Industrial Waste Management and Control: An Introduction

INDUSTRIAL WASTE
- refers to the by-products, residues, or unwanted materials generated during the production processes
of various industries.
- It consists of solid waste, liquid waste, or a combination of the two, and is typically discarded at a
landfill or discharged into bodies of water.
- Waste in general is produced by human activity, for instance, extraction and processing of raw
materials.

Types of waste
1. Liquid
2. Solid
3. Chemical
4. Toxic or hazardous

INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

- process of collecting, treating, and disposing waste materials generated by various industries.
- The primary goal of industrial waste management is to minimise the negative impact of waste on the
environment, public health, and overall well-being.
- intentionally done to reduce the adverse effects of waste on the environment and human health.
- examines the broader context of waste treatment for wastes directly or indirectly originating from
industries
Summed up by:
1. Waste generator
2. Waste transportation
3. Waste processors

Primary Waste Management Strategies

- Waste Reduction
- Recycling
- Disposal
- Regulatory Compliance
- Pollution Prevention
- Education and Training

WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
- the process by which the composition of different streams of waste is analysed.
- this process is essential for understanding the nature of waste materials, their potential environmental
impacts, and determining appropriate management strategies.
- it provides valuable data for developing effective waste management plans, recycling initiatives, and
pollution prevention measures.

STEP 1: Determine the composition and assign the appropriate categorization

Three Main Categories of Waste
1. Absolute Hazardous
 - This type of waste is typically generated from industrial, agricultural, or healthcare processes. It is
characterized by its toxicity, corrosivity, ignitability, or reactivity.
2. Absolute Non-Hazardous
- This type of waste usually comes from household, commercial, or agricultural sources and can be
further classified into different categories based on its composition, such as organic waste, inorganic
waste, or recyclable waste.
3. Mirror entries
- can either be non-hazardous or hazardous depending on the waste composition. They are essentially
copies of entries in the hazardous waste list, but with specific conditions that make them
non-hazardous.

RISK ASSESSMENT
- the systematic process of evaluating the potential risks which may be involved in a projected waste
management activity or undertaking.
- It involves identifying, analyzing, and evaluating potential risks to determine the likelihood of their
occurrence and the potential impact they may have.

Steps Involved in Risk Assessment

1. Hazard Identification
2. Exposure Assessment
3. Risk Characterization

HAZARD
- something that could potentially cause harm

RISK
- the degree of likelihood that harm will be caused

EXPOSURE
- the bridge between what is regarded as a hazard and what in reality presents a risk

Steps Involved in Risk Assessment

1. Hazard Identification
- identifying and characterizing the source of the potential risk
- this step involves identifying and listing all possible hazards that could lead to adverse health effects or
other negative consequences. Hazards can include physical, chemical, biological, and ergonomic
factors.
2. Exposure Assessment
- determining exposure routes and pathways from the source to the individual
- It involves determining the likelihood and magnitude of exposure to the identified hazards. This step
often involves collecting data on the frequency and duration of exposure, as well as the concentration
or intensity of the hazard.
3. Risk Characterization
- determines who can be likely affected and what likely effects could be.
- this step involves integrating information from hazard identification and exposure assessment to
estimate the risk posed by the identified hazards.
EXAMPLE: Chemicals managed in waste management unit
1. SOURCE: Waste Management Unit (critical parameters include the unit’s size and location)
2. HAZARD: Presence of toxic chemicals (does not denote the existence of any risk)
3. EXPOSURE: Contact with toxic chemicals (inhalation, dermal contact, ingestion)
4. RISK: Possibility of cancer illness (In the process of risk assessment, the health standard information
and the results of exposure assessment are integrated and critically analyzed to arrive at quantitative
estimations of non-cancer and cancer risks)

MODULE 1: WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

WASTEWATER
- A water whose physical, chemical or biological properties have been changed as a result of the
introduction of certain substances which render it unsafe for some purposes such as drinking.

Types of Wastewater
1. Domestic Wastewater
- Municipal wastewater/ used water
- Discharged from residences, institutional, and public facilities
- Contains organics & inorganics solids and microorganisms
- Composition depends on the source of its generation
2. Industrial Wastewater
- Generated by large & medium scale industries
- Vary in quantity & quality from industry to industry and process to process for the same industry
- The majority of manufacturing industries generate a large volume of high-strength wastewater

WASTEWATER TREATMENT
- the process and technology that is used to remove most of the contaminants that are found in
wastewater to ensure a sound environment and good public health
- handling wastewater to protect the environment to ensure public health, economic, social and political
soundness

OBJECTIVES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Reduction of biodegradable organic substances in the environment:
- organic substances such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur in organic matter need to be
broken down by oxidation into gases which are either released or remain in solution.
2. Reduction of nutrient concentration in the environment:
- nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous from wastewater in the environment enrich water bodies or
render it eutrophic leading to the growth of algae and other aquatic plants. These plants deplete oxygen
in water bodies and this hampers aquatic life.
3. Elimination of pathogens:
- organisms that cause disease in plants, animals and humans are called pathogens. They are also
known as micro-organisms because they are very small to be seen with the naked eye.
4. Recycling and Reuse of water:
- Water is a scarce and finite resource which is often taken for granted.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER
● Physical characteristics
1. Turbidity
- refers to the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by suspended particles.
- High turbidity levels in wastewater can indicate poor treatment or inadequate removal of
suspended solids during the wastewater treatment process.
2. Color
- can vary significantly depending on its source and the types of pollutants present.
- Common colors include black, brown, gray, or even green.
3. Odor
- unpleasant smell due to the presence of various organic compounds, such as hydrogen
sulfide, ammonia, and other volatile organic compounds.
- It serves as an indicator of the presence of specific pollutants or treatment process
inefficiencies.
4. Temperature
- can be influenced by several factors, including the surrounding environment, the nature
of the wastewater, and the treatment processes employed.
- Temperatures can range from near-freezing to significantly higher than the ambient
temperature, depending on the source and the presence of heat-generating processes.
 Stage 1—Bar screening filters big particles from influents to protect facility equipment.
Stage 2—By passing the influent over or through a grit chamber, screening is used to eliminate the grift.
Stage 3—initial separation of solid organic materials from wastewater using a primary clarifier.
Stage 4—Aeration involves pumping air into the aeration tank to promote chemical precipitation
conversion and supply oxygen for bacteria to continue growing and reproducing.
Stage 5—Pumping treated wastewater through a secondary clarifier enables any organic matter still
present in the flow of treated water to settle out.
Stage 6—Chlorination (Disinfection). To eliminate any leftover bacteria in the contact chamber, chlorine
is introduced.
Stage 7—Water testing and analysis. Testing to verify the water is flowing, clarifying, and aerating at the
right rates and the optimum pH level.
Stage 8—Waste disposal. Clean water is discharged into the environment once it satisfies all permit
requirements.

MODULE 1: INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
1. Philippine Clean Water Act
- R.A. 9275
- “An Act Providing for a Comprehensive Water Quality Management and for Other Purposes”
- March 2004
- The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection,
preservation, and revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish, and marine waters.
- The Act shall apply to water quality management in all water bodies, that it shall primarily apply to the
abatement and control of pollution from land-based resources, that the water quality standards and
regulations under this Act shall be enforced irrespective of sources of pollution.
- Section 8 requires residential, commercial, and industrial establishments to connect to a sewage line
provided by concessionaires
- Section 14 regulates effluent discharge to bodies of water
- LLDA as regulatory agency monitoring discharges to Laguna Lake

EFFLUENT STANDARDS
1. DAO 2016-08
- Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Quality Standard of 2016
- Section 7 General Effluent Standards: Discharges from any point of source shall at all times meet the
effluent standards set to maintain the required water quality per body classification. The GES shall be
used regardless of industry category.
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
- deals with the processes used for treating wastewater (liquid wastes) produced by industries as
undesirable by-products.
- After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or now called effluent) might be reused or released to
the sanitary sewer or to surface water in the environment either directly or through a water canal.

SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

1. Dairy industry
- Operations may include pasteurization, bottling, preparation of butter, milk powder etc.
- Wastewater consists primarily dilution of milk and its product (very high BOD)
- Wastewater may also contain detergents, germicides, and other chemicals.
2. Distillery and Brewery
- Products include industrial alcohols, spirit, absolute alcohol, etc.
- Products are obtained through high bio-chemical processes of fermentation of yeast, using
carbohydrates as raw material
- Unwanted residue contains very high BOD
 3. Iron and steel industries
- The contamination of waste streams includes gasification products such as naphthalene,
benzene, anthracene, ammonia, phenols, cyanide, and cresols along with a variety of more
complex organic compounds collectively called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
4. Mines and quarries
- slurries of the rock particles in water
- Wastewater from the metal mines and ore recovery plants is unavoidably contaminated by the
minerals in the native rock formations. After crushing and extraction of desirable materials,
undesirable ones may enter the wastewater streams
- Extraction of high-value metals, e.g. silver and gold, may generate slimes containing very fine
particles in which the physical removal of contaminants becomes difficult
5. Battery manufacturing
- The pollutants generated at battery manufacturing plants include lead, manganese, mercury,
nickel, chromium, cobalt, copper, cadmium, cyanide, iron, oil and grease, silver and zinc
6. Electric power plants
- Many electric power plants discharge wastewater with significant amounts of metals such as
lead, cadmium, chromium, and mercury, as well as arsenic, nitrogen compounds (nitrites and
nitrates), and selenium.
- Wastewater streams include fly ash, flue gas desulfurization, bottom ash, and flue gas mercury
controls
7. Textile industries
- Pollutants generated by textile mills include oil and grease, BOD, sulfide, phenols and chromium
- Insecticide residues in fleeces are a particular problem in treating wastewater generated in wool
processing.
8. Petroleum refining and petrochemicals industries
- Petrochemicals are chemicals which are derived from petroleum (includes both organic and
inorganic chemicals)
- Pollutants discharged at petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants include conventional
pollutants (BOD, oil and grease, COD, SS), ammonia, phenols, sulfides, and chromium.
9. Paper and pulp industries
- Effluents from the paper and pulp industries are generally high in BOD and suspended solids.
- Plants that bleach wood pulp for the manufacturing of paper may generate dioxins, chloroform,
furans, COD, and phenols. Stand-alone paper mills using imported pulp may only need simple
primary treatment, such as dissolved air flotation or sedimentation.

PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Screening
- is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs).
- Screening removes objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and
clogging of downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances.
2. Comminution
- Break down large waste objects, transforming them into smaller pieces.
- It includes grinding, milling, shredding and ultrasonic disintegration.
3. Flow Equalization
- A process of mitigating changes in flow rate through a portion of a system by providing storage
to hold water when it is arriving too rapidly, and to supply additional water when it is arriving less
rapidly than desired.
 - It prevents and controls the short-term, high volumes of incoming flow called “surges”.
4. Sedimentation
- A process that removes solids that float and settle in the water.
- It relies on the use of sedimentation tanks that remove larger solids.
5. Flotation
- A process of separating small particles of various materials by treatment with chemicals in water
in order to make some particles adhere to air bubbles and rise to the surface for removal while
others remain in the water.
6. Flocculation
- In physical chemistry it refers to the process of separating solid particles from a liquid, resulting
in the formation of loose aggregations or soft flakes
7. Granular-medium Filtration
- Granular Media Filtration is the process of removal of suspended solids by passage of water
through a porous medium.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Chemical Precipitation
- Chemical precipitation is a chemical unit process in which undesirable soluble metallic ions and
certain anions are removed from water or wastewater by conversion to an insoluble form.
2. Coagulation
- used to remove solids from water, by manipulating electrostatic charges of particles suspended
in water.
- introduces small, highly charged molecules into water to destabilize the charges on particles,
colloids, or oily materials in suspension.
3. Neutralization
- To modify or control the pH of the wastewater to a neutral or target pH level before discharge.
4. Adsorption
- physical process where soluble molecules (adsorbate) are removed by attachment to the
surface of a solid substrate (adsorbent)
5. Disinfection
- conducted by treating the effluent with the selected disinfectant to exterminate
- protects public health by exterminating pathogens such as microbes, viruses, and protozoan,
and meets wastewater discharge standards.
- protects microbial wastewater quality
6. Oxidation-Reduction
- Oxidation-reduction is a process that is used to remove impurities from water. This process is
also known as redox.
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons
between molecules.

BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Activated Sludge Process
- The process of aerating wastewater to promote the growth of microorganisms during a specific
stage of the treatment.
2. Aerated Lagoon
- A type of wastewater treatment system that uses microorganisms and oxygen to break down
organic matter and other pollutants in wastewater.
 - Its structure is like a shallow basin.
- A holding and treatment pond that has artificial aeration that promotes the biological oxidation
of wastewater.
3. Trickling Filters
- The fixed media in the Trickling water treatment filter may be rocks, plastic, metal, etc
- The wastewater is sprayed through a bed of coarse stones or plastic material packed in a
circular tank.
4. Rotating Biological Contactors
- The primary function of these bio-reactors is the reduction of organic matter.
5. Nutrient Removal Process
- a vital approach in wastewater treatment which utilises microbes to eliminate nitrogen and
phosphorus in wastewater, reducing the concentration of these before discharge onto
tributaries.
6. Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
- is a form of anaerobic digester used in wastewater treatment.
- UASB reactor is a methane-producing digester, which uses an anaerobic process and forms a
blanket of granular sludge and is processed by the anaerobic microorganisms.
7. Stabilization ponds
- are large, man-made water bodies in which blackwater, greywater or faecal sludge are treated
by naturally occurring processes and the influence of solar light, wind, microorganisms and
algae

Brine Treatment Technologies and Oils and Grease Removal

1. Membrane Filtration Processes
- Allow certain substances to pass through while blocking others based on size, molecular weight,
and other specific characteristics.
- The fluid containing particles or solutes to be separated flows parallel to the membrane surface.
- Selectively allows certain substances to pass through the membrane while retaining others.
2. Ion exchange
- is a specialized technology used in wastewater treatment to efficiently remove dissolved ions
and contaminants from water.
- relies on ion exchange resins that attract undesirable ions in the wastewater and exchange
them with more desirable ions, effectively purifying the water before discharge.
3. Evaporation Process
- Evaporation ponds are shallow, lined earthen basins in which concentrate evaporates naturally
through sunlight and wind.
- As fresh water evaporates from the ponds, the minerals in the concentrate are precipitated in
salt crystals, which are harvested periodically and disposed of off-site.
4. API oil-water separator
- The purpose of an API (American Petroleum Institute) oil-water separator is to extract large
amounts of oil and suspended solids from industrial wastewater generated by petrochemical,
chemical, oil refinery, natural gas processing, and other industrial sources of oily water.
- This separator is based on Stokes' law, which determines the upward movement speed of oil
droplets based on their density, size, and water properties.
5. Hydrocyclone separators
- Extreme centrifugal force is used by hydrocyclone separators to extract oil particles from
wastewater.
 - Using a hydrocyclone separator, one can categorize, divide, or arrange particles in a liquid
suspension according to how their centripetal force to fluid resistance ratios compare.

Removal of biodegradable organics, alkalis acids and toxic components

1. Sequential Batch Reactors
- The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a fill-and-draw activated sludge system for wastewater
treatment.
- In this system, wastewater is added to a single “batch” reactor, treated to remove undesirable
components, and then discharged.
2. Membrane Bioreactors
- integrate traditional biological treatment methods like activated sludge with membrane filtration
to achieve a more advanced level of removing organic matter and suspended solids.
3. advanced oxidation process
- Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are the technologies that generally use hydroxyl
radicals, the ultimate oxidant for the remediation of organic contaminants in wastewater.
- AOP can combine with ozone (O3), catalyst, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to offer a powerful
treatment of wastewater.
4. ozonation
- Ozone water treatment begins with the creation of ozone in an ozone generator.
- It is then injected into water, and immediately starts oxidizing and eliminating contaminants,
such as bacteria, viruses, and metals.
5. neutralization
- used to treat high acidic or high alkaline industrial wastewater.
- The most important objective is to modify an acid or base water flow to a neutral pH, (6-8 or
approximately 7).

MODULE 2: AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Philippine Clean Air Act Definition of Air pollution:

“...any alteration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the atmospheric air, or any discharge
thereto of any liquid, gaseous or solid substances that will or is likely to create or to render the air resources of
the country harmful, detrimental, or injurious to public health, safety or welfare or which will adversely affect
their utilization for domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational, or other legitimate
Purposes.”
US EPA Definition:
“...occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odour in amounts which could be harmful to the health
or comfort of humans and animals or which could cause damage to plants and materials.”

AIR POLLUTION
- Air pollution threatens the health of humans and other living beings on our planet.
- It creates smog and acid rain, causes cancer and respiratory diseases, reduces the ozone layer
atmosphere and contributes to global warming.

Philippine Clean Air Act Definition of Air Pollutants:

“...means any matter found in the atmosphere other than oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and
the inert gases in their natural or normal concentrations, that is detrimental to health or the environment.”
- i.e., smoke, dust, soot, cinders, gases, fumes, chemicals, radioactive substances

RA 8749: CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999

- AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES
- This law formulates holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be implemented by
the government.
- It focuses primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a comprehensive
management program for air pollution
- An act governing the management of air quality and control or air pollution which includes setting the
standards for ambient air quality and emission standards
Coverage: All potential sources of air pollution (stationary, mobile, and area sources must comply with the
provisions of the law. All emissions must be within the air quality standards.

Stationary Sources
- Any building or immobile structure, facility or installation which emits or may emit any air pollutant
- Examples: industrial firms and the smoke stack of power plants, hotels, and other establishments

Mobile Sources
- Any vehicle/machine propelled by or through oxidation or reduction reactions including combustions of
carbon-based or other fuel, that emit air pollutants as a reaction product
- Examples: cars, trucks, vans, buses, jeepneys, tricycles, motorcycles

Area Sources
- Relatively large areas of specific activities that generate significant amounts of air pollutants
- Examples: smoking, burning of garbage, dust from construction, and unpaved ground

Incineration
- burning of municipal, biomedical and hazardous waste, which process emits poisonous and toxic fumes
is hereby prohibited;
- This process converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. The incineration process involves several
stages, including waste preparation, combustion, energy recovery, and emissions control.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
- Major SOx compounds: SO2 and SO3
- SO2 is a colorless gas with a sharp odor, primary pollutant
- SO2 is detectable at concentrations > 1ppb
- Sense of smell is lost when exposed > 3ppm
- Concentrations at the troposphere
- Areas far from industrial activities: < 1ppb
- Highly polluted areas: 2ppm
- Urban and industrial countries: 0.1 – 0.5 ppm
Sources:
- Anthropogenic sources: industries burning sulfur-containing fossil fuels, ore smelters, oil refineries.
- Sulfur is present in many fuels (e.g., coal, crude oils) over a wide range of concentrations. Combustion
causes its oxidation to sulfur dioxide.
- Natural sources: marine plankton, sea water, bacteria, plants, volcanic eruption.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN
- NOx stands for an indeterminate mixture of nitrous oxide, N2O, nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide,
NO2
- NOx formed mainly from N2 and O2 during high-temperature combustion of fuel in cars.
- Anthropogenic sources: motor vehicles, biomass burning
- Natural sources: bacteria, lightning, biomass burning
- Levels of exposure to NO2 should not exceed 0.21 ppm (for 1 h) and 0.08 ppm (for 24 h)

PARTICULATE MATTERS
● Particulate matters – finely divided solids or liquids (dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash, mist, spray)
● Size – aggregates of 0.002 μm in diameter to 500 μm; of interest is the size range 0.01 – 100
● Optical qualities – can scatter light (0.38 – 0.76 μm)
● Settling properties
- Suspended: < 1 μm – 20 μm
- Settleable or dustfall: > 10 μm
Suspended particulates: Mode of formation
● Dust - solid particles created by break up of large masses; do not diffuse; settle by gravity
● Smoke - result from incomplete combustion of organics; consist mainly of carbon
● Fumes - formed by condensation of vapors of solid materials; flocculate then coalesce, then settle out
● Fly ash - non-combustible particles rising with flue gas
● Mist - liquid formed by condensation of vapors, dispersion of liquid, or chemical reaction; causes fog
● Spray - atomization of liquids

Sources
1. Natural Sources
- Aerial entrapment of soil
- sea spray
- pollen and spores brought by wind
- volcanic activity
- burning of biomass
2. Human activity increases the flux from natural sources.
- Poor agricultural practices (large-scale loss of soil by wind erosion)
- Burning of fossil fuels and biomass
Chemical and Physical Impacts
- Large surface area of particulates increases the rate of chemical reactions (example: SO2 → SO3).
- Fine particulates scatter light, ↓solar radiation reaching the surface
- Dust can entrap solar radiation → surface warming
- Soiling of clothing and textiles; discoloring and destroying painted surfaces

Health Impacts
- Respiratory diseases (especially caused by anthropogenic particulates)
- Fuel smoke particulates ↑health effect of other pollutants
- Some particulates carry toxicants (soot, lead compounds)
- Aeroallergens: airborne substances causing allergies

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

- Air pollution cannot be fully prevented but can be controlled using the equipment. Various devices and
technologies are employed to remove particulates from the air, thereby reducing air pollution.
- Air pollution control devices are a series of devices that work to prevent a variety of different pollutants,
both gaseous and solid, from entering the atmosphere primarily out of industrial smokestacks. These
control devices can be separated into two broad categories - devices that control the amount of
particulate matter escaping into the environment and devices that control acidic gas emissions.
- Reducing air pollution requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses technological
advancements, regulatory measures, behavioural changes, and international cooperation.
- Strategies needed to reduce the detrimental effects of air pollution:
- Transition to Clean Energy Sources
- Improvement of Industrial Processes
- Enhancement of Vehicle Emission Standards
- Promotion of Sustainable Agriculture Practices
- Regulation of Waste Management
SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTANTS
1. Boilers
- It is a closed container where water or other fluid is heated, with the heat energy transferred to
the contained water to produce steam or hot water.
- It is a specialized vessel designed to heat water or generate steam, typically for heating
purposes or to provide energy for various industrial processes.
2. Thermic Fluid Heater
- By definition, thermic Fluid heaters are heating equipment, used in industries where heat
transfers are the primary need of process instead of pressure.
- They are typically used in applications where high temperatures and low pressures are required.
3. Incinerator
- type of furnace designed for burning hazardous materials in a combustion chamber
- Operates at high temperatures (980°C to 1200°C) to help reduce the volume of waste.
- Used for the disposal of various types of waste such as municipal and industrial waste, as well
as medical waste.
4. Blast Furnace
- Large steel structure ranging 80 to 100 feet wide and 30 meters high.
- Lined with refractory firebricks.
- Shaped narrow at the top and has arrangements for the introduction of the feed and outlet for
waste gases.
- Reduces iron ore into melted iron
5. Cake Oven
- A chamber of brick or other heat-resistant material in which coal is heated to separate the coal
gas, coal water, and tar. The coal gas and coal water fuse together with carbon and the
remaining ash, forming a hard residue commonly referred to as coke.
- Coal: A mineral consisting mainly of sedimentary fossilized carbon with smaller amounts of
other elements, such as sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Coal composition is denoted by
rank.
- Coke: a material similar to a porous rock, about the size of a fist. It is the carbon source for steel
and also influences the blast furnace’s performance. A fuel and reducing agent.
6. Basic Oxygen Furnace
- like a giant and fiery oven
- used to turn scrap metal into shiny new steel
- a vital part of the steel industry
7. Induction Furnace
- an electric furnace in which heat is applied by induction heating of metals.
- commonly used in modern foundry, steel plants and the mining industry.
- Induction heating: process of heating an electrically conducting object by electromagnetic
induction, through heat generated in the object using eddy currents.
8. Cement Kilns
- In cement manufacturing lines, cement clinker is calcined using a pyroprocessing device known
as a cement rotary kiln, or cement kiln.
- Heat is produced during production by burning fuel in an equipped kiln burner.
- Kilns are operated in a counter-current configuration where gases and solids flow in opposite
directions through the kiln, providing more efficient heat transfer.
EQUIPMENT USED TO COLLECT AND CONTROL AIR POLLUTANTS (PARTICULATES)
1. Cyclone Separators
- Equipment used to separate solids from contaminated fluid streams with the use of the principle
of inertia. These act as precleaners of polluted air systems which is very applicable to a wide
range of industries.
- Reasons they’re used: dust collection, air pollution control, product recovery, and fluid-solid
separation
2. Gravity Settling Chambers
- This technology falls under "precleaners," aiming to lower particulate matter (PM) intake in
downstream collection systems by eliminating larger, abrasive particles. Settling chambers,
alternatively known as gravity collectors, expansion chambers, or outfall chambers, include
multiple-tray ones like Howard settling chambers.
- The primary function is the removal of PM by reducing gas velocity to enable the dust to settle
out by the action of gravity.
- Reasons they’re used: Control of particulate matter larger than 10 μm; Used in metal refining
industries (i.e. collection of arsenic trioxide from ore smelting); Utilized in power heating plants
for the collection of unburned carbon particles
3. Fabric Filters
- A fabric filter, also known as a baghouse, uses fabric filtration to remove particles from
contaminated gas streams by depositing them on fabric material. Filters can be cylindrical bags,
cartridges made of fabric, sintered metal, or porous ceramic, and typically have collection
efficiencies of over 99 percent.
4. Electrostatic Precipitators
- A most commonly used device for air pollution control
- A filtration tool used to extract fine particles from flowing gas, such as smoke and fine dust
- Uses electrical forces to displace particles from the gas stream and onto collector electrodes
- Capture fine particles smaller than 2.5 microns [0.0001 inch] in diameter), which are dangerous
if released
- Reasons they’re used: Smoke removal, Collection of Dry and Wet pollutants, Removal of dust
particles from flue gases. Clean metallurgical heating system gases, Elimination of fungus and
bacteria, and Air sanitation

EQUIPMENT USED TO COLLECT AND CONTROL AIR POLLUTANTS (GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS)
1. Incinerators
- Incinerators burn hazardous materials at temperatures high enough to destroy contaminants.
- Incinerators gather and manage air pollutants using a variety of design elements, combustion
methods, and air pollution control technologies.
- Many different types of hazardous materials can be treated by incineration, including soil,
sludge, liquids, and gases.
- The principal pollutants targeted are particulate matter, acid gasses, and, more recently, dioxins,
mercury, and nitrogen oxides.
- The incinerator is done in a furnace, creating hot gases and bottom ash waste for disposal.
2. Gas Scrubbers
- This is the process of passing a polluted gas stream through a liquid or dry sorbent to remove
pollutants from industrial exhaust gases.
- The fundamental principle underlying gas scrubbing is mass transfer.
- Absorption, Adsorption, Chemical reaction, and Treatment
 3. Gas adsorbers
- Polluted air is passed through the adsorber, where the adsorbent material selectively captures
the target pollutants onto its surface.
- Gas adsorbers find applications in various industries, including air purification, industrial
processes, and environmental remediation
- The fundamental principle underlying gas adsorption is mass transfer.
- Selective adsorption, Regeneration, Continuous Adsorption, and Monitoring and Control
4. Carbon Adsorption Systems
- This utilizes solid adsorbent materials, such as activated carbon, to physically capture gaseous
pollutants from air streams.
- The fundamental principle underlying adsorption is surface adhesion.
- Adsorption, adsorption theory, and adsorption capacity

PROCESSES USED TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION

1. flue gas desulphurization

- Flue gas desulphurization (FGD) is the process of removing sulphur compounds from the
exhaust emissions of fossil-fueled power stations.
- This is done through the addition of absorbents, which can remove up to 95% of the sulphur
dioxide from the flue gas.
2. flue gas denitrification
- The principle of denitrification is similar to that of desulfurization, except that the denitrifying
agent is replaced by ammonia or urea to remove the nitrogen oxides in the flue gas.
3. selective catalytic reduction
- (SCR) is an advanced method for controlling emissions. It involves injecting reducing agents like
ammonia or urea-based diesel exhaust fluid DEF compounds into the exhaust using catalysts to
convert harmful nitrogen oxides (NOx) into harmless nitrogen gas (N2), and water, achieving a
removal efficiency of up to 90%.
- SCR is widely employed in mobile (heavy- and light-duty diesel engines) and stationary (mining,
construction, power plants) emission sources, including heavy- and light-duty diesel engines,
mining, construction, farm equipment, power plants, and marine applications.
- It is the primary technology used to comply with the Environmental Protection Agency’s 2010
Heavy-Duty Highway Engines and Vehicle emissions reduction regulations.
4. incineration (direct combustion & catalytic incinerator)
- Direct Combustion known as the process incineration, is the process by which organic
materials are burned at high temperatures. Once the organic materials react with the excess
oxygen, they produce carbon dioxide and water.
- Catalytic incinerators are pollution control devices that oxidize volatile organic compounds by
using a catalyst to promote the combustion process. It can be used to reduce emissions from a
variety of stationary sources.

MODULE 3: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste
- refers to the range of garbage materials arising from animal and human activities that are discarded as
unwanted and useless.
- As defined in the “Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000” (RA 9003)
 - “Solid waste shall refer to all discarded household, commercial waste, nonhazardous
institutional and industrial waste, street sweepings, construction debris, agriculture waste, and
other non-hazardous/non-toxic solid waste.”
EXCLUSIONS
- Wastes identified or listed as hazardous waste of a solid, liquid, contained gaseous or semisolid form
which may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or serious or incapacitating reversible illness
or acute/chronic effect on the health of persons or other organisms;
- Infectious wastes from hospitals
- Wastes resulting from mining activities

Classifications of Wastes:
1. Biodegradables – waste that can be decomposed by organisms
- Recyclables
- Residuals
- With recycling potential
- Without recycling potential
- Special Wastes

a. Recyclables
- uncontaminated wastes that can be converted into other beneficial uses or purpose
b. Residuals
- waste with no commercial value and ultimately meant for disposal
c. Special Wastes
- includes hazardous wastes, bulky wastes, consumer electronics, white goods, that are usually
handled separately from other residential or commercial wastes
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003
- Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
- Signed into law on January 26, 2001
- This law aims to ensure public health and environmental protection by waste avoidance and volume
reduction through source reduction and waste-minimization measures, treatment and disposal of solid
waste in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles.
- It considers waste as a resource that can be recovered emphasizing recycling, reuse and
composting as methods to minimize waste problems.
- It also aims to ensure proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, and disposal of solid waste
through the formulation and adoption of BEPs in ecological waste management, excluding
incineration.

SANITARY LANDFILL
- Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe. It is considered
when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and physically.
DECOMPOSITION IN LANDFILLS
- When MSW is deposited in landfills, microbial decomposition breaks down the wastes creating gaseous
end products, such as CO2, CH4, and various VOCs, as well liquid leachate
- Attention to environmental impacts of landfills has shifted from concern for groundwater contamination
by leachates to global warming impacts of greenhouse gas emissions, capturing those
emissions for clean power generation, and long-term carbon storage.

Stages of Waste Decomposition

I. Aerobic Phase.
- Enough entrained oxygen allows aerobic decomposition to take place for few days until oxygen
level drops and anaerobic conditions begin.
II. Acid Phase.
- Anaerobic process prevails.
- Two-step process.
A. Hydrolyzing-fermentative organisms produce enzymes that break down complex
organics such as cellulose and starch into simpler products that can be fermented into
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids, and alcohols
B. Products are converted by bacteria, called acetogens, into simpler organic acids. As
these acids form, the pH of the leachate drops, which can allow heavy metals to be
solubilized. The concentration in the waste rises and small amounts of hydrogen gas are
produced
III. Methanogenesis, unsteady. Methanogens convert the organic acids into CH4 and CO2. The pH begins to
return toward more neutral conditions and the release of heavy metals into the leachate declines. This phase
can last for months.
IV. Methanogenesis, steady. The duration of each phase depends on the availability of moisture and
nutrients, but typically on the order of a year or so after a landfill cell is completed the generation rate of CH4
and CO2 settles down into nearly equal percentages.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

 - the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer,
processing and disposal of solid waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public
health, conservation, economic, aesthetic, engineering, and other environmental considerations.

◾
The main sources of solid wastes are:
RESIDENTIAL - includes kitchen scraps, yard waste, paper and cardboards, glass bottles, plastic
containers and sando bags, foils, soiled tissues and diapers, and special wastes such as containers of

◾
household cleaning agents, batteries and waste electrical and electronic equipment

◾
INSTITUTIONAL - such as government offices, educational and medical institutions

◾
INDUSTRIAL - waste coming from the manufacturing sector
COMMERCIAL - include commercial establishments and public or private markets
SLUDGE THICKENING
- Separation of solid and free liquid phases of the sludge
- The main objective of thickening is to concentrate the solids and thus decreasing the total sludge
volume
- Can increase the dry solids (DS) content by up to 6%
- It is a vital step to optimize the downstream processes, such as stabilization and dewatering

SLUDGE STABILIZATION
- Minimizes pathogenic organisms, bad odours, and putrescence
- Aims to prevent future decomposition during storage
- Sludge stabilization methods
o Chemical: Alkaline stabilization
- Involves the addition of lime to increase pH and kill microorganisms
o Biological: Aerobic/Anaerobic digestion
 - Uses microorganisms to degrade the organic materials in the sludge
o Thermochemical
- Application of intense heat in the presence or absence of oxygen

DEWATERING
- Aims to further decrease water content by removing both free water and some interstitial water
- Can obtain up to 45% DS depending on sludge characteristics and technology employed.

DRYING
- A thermal process where heat is applied to the sludge to evaporate water.
- It reduces sludge weight and volume and stabilizes the sludge for easier disposal or recovery.
- Can remove up to 80% of remaining water content
- Recovered dried sludge can be used for
● Application as fertilizers
● Composting
● Fuel for incineration

INCINERATION
- For other countries, incineration is the most established and widely-accepted alternative end disposal
method after land spreading
- Can effectively convert organic carbon, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus into gaseous and
predominantly mineral solid products (i.e., ash).

MATERIALS RECOVERY FACILITY (MRF)

- RA 9003 mandates the establishment of MRFs in every barangay (or cluster of barangays).
- It is designed to receive, sort, process, and store compostable and recyclable materials efficiently and
in an environmentally sound manner.
- Only 32% of the barangays in the Philippines are served by material recovery facilities (MRFs).
RISK ASSESSMENT
- the systematic process of evaluating the potential risks which may be involved in a projected waste
management activity or undertaking