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OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:

• Recall the evolution of computer networks.

• Understand the fundamental characteristics and
components of data communication.
• Describe the network’s criteria, connection types, topology,
and types of transmission of data.
• Compare the two switching types.
• Differentiate between www and Internet.
• Understand the importance of protocols in a network.
• Discuss the future of Internet and Telecommunications

Presentation Outline:
• Evolution of Computer Networks
• Data Communications
• Network
• Types of Connection, Topologies, and Categories of
Networks
• Switching Types
• www and Internet
• Protocol
• Trends in the Internet and Telecommunications
Evolution of Computer Networks
Evolution of Computer Networks
• Computer networks, also known as Datacom, or
Datatransmission networks, represent a logical result
of the evolution of two of the most important scientific
and technical branches of modern civilization…
•Computing and
•Telecommunication technologies.
Data Communications
• Data Communications – exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission media.
Five Components of Data Communication
• Message/
Information
• Sender
• Receiver
• Transmission
Medium
• Protocol
• Information can be in a form of text, numbers, images,
audio, and video
types)
• Communication can be simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex.
(Data flow
Network Criteria
Performance
• Depends on network elements
• Measured in terms of delay and throughput Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability/robustness Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to error
or malicious users.
Networks
• A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication.
• A device can be a host such as a large computer, desktop,
laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
• A device can also be a connecting device such as a router,
switch or modem that changes the form of data.
Types of Connection
• Point to point – single transmitter and receiver
• Multipoint – multiple recipients of single transmission
Physical Topology
Bus
Topology

Ring
Topology
Types of Transmission
• Unicast – packet is sent from a single source to a specific
destination.
• Broadcast – information is sent from one point to all other
points.
• Multicast – information is sent from one or more points to a set
of other points.

Categories of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity Wide
Area Network (WAN)
• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN)
 • Provide connectivity over areas such as a city or a
campus.
LAN
MAN
WAN
Switching
• Switching refers to choosing the route the data will go through.
• A switch needs to forward data from a network to another
network when required.
• An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at
least two links together.

Two Common types of Switched Network

1. Circuit-switched Network
2. Packet-switched Network
Circuit-switched Network
• A type of network configuration in which a physical path is
obtained and dedicated to a single connection between two
endpoints in the network for the duration of a dedicated
connection.
• Public telephone network is the most well-known example of a
circuit-switching network.
Packet-switched Network
Packet-switched Network
• Packet Switching transmits data across digital networks by
breaking it down into blocks or packets for more efficient
transfer using various network devices.
• Each packet contains the following data as header.
- Source and Destination
Address - Total number of
packets - Sequence number,
etc.
• Internet is an example of a packet-switched network
Comparison Between Circuit Switching
and Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Dedicated transmission path No dedicated path
Continuous transmission Transmission of packet
Same path for duration of connection Each packet may take different route
No storage of data Store-and-forward packets
Overload may block call Overload increases packet delay
Fixed bandwidth transmission Dynamic use of bandwidth
Can use any bit format or framing Packet have special formats

What is the difference

between the World Wide
Web (www) and the
Internet?
World Wide Web
• Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World Wide
Web (WWW) in 1989, while working at (Center for European
Nuclear Research) CERN.
• The www works with the servers around the world. The
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)
ICANN has the authority to maintain the www.
• The Web is completely interconnected with systems, servers,
and cloud data centers.

World Wide Web

• Since the Web is accessible to all, we use URL to locate the
particular server or a webpage.
• The backend languages like PHP, python, C#, JavaScript got
the web to its unique standard.
• The HTML, CSS, and JS really took a vital role in Web
evolution.
• The databases like MySQL, MariaDB, MongoDB, has a big role
in storing the valuable related data in it.
• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the standard Internet Protocol suite. (TCP/IP)
• The history of Internet began with the development of computers in
the 1950s with point-to-point communication between mainframe
computers and terminals.
• In 1972, Vint Cert and Bob Kahn (part of ARPANET group)
collaborated in the Internetting Project. They use Gateway as an
intermediary hardware to communicate dissimilar networks.

Protocols
• Set of rules that governs data communications.
Elements of Protocol
1. Syntax
• Structure or format of the data
• Indicates how to read the bits
2. Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define the actions
3. Timing
• When data should be sent
• Speed at which data should be sent or received
Lesson 2

LESSON 2
Engr. Rodrigo D. Gutierrez
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:

• Describe the characteristics of a layered architecture.

• Explain the network architecture requirements.
• Learn the roles and importance of protocols in network.
• Understand the details of the OSI Layer Model.
• Understand the details of the TCP/IP Model.
• Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP models.
Presentation Outline:
• Characteristics of a Layered Architecture
• Network Architecture Requirements
• Layering and Protocols
• OSI Layer Model
• TCP/IP Model
• OSI Layer vs. TCP/IP Model
Characteristics of a Layered
Architecture
• Allows complex problems to decomposed into small
manageable units.
• Implementation details of the layer are abstracted. Separation of
implementation and specification.
• Layers are work as one by sharing the services provided by
each other.
• Layering allows reuse functionality i.e., lower layers implement
common once.
• Provide framework to implement multiple specific protocols per
layer.
• Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
• It is easy to debug network applications.
• The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
Network Architecture Requirements
Requirements of computer network:
✓Connectivity
✓Cost effective resource sharing
✓Support for common services
✓Reliability
Network Architecture
Network Architecture – framework that guide the
design and implementation of networks.
The most widely used architectures:
✓OSI Model ✓TCP/IP Model
Layering and Protocol
• Services offered by the underlying hardware, added with a
sequence of layers – each provides a higher level of services.
 • These services are implemented in terms of services provided
by the lower layers.

Features of Layering
• Decomposes the problem of building a network into more
manageable components.
• Modular design
• The above layered system
having two layers of
abstraction sandwiched
between the underlying
hardware and the application
program.
• The above layered system
having multiple abstractions provided at any level of the system
• Two types of channel.
- Request/reply channel -
Message stream channel
Protocol
• The protocol defines the format of the data being
exchanged and the control and timing for the
handshake between layers.
• It defines the interfaces between the layers in the same
system and with the layers of peer system.
Protocol defines two interfaces:
1. Service interfaces - Interface between objects in the
same machine.
2. Peer interfaces – messages exchanged with peer.
Protocol Specification
• Combination of prose, pseudo code, state transition diagrams,
packet formats and abstract notations.
Encapsulation
• Defined as the wrapping up of data under a single unit. (adding
information to the data).
Header
• A small piece of information used among peers to communicate
each other.
Payload
• Data being transmitted by the application.
Functions of the 7 OSI Layers
1. Physical Layer
• Characteristics of the interface between the devices.
• Type of transmission medium
• Representation of bits (1’s or 0’s)
• Transmission rate (bps)
• Clock Synchronization (sender and receiver sync)
2. Data Link Layer
• Framing (frames)
• Physical Addressing (MAC Address)
• Flow Control (avoid overwhelming the receiver)
• Error Control (detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames,
trailer added to the end of the frame)
• Access Control (control over the same link when two or more
devices are connected)
3. Network Layer
• Source to destination delivery of the packets.
• Logical Addressing (IP)
• Routing (router, internetworks)

4. Transport Layer
• Process-to-process delivery (process – running program)
• Service point Addressing (port address)
• Segmentation and Reassembly (segments)
• Connection Control (TCP – connection-oriented, UDP-
connectionless – oriented)
• Flow Control (end-to-end flow control)
• Error Control (assures no damage or loss – retransmission)
5. Session Layer
• Opening, closing and managing session between end-user
application processes
• Inter-host communication
• Controlling ports and sessions

6. Presentation Layer
• Syntax (formats) and semantics
• Encryption and compression
7. Application Layer
• User interface services (e-mail, file transfer)
TCP/IP Model (Internet
Architecture)
Functions of the TCP/IP Layers
1. Application Layer
• Application protocols
• FTP, TFTP, SMTP, Telnet, HTTP

2. Transport Layer
• TCP-reliable/connection-oriented , UDP-
unreliable/connectionlessoriented
3. Internet Layer
• IP (supports interconnection of multiple networking
technologies)
• Supporting protocols (ARP, RARP, ICMP-querying and error
reporting protocol)

4. Network Interface Layer (Host to Network Layer)

• Protocols denoted with Network Interface 1 (NET1),
NET2,..NETn
• Hardware –ex. network adapter
• Software – ex. network device driver
 Lesson 3

LESSON 3
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
➢Describe the different networking devices.
➢Identify the role and contribution of some
governing bodies in computer networking.
➢Understand the multiple access techniques
used in a network.
➢Describe the various LAN technologies.
Presentation Outline:
➢Different Networking Devices
➢Standard Organizations
➢Multiple Access Schemes
➢LAN technologies
Networking Devices
What are different networking
devices?
• Networking devices include all computers,
peripherals, interface cards and other
equipment needed to perform data-processing
and communications within the network.
Different
Networking
Devices
✓Network Interface
Card (NIC)
✓Hubs
✓Switches
✓Repeaters
✓Bridge
✓Router
✓Modem
Network
Interface card
(NIC)
• Provides the physical
connection between
the network and the
computer workstation.
• Also referred to as Ethernet adapters, network
adapters, LAN cards, or
LAN adapters.
Hub
• Sometimes referred to as a
concentrator
• Acts as a convergence point of a
network, allowing the transfer of data packets
• Works by duplicating the data packets received via one
port, and making it available to all ports, therefore
allowing data sharing between all devices connected to
the hub.
• Works at physical layer of the OSI model.

Switch
• Joins multiple computers together within one
local area network.
• Capable of inspecting data packets as they
are received, determining the
source and destination device
of each packet, and forwarding
them appropriately.
• Works at data link layer and
network layer (for multi-layer
switch).
• Hub works by sending the data to all ports on
the device whereas a switch transfers it only to
 that port which is connected to the destination
device
Repeater
• Electrically amplifies the signal it
receives and rebroadcasts it.
• Can be a separate device or it
can be incorporated into a
concentrator.
• Used when the total length of your network cable
exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being
used.
Difference between Bridge and
Switch in Networking
Bridge Switch
• works in data link layer
• Works in data link layer of and network layer of OSI
OSI model model.
• Has multiple numbers of
• Has only two ports ports.
• Used to connect two LAN
segment using the same • Used to connect devices
topology. to the same network.
 • Can operate in both half
• Can operate only in duplex and full duplex
halfduplex mode mode.
• Performance of bridge is • Performance of Switch is
slower than switch faster than a bridge.

Router
• Connects at least two
networks.
• Forwards and routes data
packets along networks.
• The router makes sure that information does make
it to the intended destination.
• Operate in the network layer of the OSI model.
Modem
• A communication device that
is used to provide the
connectivity with the internet.
• Works in the physical and
data link layers of the OSI
model.
 Modem vs. Router
Modem
• Device which performs both
modulation and demodulation of
signals.
• It works on the data-link layer of the • It works on the physical, data-link
OSI model and doesn’t have any
inbuilt intelligence.
Router
• Networking device which associates
various networks with each other
for LAN and WAN networks.
and network layer of the OSI model
and maintains the routing table to
forward and route the data packet
to the desired destination path.
• It is an essential part of the
networking system for connecting
any device to the ISP.
• Limited to only LAN connectivity
• It routes the data packets among
the networking devices and the
different networking systems.
• Used for LAN as well as WAN
communication networking.
Gateway
• A device which connects
multiple networks.
• Acts as an entrance to another
network.
• It allows the computer
programs, either on the same
 computer or different computers to share information
across the network through protocols.
• A router is also a gateway.
• Operate in all seven layers of the OSI model.
Firewall
• A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access
to or from a private network.
• A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming
and outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or
block specific
traffic based on a
defined set of
security rules.
• You can implement a firewall in either hardware or software
form, or a combination of both.
Network Standards
Standards
• Allow different computers to communicate.
• Increase the market for products adhering to the standard, resulting
in mass production and cheaper prices.

Two Categories of Standards

• De facto (Latin for “from the fact”) – those standards that have just
happened, without any formal plan
- Ex. IBM, PC, Unix, QWERTY)
• De jure (Latin for “by law”) – formal, legal standards adopted by
some organization body.
- Ex. ASCII, TCP/IP

Standard Organizations
1.ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-
Telecommunication)
• promote the development of telecommunication networks and access
to telecommunication services
2.ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
• OSI Layer
3.IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
• Responsible for publishing RFCs (Request For Comments)
4.IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
• The world’s largest technical professional organization dedicated to
advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.

Communication Protocols
• A communication protocol is the set of rules that
determines how and when stations are allowed to
transmit or receive data, how the data is formatted, and
how error checking is performed, etc.
• MAC (Media Access Control) protocol is a set of rules
to control access to a shared communication medium
among various users.
• One station transmit at a time.

Multiple Access Schemes

• Multiple access schemes can be classified into three
main categories:
1. Fixed Assignment
 Examples: FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access )
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
2. Random Assignment
Example: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sensed Multiple Access
with Collision Detection)
3. Demand Assignment
Example: DAMA (Demand Assignment Multiple
Access)
Poll and Select
• Primary (supervisor) station – ask each
secondary station in a sequence if it has data to
send (Polling)
• Secondary station can send only if the primary
station permits.
• This method may be used in a star topology.
• Polling list can be modified in case of higher
priority stations.
ALOHA Protocols
• Developed for packet radio networks in 1970.
• Frequency band: 30kHz – 300 GHz

PURE ALOHA
• Whenever a station has a frame to send, station listens
for a round-trip propagation time, if no
acknowledgment, then retransmits.
• Collision occurs if two frames interfere each other
during increased of load/data.

CSMA
• A station wishing to transmit first listens to the
medium if another transmission is in progress
(carrier sense).
- If the medium is in use – station waits.
- If the medium is idle – station may transmit.
• Collisions can occur only when more than one
user begins transmitting within the period of
propagation delay.
Fast Ethernet
• a low-cost, Ethernet compatible LAN operating at 100
Mbps
• 100BASE-T options use the IEEE 802.3 MAC protocol
and frame format
• 100BASE-X options use the physical medium
specifications originally defined for FDDI.
• All of the 100BASE-X schemes use two physical links
between nodes: one for transmission and one for
reception.
• 100BASE-TX make use of shielded twisted pair (STP)
or high-quality unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
Token Bus
• Physically, the token bus is a linear cable onto
which stations are attached. Logically, stations
are organized into a ring.
• A special control frame called token is
transmitted from one station to the next, with
each station knowing the address of the station
to its “left’’ and “right’’.
• Token bus defines four priority classes: 0, 2, 4,
and 6 for traffic, with 0 the lowest priority and 6
the highest priority.
Token Ring
• IEEE 802.5 standard.
• The token ring technique is based on the use of a
small frame, called a token that circulates.
• A station wishing to transmit must wait until it detects a
token passing by.
• It then seizes the token by changing one bit in the
token which transforms it from a token into a start-of-
frame sequence for a data frame.
• The station then appends and transmits the remainder
of the fields needed to construct a data frame.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data
Interface)
• The FDDI standard specifies a ring topology operating
at 100 Mbps.
• Optical fiber or twisted pair are used for medium.
• Optical fiber uses 4B/5B NRZI encoding. Maximum
length between repeaters is 2 km. Maximum number of
repeaters is 100.
• Two twisted pair media are specified: 100-ohm
Category 5 unshielded twisted pair and 150-ohm
shielded twisted pair. Maximum length between
repeaters is 100m . Maximum number of repeaters is
100.
100VG-AnyLAN
• It is intended to be a 100 Mbps extension to the
10 Mbps Ethernet and to support IEEE 802.3
frame types.
• Uses a MAC scheme known as demand priority;
• It has been standardized under IEEE 802.12.
• Its MAC algorithm is a round-robin scheme with
two priority levels.
Single-Hub Network
• When a station wishes to transmit a frame, it first
issues a request to the central hub and then
awaits permission from the hub to transmit.
• A station must designate each request as
normal-priority or highpriority.
Hierarchical Network
• All of the end-system ports on all hubs are
treated as a single set of ports for purposes of
round-robin.
• Port ordering is done preorder traversal
LESSON 4
• Internetworking Definition
• Requirements for Internetworking
• Networking Equipment
• Define Tunneling and Tunneling Protocols
• IP Addressing
• Internet Protocols
• Internet Routing

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
• Define the term internetworking.
• Name the requirements for internetworking.
• List down the different networking equipment.
• Define tunneling and cite examples of tunneling
protocols.
• Learn the process of IP Addressing.
• Understand the role of different internet protocols.
• Learn the concept of routing protocols.
Internetworking
• The term “internetworking”
describes the connecting of
separate networks possibly
based on different networking
technologies and possibly
belonging to different
organizations together.
• We will begin by qualifying what is required to support
this capability.

Requirements for Internetworking

• Homogeneous addressing scheme that uniquely
identifies all hosts regardless of location or subnet.
• Homogeneous format for all packets transmitted and
standards for handling them
• Equipment to interconnect heterogeneous network
technologies and handle the directing of packets
 exchanged between the technologies towards their
destinations

Internetworking Equipment
• Many pieces of standard networking equipment and
networking strategies have been developed to support the
network requirements. Among them are the following:
• Repeaters
• Hubs
• Switches
• Bridges
• Routers
• Tunnels

What is
Tunneling?
• In networking, tunnels are a method for transporting
data across a network using protocols that are not
supported by that network.
• Tunneling works by encapsulating packets:
wrapping packets inside of other packets.
• Tunneling is often used in virtual private networks
(VPNs).
• It can also set up efficient and secure connections
between networks, enable the usage of
 unsupported network protocols, and in some cases
allow users to bypass firewalls.

Encapsulation and Encryption

• Encapsulation is the process of enclosing one type of packet using
another type of packet.
• Is the process of adding additional information when data is traveling in
OSI or TCP/IP model.
Imagine a company wants to set up a WAN connecting Office A and
Office B. The company uses the IPv6 protocol, but there is a network
between Office A and Office B that only supports IPv4. By encapsulating
their IPv6 packets inside IPv4 packets, the company can continue to use
IPv6 while still sending data directly between the offices.

• Encryption is the process of scrambling data in such a way that it can

only be unscrambled using a secret encryption key; the process of
undoing encryption is called decryption.
• If a packet is completely encrypted, including the header, then network
routers will not be able to forward the packet to its destination since they
do not have the key and cannot see its header. By wrapping the
encrypted packet inside another unencrypted packet, the packet can
travel across networks.
Tunnels
• A tunnel allows us to run a protocol through a foreign protocol by
taking an encapsulated message from the first protocol, and
making it look like a message to be encapsulated in the second
protocol.
Novell NetWare is type of
Network
Operating System
that provides wide
networking services
ranging from easy
and simple file to
network user, data,
security, and even
resource
management. It is
generally designed
for networks or Local
Area Network (LAN)
operating system.
What is VPN Tunnel?
• A VPN is a secure, encrypted connection over a publicly shared
network. Tunneling is the process by which VPN packets reach
their intended destination, which is typically a private network.
• Many VPNs use the IPsec protocol suite. IPsec is a group of
protocols that run directly on top of IP at the network layer.
Network traffic in an IPsec tunnel is fully encrypted, but it is
decrypted once it reaches either the network or the user device.
• Another protocol in VPNs is Transport Layer Security (TLS).
This protocol operates at either layer 6 or layer 7 of the OSI
 model depending on how the model is interpreted. TLS is
sometimes called SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), although SSL
refers to an older protocol that is no longer in use.

What is GRE Tunneling?

• Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is one of several
tunneling protocols. GRE encapsulates data packets that use
one routing protocol inside the packets of another protocol.
• GRE is one way to set up a direct point-to-point connection
across a network, for the purpose of simplifying connections
between separate networks.
• GRE adds two headers to each packet: the GRE header and an
IP header. The GRE header indicates the protocol type used by
the encapsulated packet. The IP header encapsulates the
original packet's IP header and payload.

What is SSH Tunneling?

• The Secure Shell (SSH) protocol sets up encrypted connections
between client and server, and can also be used to set up a
secure tunnel.
• SSH operates at layer 7 of the OSI model, the application layer.
By contrast, IPsec, IP-inIP, and GRE operate at the network
layer.
Other Tunneling Protocols
In addition to GRE, IPsec, IP-in-IP, and SSH, other tunneling
protocols include:
• Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
• Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP)
• Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
• Virtual Extensible Local Area Network (VXLAN)
IP Addressing
• An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely
identify a device on an IP network.
• 32-bit number divided into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
• IP address is expressed in dotted decimal format (for
example, 172.16.81.100).
• The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal,
or 00000000 - 11111111 binary.
Internet Protocols
• Internet Protocols are responsible for addressing host
interfaces, encapsulating data into datagrams (including
fragmentation and reassembly) and routing datagrams from a
source host interface to a destination host interface across one
or more IP networks.
Examples are the following:
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
ARP
• Used to associate together (i.e. bind) the internet (IP)
address to any addressing scheme used at the
previous layer.
• Example, Ethernet running at the DLL will have
Ethernet MAC addresses like AB:CD:EF:12:34:56
which need to be mapped to IP addresses like at the
Network Layer of the OSI model.
 • RARP is “Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.”-
works in the opposite direction.
• ARP: converts IP to MAC RARP: converts MAC to IP

UDP
• User Datagram Protocol
• Provides a connectionless service over IP
• Has no session or transport layer
• Talks directly to the network layer (IP)
• Allows messages to be sent from client to server with
no guaranteed delivery and without any
acknowledgement of receipt by the recipient.
TCP
• Transmission Control Protocol
• Provides a connection oriented service over IP
• Fits into the transport and session layers of the OSI
model.
• Talks to the network layer (IP).
• Allows a client and server process to establish a “virtual
circuit” between them which they can use as a bi-
directional communications channel with guaranteed
error free delivery.
Internet Routing
• At the network layer routing is a non-issue. IP packets are
delivered directly from host to host if they are on the same
network.
• If the destination host is on a different network (subnet), the
sender will send the packet to the local router (gateway) for
routing.
• RIP (Router Information Protocol) keeps all such routers
updated regarding paths and congestion towards the
destination.
• Default Route: Only routes to known networks are specifically
held by each router.
Packets destined for other destinations will be sent towards the
nearest backbone via a “default route.”
• Other routing protocols include IGRP, EIGRP, BGP, and OSPF
CIDR (pronounced ‘cider’)
• Classless Internet Domain Routing
• In the past, the network and host bits were defined strictly on
the basis of the class of the IP address, and routing could only
take place on that basis.
• Two changes occur in CIDR
- routers are aware of netmasks and subnetting
- netmasks can not only redefine host bits as network
bits, but can also redefine network bits as host bits.
IPv6
• Address space is expanded from 32 bits to 128 bits.
• represented in 8 groups of 16 bits each. Each group is
written as four hexadecimal digits (sometimes called
hextets) • No checksums since integrity can be handled
elsewhere.
• No fragmentation.
• Support of real-time and special services.
• Introduction of “anycast” mode (at least one of a
group).
• Support of authentication and encryption at the
network layer.