CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter focuses on reviews of related literature in understanding of the cultural

adaptation and integration processes among Muslim communities, offering insights into the

challenges, opportunities, and strategies involved.

The study aims to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities, challenges, and

coping mechanisms involved in cultural adaptation among Muslim communities, ultimately

contributing to the promotion of social cohesion and inclusivity in multicultural societies.

Cultural Maintenance of the Muslim Communities after Migration

Cultural Heritage gives an irrefutable connection to the past – to certain social values,

beliefs, customs and traditions, that allows to identify identities with others and deepen the sense

of unity, belonging and national pride. Maintaining keeps its integrity as a people. The

importance of intangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself but rather the

wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from one generation to the next.

Culture is examined as one of the strategies that both migrants and their countries of

origin use to preserve reciprocal relationships after migration, according to (Gsir , Mesciola

2015). They examine the actual application of these dynamics after providing a brief overview of

the sociological and anthropological definitions of culture and the ensuing concept of "cultural

identity," upon which the analysis is based. They focus specifically on three levels: the

association level (cultural centers in particular); the policy level (diaspora and integration); and
the level of migrants' daily behaviors (including the usage of the language of origin). To preserve

cultural identity and customs after migration, it is crucial to associate with like-minded people

and community groups, support policies that promote diversity, and proactive actions that favor

cultural practices. Together, these elements foster an atmosphere that allows immigrants to

successfully integrate into their new cultures and retain their cultural heritage.

According to (Rohimah 2022) Public cities in Indonesia specifically target different

Islamic customs that are performed on major holidays. Traditions like these grow over the

generations and become highly valued local wisdom. Even if there is another fatwa connected to

the desire to change tradition, such as muludan, tahlilan, or other moments, they are still held in

Islam with the aim of purifying Islamic beliefs. But for certain groups, tradition is a way of

expressing one's religious identity as a Muslim and a means of fostering social cohesion and

attitude in the community.

For Muslims, upholding traditions is crucial because it protects their religious and

cultural legacy, strengthens their sense of self and community, and promotes resilience and

cohesiveness within the group. Muslims who preserve their traditions not only pay tribute to the

past but also enhance the present and future of their community by transferring age-old beliefs

and customs to future generations. Many Muslims in the Asia-Pacific region revere Qur'anic

Arabic, the language of the Holy Qur'an, due to its deep significance in Islam, where it is

believed to be the literal words of God. This language is utilized for religious practices and

serves as an Islamic lingua franca among Muslims in the region for communication. The paper

explores the historical relationship between Islam and Arabic, highlighting how their intertwined

history has led to their global dissemination, especially in Asia-Pacific countries with significant
Non-Arab Muslim populations. It also examines how Islam serves as a custodian of the Arabic

language, transforming it into a universal medium used across these regions. Additionally, the

paper discusses how learning Arabic within Asian-Pacific communities enhances communication

not only among Muslims but also within individual religious practices, including prayers and

behaviors. Lastly, it considers the potential for Arabic language learning by non-Muslims in

these communities. (Shlowiy & Saad 2022)

Cultural Identity and Language is an intricately gorgeous tapestry made of the strands of

language, culture, customs, and beliefs. Language functions as a carrier of cultural DNA and is

more than just a tool for communication. It is an embodiment of the people's common

experiences, feelings, and past. This key molds the way to the future while also unlocking the

riches of the past. According to Richards (2023) This relationship between language and identity

is much more significant for indigenous peoples. The age-old knowledge, folktales, and customs

that have been passed down through the centuries are preserved in their languages. Maintaining

these languages is essential to preserving their distinct legacy, not to mention a source of cultural

pride. However , it implies the same as the culture of the muslim communities. For preserving

their culture identity and their communication. In summary, maintaining culture after migration

is essential for preserving identity, fostering a sense of belonging, passing down cultural heritage,

enriching society, promoting social cohesion, and enhancing psychological well-being. It allows

migrants to navigate the complexities of their new environment while staying connected to their

roots and contributing to the diversity and vibrancy of their adopted communities.

Experiences in Acquiring New Culture after Migration

 The stresses connected to being an immigrant or member of an ethnic minority and

undergoing the acculturation process are referred to as acculturative stress. Children's

psychological health may suffer as a result of acculturative stress (Rogers-Sirin et al., 2014).

many immigrant families live in low SES neighborhoods and the combination of poverty and

acculturative stress has been identified as a risk factor. Acculturation Stress arises from the

complex interplay of individual experiences, cultural differences, and structural barriers

encountered during the process of adapting to a new culture. It is important for immigrants to

receive support and resources to help mitigate these stressors and facilitate successful integration

into their new society.

Even though it's crucial, a lot of people have trouble connecting with others. According to

Anderson and Thayer (2018), a sizable percentage of persons experience social isolation,

loneliness, and a lack of interpersonal connection. For instance, in 2017 half of Australian people

said they were lonely at least occasionally, and one in four persons said they were lonely

(Australian Psychological Society, 2018). Comparable results have been documented in the US,

where 58% of women and 63% of men said they felt lonely (Cigna, 2018). For a variety of

causes, including social mobility, changes in technology, fractured family and community

structures, and the speed of contemporary life, social detachment has emerged as a worrying

trend in many developed countries (Baumeister & Robson, 2021).

The COVID-19 epidemic intensified and hastened the pre-existing battles. Early research

indicated that prolonged periods of isolation, social distancing, and growing mistrust of others

are contributing factors to the rise in loneliness and mental illness, particularly in vulnerable

populations (Ahmed et al., 2020; Allen, 2020b; Dsouza et al., 2020; Gruber et al., 2020; Wang et

al., 2020). Adapting to a new environment takes time, and the pace of transition varies from
person to person. Identity negotiation encompasses a considerably larger range of mechanisms

by which individuals manage to balance meeting their demands for psychological coherence,

agency, and communion with meeting their interactional goals. In literary works, the issue of

cultural identity is frequently brought up in relation to gender, race, ethnicity, or nationality.

Identity is an intricate and profound topic in and of itself. Academics studying the social and

humanities view identity as a social creation that is dynamic and malleable. According to Yousef

(2019), there are two types of identities: cultural and personal. The term "cultural identity"

describes a person's feeling of inclusion in a specific group. the problematic side of cultural

identity experienced by immigrants living in a new place with a different culture. The issue of

identity becomes complicated when there are more changes in the existing cultural and social

structures.

Kádár (2018) discovers that social identities, moral decisions, and

reestablishing a connection to one's cultural ancestry. The third study is carried out by Kamil and

Nurcahyani.(2021), whose study focuses on second-generation Chinese people's identity

negotiation Multicultural American culture as portrayed in Lisa Ko's 2017 novel The Leavers.

Nurcahyani and Kamil (2021) use Bhabha's postcolonialist theory to investigate the issue.

Said's orientalism and Dobois' idea of dual identity. Their research demonstrates that Deming's

Many elements impact bargaining, ranging from the family to the community. Nurcahyani and

Additionally, Kamil (2021) notes that Deming's identity hybridity produces a balanced

identity that significantly resolves the uncertainty in his identity brought on by the twoness.

These provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities immigrants

encounter as they adapt to a new culture and integrate into the host society. By understanding

acculturation stress, sense of belonging, cultural adjustment, and identity negotiation,

stakeholders can develop informed strategies to support immigrants' cultural adaptation and

facilitate their successful integration into their new cultural environment.

Experiencing Social Exclusions after Migration

Muslims have experienced various forms of social exclusion in different parts of the

world. One example of social exclusion experienced by Muslims is Islamophobia, which

involves prejudice, discrimination, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims.

According to Balkaya et al. (2019), Muslims are one of the religious communities in the

West that faces the worst discrimination. Women who wear the hijab or other types of Islamic

veil are particularly vulnerable, currently presenting greater risk factors and exclusion in their

labor market insertion (Weichselbaumer 2020). In the Spanish context, studies like that of

Fernández-Reino et al. (2023) highlight the prevalence of discrimination against young people,

particularly in areas like access to employment. The study's focus is on psychological and

perceived Islamophobia stress among Canadian-Muslim immigrants, emphasizing the

moderating effect of group affiliation. By examining the moderating function of group

identification (identity centrality and in-group groupsuperiority) among Muslim immigrants

residing in Canada, this research was to examine the effects of perceived Islamophobia and its

contributing role in psychological suffering. Following 9/11, there was an increase in hate crimes

committed against Muslim immigrants in Canada (Perry, 2015), largely due to bias and

discrimination in the country. Leber (2017) reports that between 2016 and 2017, there was a 65%

rise in hate crimes committed in Canada against Muslims. experiencing discrimination as a

Muslim can have profound emotional, psychological, and social effects, undermining one's sense
of belonging, dignity, and well-being. It highlights the importance of combating prejudice,

promoting tolerance, and fostering inclusive and equitable societies where all individuals are

treated with dignity and respect, regardless of their religious beliefs.

Islamophobia is an act of fear or hostility towards followers of Islam.

The contributions Muslims have received due to discrimination serve as evidence of this.

Following the 9/11 attacks in the United States, Islamophobia was initially spoken by

Westerners. As a result, it expanded to Asian nations including Malaysia, Indonesia, and

Myanmar. (Osman, 2017). The intriguing thing to note is that Islamophobia may also exist in

nations where Muslims make up the majority of the population, not just in non-Muslim areas.

This occurred as a result of non-Muslims' growing hostility against Islam (Nawab: 2017).

Behavior changes are a result of the growing problem of Islamophobia, which is mostly

attributable to media involvement and acts of terrorism. Racism and prejudice against particular

groups have a negative economic impact on the degree of social and economic development in

the affected area or community. Addressing social exclusion requires efforts to promote

inclusion, combat discrimination, and foster a welcoming and supportive environment where all

individuals have equal opportunities to participate and thrive. And also can pose significant

challenges for every individuals in adapting to a new society.

Coping Strategies of the Immigrants after experiencing Socio Cultural Challenges

The importance of developing internationalization strategies has become a rapidly

growing phenomenon in response to globalization in political, financial, educational, and other

fields and the interdependence of different cultures, societies, economies, and populations.
An essential pathway individuals use to develop coping mechanisms is through their religious

convictions or other ideological and value systems. According to Moons et al. (2019), religion

serves as a significant resource shaping one's worldview and guiding the formation of coping

strategies. By examining a person's religious affiliation, we gain insights into the coping

mechanisms employed by its followers. Muslims, drawing from the rich resources of the Qur'an

and Islamic teachings, utilize a diverse array of religious coping strategies to navigate

challenges, particularly evident among Muslim refugees settling in new environments.

Understanding these unique religious coping approaches is crucial as they may unveil broader

religious and cultural insights that can inform more effective communication between support

programs in host countries and their refugee populations.

Muslims derive strength from their religious convictions for various reasons, with a

primary factor being the profound connection and guidance offered by Islam during trying times.

Islam transcends mere religious practice for its adherents, encompassing all facets of daily life

and decision-making. Consequently, it is natural for Muslims to turn to their faith for solace and

encouragement when confronted with adversity.

A fundamental tenet underpinning Muslims' resilience in the face of challenges is their

belief in predestination. Central to Islamic faith is the conviction that God has ordained a

predetermined plan for each individual, with every event in life being part of that divine design.

This belief instills in Muslims the resolve to confront difficult circumstances with patience and

unwavering trust in the wisdom of Allah. By surrendering to the divine will, Muslims find

comfort in the knowledge that their struggles are transient and that every experience unfolds
according to a greater purpose. It implies for how the muslims adjusts or doing some strategies to

cope up after facing challenges.

According to (Morales and Roque ,2020) The Philippines is part of the bigger cultural crucible of

Southeast Asia, composed of continental and archipelagic Southeast Asia. Both areas have been

the melting pot of various cultures and faith traditions creating culturally symbiotic and

multicultural communities and tribes. This is manifested in the different tribal customs and social

norms exhibited in different places in the Philippines. Among them is the culture of the

circumcision which, although a predominantly Southeast Asian Muslim tradition, is also

practiced as a rite of passage for Filipino males. Islam in the Philippines, like in other countries,

has developed a level of indigenization, and this has resulted in a clash between indigenization

and Arabization of Islam in the public sphere, where because of a globalized culture and easier

access to information through technology, there has been social friction between cultural and

religious institutions that form Muslim communities in the Philippines. It is important to

highlight that Islam is a mosaic and not a monolith. As such, different schools of thought are

manifested in the practice of Islam in the Philippines and in the religious educational institutions

that enforce their respective practices through religious education (tarbiyah). As multiple schools

of Islamic thought have embedded themselves into Filipino Muslim culture, this paper will try to

differentiate and clarify unique distinctions in each school of thought and how they have

influenced Filipino Muslim culture and spirituality. This discussion aims to present the roles and

influences that cultural and religious institutions provide in the context of cultural and religious

education and their role in strengthening multiculturalism and religious pluralism in the

Philippines. This paper is part of a bigger research in understanding the cultural and religious
education of Muslims in the Philippines and aims to provide a clearer perspective in

understanding the role of Muslim culture.

The gaps in the data about adaptation and integration point to serious obstacles and

problems adjusting to the new society. Even with the best efforts, there are still certain gaps in

the knowledge that affect our comprehension and capacity to deal with this problem.