ACN

UNIT-1
 The Computer Network
 A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes) that use a
set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections
for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the
network nodes.
 The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers,
servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose
hosts.
 The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
 A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information
over a network.
 The Network Diagram
(Click on the Words Below and Learn More About Each Component)

Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
 USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Resource Sharing
• It defines creating all programs, peripherals and data feasible to anyone
computer on the network to all other computers without considering the
physical areas. Thus a user at a considerable distance can share the resources
or see computer data in a similar way that a local customer uses them.
• Another method of resource sharing is load sharing. If a job is needed, it can
be implemented using various computers in a network by partitioning it,
which reduces time consumption and loads both things for a particular
computer.
2. Simultaneous Access
• computer network allows few users to create programs and data at the
equivalent time. An example is a company’s quarterly sales document, which
several managers need to view and update. We can store the information on
a network server, which is a central computer with a huge storage device and
other resources that all users can share.
3. High Reliability due to Alternative Sources of Records
• Reliability is the main benefit due to which networks are
becoming very popular among organizations. By using systems,
critical data can be saved at more than one locations. If a
computer fails or crashes, the data can be recovered from the
network’s other computers.
4. Cost Reduction
• The next phase of the computer network is the reduction of cost.
Resources sharing automatically reduces cost, and hence money
can be saved. One of the other aspects is that the prices of small
computers are significantly less compared to mainframes.
5. Provide Communication Medium
• A computer network offers a dynamic communication medium
between extensively distinct people. It is easy for two or more
person living far apart to work on the same project by partitioning
it using a network.
• The computer networks provide the following services to a person −
• Access to Remote Information
• Access to remote information comes in several forms.
• For example,
• Home shopping, paying telephone bills, e-banking, online share market, etc.
• It is possible to access an information system like the World Wide Web, which includes data
about the craft, business, cooking, government, health, history, recreation, science, sports,
etc.
• Newspaper is currently available online. You can access the news according to your
interest.
• Person-to-Person Communication
• Person to person communication involves the following −
• Electronic-mail (e-mail)
• Sending and receiving email over a typical network .
• Teleconferencing and Video Conferencing
• A teleconference is a virtual conference in which various people in multiple areas conduct
discussions by typing messages. All the other people can see each message in the
teleconference.
• If clients have the required hardware and software, they can view and talk to each other as
they face online instead of merely typing messages. This process is known as
videoconferencing.
• Worldwide Newsgroups
• Worldwide newsgroups in which one individual
posts information and few other subscribers can
interpret it or provide feedback.
• Interactive Entertainment
• Interactive entertainment includes the following −
• Video on Demand − It is feasible to choose any
movie and displayed it on your screen.
• Game Playing − You can enjoy multiperson real-time
simulation games.
• It can participate in live TV programmes like quiz,
contest, discussion, etc.
 PROTOCOLS
• A network protocol is an established set of rules that
determine how data is transmitted between different
devices in the same network.
• The connected devices communicate with each other
inspite of any differences in their internal processes,
structure or design.
• Network protocols make it possible for devices to interact
with each other because of predetermined rules built into
devices’ software and hardware.
• Neither LAN nor WAN could function the way they do
today without the use of network protocols.
• It breaks big process into small, specific tasks
or functions. This occurs at every level of the
network, and each function must cooperate at
each level to complete the larger task at hand.
• Network protocol suite- is a set of smaller
network protocols working in conjunction with
each other.
 TASKS OF PROTOCOLS
• All Protocols perform one of three primary
actions:
• Communication
• Network management
• Security
 REFERENCE MODELS
• In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual framework
that standardizes communication between heterogeneous networks.
• The two popular reference models are −
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• OSI Model
• OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by
International Standards Organization (ISO). It gives a layered networking
framework that conceptualizes how communication should be done
between heterogeneous systems. It has seven interconnected layers.
• The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer,
network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and
application layer. The hierarchy is depicted in the following figure −
OSI model
 PHYSICAL LAYER
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the
physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual
bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the
frame back together.
• The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or
mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
 2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-

to-node delivery of the message.
• Error-free data transfer from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
• The DLL transmit the packet to Host using its
MAC address.
 The functions of the Data Link layer

• Framing: This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns

to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: It adds physical addresses (MAC address) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
 3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

• The network layer works for the transmission

of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer.
 The functions of the Network layer
• Routing: which route is suitable from source
to destination.
• Logical Addressing: The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.
• Network layer is implemented by networking
devices such as routers.
 Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error
control to ensure proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
• It provides acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application.
• Default port number used is 80.
• Transport layer is operated by the Operating System.
 The functions of the transport layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts

the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the
message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service
point address or port address.
 5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of

sessions, authentication, and security.
The functions of the session layer are :
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
• **All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single
layer in the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
 6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The
data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data
into another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
 7. Application Layer (Layer 7)
• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of
layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to
the user.
• Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
• **Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
 TCP/IP model

• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

• It was designed and developed by Department of Defense
(DoD) in 1960s.
• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.
• It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model.
The layers are:
• Process/Application Layer
• Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Access/Link Layer
TCP/IP MODEL
 1. NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

• This layer corresponds to the combination of

Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the
OSI model.
• It looks out for hardware addressing and the
protocols present in this layer allows for the
physical transmission of data.
 2. INTERNET LAYER

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.

• IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the
IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
• ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
• ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.
 3. Host-to-Host Layer (TRANSPORT
LAYER)
• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free
delivery of data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – 1. It is known to
provide reliable and error-free communication between end
systems.
2. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data.
3.It also has acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the
data through flow control mechanism.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – if your application does not
require reliable transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP,
which is connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
 4. Application Layer

• This layer performs the functions of top three layers of

the OSI model: Application, Presentation and Session
Layer.
• It is responsible for node-to-node communication and
controls user-interface specifications. Some of the
protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP,
TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP,
NFS, X Window, LPD.
– HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers
and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP
with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser
need to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
– SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is more preferred is because of its ability
to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
– NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without the
presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server
can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
1. TCP/IPOSITCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.OSI refers to Open Systems
Interconnection.
2. T CP/IP has 4 layers.OSI has 7 layers.
3. TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable.
4. TCP/IP does not have very strict boundaries.OSI has strict boundaries.
5. TCP/IP follow a horizontal approach.OSI follows a vertical approach.
6. TCP/IP uses both session and presentation layer in the application layer itself.OSI uses different
session and presentation layers.
7. TCP/IP developed protocols then model.OSI developed model then protocol.
8. Transport layer in TCP/IP does not provide assurance delivery of packets. In OSI model,
transport layer provides assurance delivery of packets
9. .TCP/IP model network layer only provides connection less services. Connection less and
connection oriented both services are provided by network layer in OSI model.
10. Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP model.While in OSI model, Protocols are better
covered and is easy to replace with the change in technology.
• The TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes, while the OSI header is 5 bytes.
• TCP/IP is a protocol-oriented standard, whereas OSI is a generic model based on the
functionalities of each layer.
MAC protocols for high-speed LANS,
MANs, and wireless LANs.
What is FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)?

1. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a network standard that uses fiber optic
connections in a local area network (LAN) that can extend in range up to 200
kilometers (124 miles).
2. Developed in the late 1980s, FDDI was a good option for large CANs and
metropolitan area networks.
3. Its relatively high speed of 100 Mbps was much better than 10 Mbps for standard
Ethernet. Users could also deploy FDDI in a single server room to interconnect
servers to a single backbone network.
4. The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol.
5. FDDI is derived from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 802.4 token
bus timed token protocol.
6. A FDDI LAN can support thousands of users. While FDDI is frequently used on the
backbone for a wide area network (WAN) or campus area network (CAN), it has
been largely superseded by other networking technologies.
7. A FDDI network contains two token rings: a primary ring
and a secondary ring that is used as a redundant backup.
8. The primary ring offers up to 100 megabits per second (
Mbps) capacity, while the secondary ring can also be used
to carry data, increasing capacity to 200 Mbps.
9. One ring will operate in a clockwise direction and the other
in a counterclockwise direction.
10. Users can connect thousands of devices to a single FDDI
network.
11. Although the FDDI topology is a token ring network, users
may also implement it in a star topology structure.
10. Depending on the network latency requirements, users can configure
FDDI as synchronous with guaranteed timings for latency-sensitive
networks or as asynchronous, which does not rely on strict token
timings.
11. FDDI is a product of the American National Standards Committee
X3T9 standard and operates on Open Systems Interconnection model
Layer 1 (physical) and Layer 2 (media access control data link). It has a
large maximum transmission unit frame size of 4,352 bytes.
 Gigabit Ethernet (GbE)
1. Gigabit Ethernet (GbE), a transmission technology based on the
Ethernet frame format and protocol used in local area networks (LANs),
provides a data rate of 1 billion bits per second, or 1 gigabit (Gb).
2. Gigabit Ethernet is defined in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 standard and is currently being used as the
backbone in many enterprise networks.
3. Gigabit Ethernet connects computers and servers in local networks.
4. Gigabit Ethernet is carried on optical fiber or copper wire. Existing
Ethernet LANs with 10 megabits per second and 100 Mbps cards can
feed into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone.
5. Gigabit Ethernet networks can function as half-duplex networks for
shared media.
6. Gigabit Ethernet uses the same 802.3 framing structure as standard
Ethernet. It supports 1 Gb per second (Gbps) speeds using Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD).
7. CSMA/CD handles transmissions after a collision has occurred. The
transmission rate may cause data packets to intersect when two devices
on the same Ethernet network attempt to transmit data at the same
• Gigabit Ethernet speeds are delivered by either copper or fiber optic
cables. Fiber optic cables are needed for long-range transmissions of
more than 300 meters (m).
• Benefits of Gigabit Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet provides the following benefits:
• Reliability. Fiber optic cables used in some gigabit internet offerings
are more durable and reliable than traditional copper wiring.
• Speed. A transmission speed of 1 Gbps should be more than enough
for most online applications today.
• Less latency. Reduced latency rates range from 5 milliseconds - 20
ms.
• Transferring or streaming video data. Gigabit Ethernet can
smoothly stream 4K content at a high frame rate.
• Multiuser support. High-speed internet can be split into multiple
tasks to support multiple devices.
DQDB (DISTRIBUTED QUEUE DUAL BUS)
• IEEE 802.6 standard i.e. DQDB(Distributed Queue Dual
Bus) is a MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) protocol.
• It can be defined as a high speed shared medium access
control protocol that is used over a bus network.
• It has two unidirectional buses, for controlling purposes,
where the bus can carry data, video, and voice over a
network with bandwidth being allocated as per time slots.
• The advantage of using the paired bus is that it is used to
tackles failure configuration.
• It can be extended up to 30 miles at 34-55 Mbps.
• Directional Traffic:
Each bus support traffic in only one direction and are
opposite to one another. The start of the bus being
represented as a square and the end of the bus being
represented as a triangle. Bus A traffic moves from right to
left (i.e. from station 1 to 5) whereas the bus B traffic
moves from left to right (i.e. from station 5 to 1).
• Working:
The head of the bus A i.e. station 1 generates empty slot for
use of bus A. Similarly, the head of bus B i.e. station 5
generate empty slot for use of bus B. The empty slot travels
down its bus until the transmission station drops data into
it and intended destination reads the data.
For example:
If station 2 wants to send data to station 4 (Fig.2), it chooses a slot on bus A as
station 4 is downstream in bus A. The head of the bus A i.e. station 1 creates an
empty slot. Station 2 drops its data & address of destination slot into the
passing slot. Station 3 reads the address and passes the slot as unread. Station 4
recognizes its address, reads the data and changes the status of the slot and
passes it along with station 5 where it is absorbed.
• How slot reservation is done?
To send data downstream, a station must wait for the arrival
of the unoccupied slot, but here the question arises that how
to stop an upstream station from manipulating the bus due
to which the station near the end of the bus suffers, as the
imbalance can lead to degraded quality of service. The
solution to this problem is to do a reservation at the station.
Here station 2 can make a reservation for bus A on bus B.
Station 2 sets a reservation bit on a slot on bus B to tell each
station it passes through, that the station is reserving a slot
on bus A. All the station must respect the reservation of
downstream station and leave the slot for requested station.
 HIPPI –HIGH PERFORMANCE PERIPHERAL
INTERFACE
• HIPPI (High-Performance Parallel Interface) is a standard point-to-point
protocol .
• HIPPI defines interfaces at the physical layer (layer 1) and for part of the data-
link control ( DLC ) (layer 2) levels of the Open Systems Interconnection ( OSI )
communications model.
• It transmitts large amounts of data at up to billions of bits per second over
relatively short distances on local area networks ( LAN s).
• The computers, interconnected storage devices, and other resources on a LAN
using HIPPI function as a single supercomputer.
• HIPPI is considered an ideal technology for the transfer of “big data,” audio
and video streams, and data backup within a range up to 10 kilometers.
• HIPPI uses a point-to-point link. The original HIPPI standard specifies data
transfer at 800 Mbps with a 32-bit data bus or 1600 Mbps with a 64-bit data
bus.
• Basic HIPPI uses 50 twisted paircopper wires with a maximum range limited to
25 meters.
• Data is sent in bursts of 1024 or 2048 bytes on a
unidirectional channel.
• Full duplex can be achieved using two channels. An
important part of HIPPI is the use of a network switch
that will allow data to be forwarded in the network with
minimal processing (the switches are called nonblocking
crossbar switches ).
• Error detection is provided, but error correction is left to
a higher protocol level.
• packets can be encapsulated and sent over Fibre
Channel networks.
• Serial HIPPI, a later version of HIPPI, is
designed for networks up to 10 kilometers
using optical fiber cable. An even faster
technology is HIPPI-6400, which promises up
to 6.4 Gbps .
 WIRELESS ETHERNET
• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks
that use high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN
(Local Area Network).
• Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within
this limited area such as home, school, campus, office
building, railway platform, etc.
• WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard
or WiFi.
• It uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance).
• IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control
(MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications
for implementing wireless local area
network(WLAN) computer communication in
the 900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz
frequency bands
 Components of WLANs

• Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment

that are connected to the wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless
network interface controller. A station can be of two types −
– Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
– Client
• Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations
communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two
categories −
– Infrastructure BSS
– Independent BSS
• Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
• Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.
• IEEE 802.11 supports three basic topologies for WLANs, the
independent basic service set (IBSS), the basic service set, and the
extended service set (ESS). The MAC layer supports
implementations of IBSS, basic service set, and ESS configurations.
• Independent basic service set: The IBSS configuration is referred to
as an independent configuration or an ad-hoc network. IBSS
WLANs include a number of nodes or wireless stations that
communicate directly with one another on an ad-hoc, peer-to-peer
basis.
• Basic service set: The basic service set configuration relies on an
AP that acts as the logical server for a single WLAN cell or channel.
Communications between station 1 and station 4 actually flow
from station 1 to AP1 and then from AP1 to AP2 and then from AP2
to AP4 and finally AP4 to station 4 (refer to Figure 2). An AP
performs a bridging function and connects multiple WLAN cells or
channels, and connects WLAN cells to a wired enterprise LAN.
• Types of WLANS
• WLANs, as standardized by IEEE 802.11, operates in
two basic modes, infrastructure, and ad hoc mode.
• Infrastructure Mode − Mobile devices or clients
connect to an access point (AP) that in turn
connects via a bridge to the LAN or Internet. The
client transmits frames to other clients via the AP.
• Ad Hoc Mode − Clients transmit frames directly to
each other in a peer-to-peer fashion.
Advantages of WLANs
• Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be
placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
• Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without
previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
• Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices
which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but
also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
• Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood
etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break
down completely in disasters.
• Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower
than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two
reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the wireless network via an
access point for the first user, adding additional users to a network will not
increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of
cabling and the labor associated with installing and repairing it.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from
the network at greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is
not bounded by the length of the cables.
Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for
communications, the signals are noisier with
more interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting
information. Also, they are more prone to
errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than
the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.
 ADSL
• ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology that facilitates fast
data transmission at a high bandwidth on existing copper wire telephone
lines to homes and businesses.
• Unlike regular dial-up copper telephone line service, ADSL provides
continuously available, always-on broadband connections.
• This is achieved by using the frequencies not being used by voice calls.
• ADSL is asymmetric in that it uses most channels to transmit downstream to
the user and only a small part for uploading information from the user.
• ADSL simultaneously accommodates analog (voice) information and data on
the same phone line.
• For ADSL to work, only a microfilter and an ADSL modem need to be installed
• It is generally offered at upstream internet connection data rates at 512
kilobits per second (Kbps) and down stream data rates from @Mbps to 6
megabits per second (Mbps).
• ADSL works on existing copper phone lines by using a DSL filter,
or splitter, to isolate the bands with higher frequencies so that
the landline and the ADSL modem can be used at the same time.
• At the central office, or telephone exchange, the line ends at the
DSL access multiplexer (DSLAM), where an additional splitter
segregates the voice signal to the phone network.
• ADSL was designed to exploit the one-way nature of most
multimedia communication in which large amounts of
information flow toward the user and only a small amount of
interactive control information is returned.
• It is a cost-effective method for internet access at faster speeds
compared to a traditional dial-up connection.
 CABLE MODEM
• A cable modem is a device that allows communication between your
computer and the internet service provider. It achieves this by providing a
bridge between the customers’ LAN (local area network) and the coaxial
cable network implemented by the internet service provider (IPS). That is, it
works both as a modem as well as a bridge.
• Differing from other types of modems, a cable modem uses coax cable, the
same infrastructure that brings television programming to our business or
homes, to proxy that connection, rather than a telephone or DSL line.
• This hardware device modulates and demodulates analogue signals to
encode and decode digital information which is being communicated in a bi-
directional manner. The modem converts analogues signals into digital
packets to make them accessible by the broadband internet. In a similar
manner, it decodes incoming digital signals so your system can access the
information in the analogue form.
• The wired cable modem connects to a coaxial cable via a jack placed in the wall of the
building. Another Ethernet cord further connects the modem to your computer or a
router. Network routers enable multiple devices to connect to internet services using the
same modem.
• Some of the modern modems come with an in-built router within the same box. In such
cases, the router may also be known as a residential gateway. However, the router is kept
functionally separate within the box.
• Also, do note that both the modem and router come with their own unique IP address
and MAC address. This is to help identify their interfaces on the LAN and WAN (wide area
network). But if your modem only has outlets for a coaxial and an Ethernet connection,
then yours is a stand-alone modem that will need a router for multi-user connectivity.
• A cable modem is a little complex as it operates both in the physical layer as well as the
data link layer; this is in addition to having functionalities at other layers too. Since it has
its own IP address, it operates at the network level also. Aside from this, the modem
supports protocols in the transport layer as well as the application layer.
• The cable modem helps you hook up your device to a cable TV line and
receive data at high speeds of around 1.5 Mbps. However, the actual speeds that can be
downloaded through a coaxial TV line are about 27 Mbps and upload speeds of about 2.5
Mbps. But your local ISP may not be connected to an internet line faster than a T-carrier
system at 1.5 Mbps. Hence you are more likely to get download speeds of around 1.5
Mbps only.
• Cable modems are usually provided by your internet service provider and not bought
separately by the subscriber.
 Uses
• Accessing the ISP: The most basic function of a cable modem is to communicate with
your ISP’s network. A cable modem is one of the most popular and reliable modes of
ISP connectivity since it operates on an already well-established ecosystem of physical
cables stretching across the country.
• Using and bundling services: Voice services, internet and television can all be
bundled under one contract using cable modem-based delivery networks. In many
cases, bundling services from one provider cuts your provider bills, saving your
business money. When bundled, each service is delivered via separate physical cable
lines, minimizing service disruptions and lag times. Bundling mirrors
unified communications as a service (UCaaS)best practices, which often combine
telecommunications technology and related infrastructure under one umbrella
platform.
• Upgrading internet speeds: ISPs and cable companies offer a range of internet
download servicing speeds, from less than 100 Mbps to up to a gigabit. Your cable
modem significantly impacts the internet speeds to which you have access. Without a
DOCSIS model with a corresponding speed standard, your organization may
experience slower internet speeds.