt and fillet welds in various welding
positions.

TN 10 - Fracture Mechanics
Provides theory and gives practical guidance for the design and fabrication of structures, planning of maintenance
and assessment of the likelihood of brittle or ductile initiation from imperfections in ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
Engineering critical assessment case histories are discussed.

TN 11 - Commentary on the Structural Steel Welding Standard AS/NZS 1554

The Note complements AS/NZS 1554 parts 1 to 7, by presenting background information which could not be
included in the Standard. It discusses the requirements of the Standard with particular emphasis on new or revised
clauses. In explaining the application of the Standard to welding in steel construction, the commentary emphasises
the need to rely on the provisions of the Standard to achieve satisfactory weld quality.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 18

TN 12 - Minimising Corrosion in Welded Steel Structures
Designed to provide practical guidance and information on corrosion problems associated with the welding of steel
structures, together with possible solutions for minimising corrosion.

TN 13 - Stainless Steels for Corrosive Environments

(A Joint publication with ACA)
Provides guidance on the selection of stainless steels for different environments. Austenitic, ferritic and martensitic
stainless steels are described together with the various types of corrosive attack. Aspects of welding procedure,
design, cleaning and maintenance to minimise corrosion are covered.

TN 15 - Welding and Fabrication of Quenched and Tempered Steel

Provides information on quenched and tempered steels generally available in Australia and gives guidance on
welding processes, consumables and procedures and on the properties and performance of welded joints.
Information is also provided on other important fabrication operations such as flame cutting, plasma cutting, shearing
and forming.

TN 16 - Welding Stainless Steel

This Technical Note complements Technical Note Number 13 by detailing valuable information on the welding of
most types of stainless steels commonly used in industry.

TN 18 - Welding of Castings
Provides basic information on welding procedures for the welding processes used to weld and repair ferrous and
non-ferrous castings. It also provides information on the range of alloys available and briefly covers non-destructive
inspection, on-site heating methods and safety.

TN 19 - Management of Weld Quality—A Guide to AS/NZS ISO 3834

Provides information on the application of AS/NZS ISO 3834 and its parts to the manufacture of welded structures,
supplementing the requirements of both quality management standards and application standards where required,
on elements of the welded fabrication process requiring control to ensure a quality product.

TN 20 - Repair of Steel Pipelines

Provides an outline of methods of assessment and repair to a pipeline whilst allowing continuity of supply.

TN 21 - Submerged Arc Welding

Provides an introduction to submerged arc welding equipment, process variables, consumables, procedures and
techniques, characteristic weld defects, applications and limitations. Describes exercises to explore the range of
procedures and techniques with the use of solid wire (single and multiple arcs) and provides welding practice sheets,
which may be used by trainees as instruction sheets to supplement demonstrations and class work, or as self-
instruction units.

TN 22 - Welding Electrical Safety

Provides information and guidance on welding electrical safety issues (welding equipment, the human body and the
workplace), including investigation of welding current related electric shock injuries and electrocution.

TN 23 - Environmental Improvement Guidelines

Provides information and guidance on how to reduce consumption in the Welding and Fabrication industry, while
reducing the impact on the environment at the same time.

TN 25 – Welding Specification for the Water Industry

Published with the Water Services Association of Australia. Applies to all metal fabrication and repair work involving
welding, carried out by a Water Agency (WA) and its Contractors/Subcontractors. Prescribes weld preparation,
qualification of welding procedures and personnel, workmanship and inspection requirements for welds related to the
arc welding by manual metal arc and other processes approved by the WA responsible Welding Coordinator.

Availability
Please visit Weld Australia’s website for further information on the availability of these publications:
www.weldaustralia.com.au.

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 19

Notes

Weld Australia Technical Guidance Note | Minimisation of Fatigue in Welds | © 2022 20

 Weld Australia
ABN 69 003 696 526
PO Box 197, Macquarie Park BC, NSW 1670
Phone: +61 (0)2 8748 0100
www.weldaustralia.com.au

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