COMPUTER NETWORK & DATA

COMMUNUCATION

Today computers are available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to
share data and programs among various computers. With the advancement of data
communication facilities, the communication between computers has increased and thus
it has extended the power of computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at
one place can communicate with computers of any remote site through communication
channel. The aim of this lesson is to introduce you the various aspects of computer
network and data communication.

Learning objectives

It is expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to
- Understand basics of the various types network technologies in the area of
computers, Local Area Network (LAN) and different components of computer
network
- explain the features and the use of computer network and data communication
- describe the OSI model and its 7 layers
- Give some network security problems and eventual solutions

I. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS

I.1- Definition and Network Basics

Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network is a set of

interconnected objects (roads, computers, …) with something to share. A computer network is
therefore a group of interconnected computer systems sharing resources and interacting using a
shared communications link. All networks must have the following:

- A resource to share (resource)

- A pathway to transfer data (transmission medium)
- A set of rules governing how to communicate (protocols)

I.2- BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Specifically, networks are about sharing three things: information, resources, and applications.

• Sharing information: networks allow users to communicate with each other in various
ways: email, chat, forums, etc.

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 • Sharing resources: Certain computer resources, such as printers or hard drives, can be
set up so that network users can share them. Sharing hard drives involves also sharing of
files and folders. A network can be used to share an Internet connection.
• Sharing applications: several users can work together on a single business application.
Apart from sharing, other benefits of a computer network are:

• Flexible Access: Networks allow their users to access files from computers throughout
the network.
• Reducing of cost: Instead of buying a printer for each computer of a big network, a
single printer can be shared, and then cost is considerably reduced

I.3- DOWNSIDES (SHORTCOMMINGS) OF NETWORKING

Although networks are one of the best things that ever happened to computers, not everything
about networks is rosy. The following sections describe some disadvantages of using a network:

 Viruses: If a virus is introduced to the network, either intentionally or unintentionally,

it will rapidly spread around all of the workstations and could start to cause havoc to
peoples' files or to the efficient working of the network.
 Network failure: If the file server fails then no-one on the network can access any
files or folders. This means that nobody can do any work. For an organization, this
would be extremely costly and disruptive.

 Slow service: As more users log onto the network and request files, send things to be
printed and open more software applications, the network can start to slow down.
 Cost: Building a network isn't cheap.

I.4- Networking hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. Some examples of
networking hardware are: File Servers, Workstations, Network Interface Cards, Hubs,
Switches, Repeaters, Bridges, and Routers:

 Workstations: Each user computers connected to a network is called workstations. A

typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card,
networking software, and the appropriate cables.
 Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is an internal device that provides the physical
connection between the network and the computer workstation.
 Hub: In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or
connections to be connected to a computer. It is the most basic networking device that
connects multiple computers or other network devices together.

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  Switch: It is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through the network,
but often not capable of much more. Switches (or concentrators) work the same way as
hubs, but they can identify the intended destination of the information that they receive,
so they send that information to only the computers that are supposed to receive it.
 Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary
to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies
the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
 Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two
smaller, more efficient networks. The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum
performance on both sides of the network. Bridges must be used between networks with
the same protocol.
 Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks,
creating an overlay internetwork. A router has a lot more capabilities than other
network devices such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perform basic network
functions.
 Gateway: A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network.
When a computer server serves as a Gateway node, the gateway node also operates as a
firewall and a proxy server.
 Firewall: A software utility or hardware device that limits outside network access to a
computer or local network by blocking or restricting ports. Firewalls are a great step for
helping prevent un-authorized access to a company or home network.
 Modem: The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send and receive
information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your computer
into an analog signal used on phone lines (modulation) and then converting it back
once received on the other end (demodulation).
 Proxy: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of the gateway
server or another computer that separates a local network from outside networks. A
proxy server will cache all pages accessed through the network allowing users who may
wish to visit that same page to load it faster and reduce the networks bandwidth.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer networks can be classified in different ways: according to the geographical area
covered, the strategy used or type of connection

II.1 ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF CONNECTION

According to the type of connection, there exist two types of connections. Wired connection and
wireless connection

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 II.1.1 Wired connection

A wired network is when you physically connect your computer or other compatible device to
your Super Hub with an Ethernet cable. The best thing about a wired connection is the reliability
and speed it gives you (wired is faster than wireless). This makes it ideal for things that use a lot
of bandwidth, like playing online games on your Xbox.

II.1.2 Wireless connection

A wireless network, as its name would suggest, is a network of computers and computer
peripherals that are connected to each other without wires.

Advantages
• It is easier to add or move workstations.
• It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable.
• Installation is fast and easy, and it can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls
and ceilings.
• Access to the network can be from anywhere within range of an access point.
Disadvantages
• As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to
each computer will decrease accordingly.
• As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access
points.
• Security is more difficult to guarantee and requires configuration.
• Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point.

II.2 ACCORDING TO THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED

According to the geographical area covered, there exist three main types of network: LAN, MAN
and WAN

II.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical area such as an office, home
building or closed buildings. A LAN is useful to share resources like files, printers, games and
other application. The infrastructure in a LAN is private. The distance between computers in a
LAN cannot be more than 15 Km. Ex: A school network

II.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a network of computers spread over a city or closed cities. It may be a single network
such as a cable television network, or it may be many LANS connected together. A MAN may
be operated by one organization (with several offices in one city) or be shared and used by

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several organizations in the same city. It can be either a private network or a public network. Ex:
A network of all the agencies of CAMCCUL in Bamenda.

II.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a system of interconnecting many computers over a large geographical area such as
states, countries or even the whole world. These kind of networks use telephone lines, satellite
link and other long-range communication technologies to connect. Such networks are design to
serve an area of hundreds kilometres such as national telephone network. For instance, a
company like Express Union with agencies at Fundong, Bamenda, Douala, Bafoussam, Yaoundé
use a WAN to connect all its agencies. Although a WAN may be owned or rented by private
business, it is usually a public network, designed to connect LANs or MANs together. The most
known and the largest WAN is Internet.

II.3 ACCORDING TO THE STRATEGY USED

According to the strategy used there exist two main types of network: Client/Server network and
Peer to Peer (P2P) network:

II.3.1 Client/server networks

Computers that perform a service on behalf of other network devices are called servers. There
are several types of servers. For example, a computer that provides other network nodes with
access to network storage devices is called a file server. Print servers provide other network
nodes with access to network printers. Computers that use the services of a server are called
clients. Networks in which servers control access to network storage and other network
resources are called client/server networks. In a Client/server network, the role of the server is
to provide services demanded by client computers

II.3.2 Peer-to-peer networks

Computers that perform similar functions on a network are called peers. Networks in which no
single, centralized computer controls network functions are called peer-to-peer networks. The
idea of peer-to-peer networking is that each computer on the network can be both a server and a
client. Since any computer on the network can share a resource for other to use. Users can
configure their computers so that they can share directories or printers with other users on the
network. All computers are considered to have equal, or peer, status.

II.3.3 Comparison between Peer to Peer network and Client/Server

network
Strategy Advantages Disadvantages

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 · Heavy processing power can be localized when needed. · Administrative tasks not
Client/Server · Overall installation costs are less than a hierarchical entirely centralized.
network. · Expensive to add nodes.
· Servers provide clients with access to shared printers,
network storage (including shared applications), network
security features, and other network resources.
· Relatively inexpensive to implement, can often be · Decentralized
P2P

implemented on existing equipment. administration.

· Potentially, all resources can be made available over a · Security can be difficult to
network. control
· Processing power can be localized to the point of need.

III. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes,
etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology
means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation.
Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its
physical design. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network, for it
not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The
computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it
represents a ring topology.

III.1 Physical Topology

It is the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are
connected. Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology,
star topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.
III.1.1- Bus Topology
Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies.
In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers as
well as servers) are connected to the single cable, by
the help of interface connectors. This central cable is
the backbone of the network and is known as Bus.
Every workstation communicates with the other device through this Bus. A signal from the
source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. Although the
message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address
matches, accepts it. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of
signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.

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Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

i It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.

ii Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
iii Bus topology costs very less.
iv Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

i There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.
ii Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e.
bus) encounters some problem, whole network breaks down.
iii It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.
iv Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
v Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases.
vi It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
vii Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

III.2- Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a
way that they make a closed loop. Each workstation is connected to
two other components on either side, and it communicates with these
two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in one
direction. Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of
TOKEN. Token contains a piece of information which along with data
is sent by the source computer.

Advantages of Ring Topology

i This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision.
ii Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
iii There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
iv Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
v Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

i Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology.
ii If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.

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iii Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components. III.3- Star
Topology
In Star topology, all the components of network are
connected to a central device which may be a hub, a router
or a switch. All the data on the star topology passes through
the central device before reaching the intended destination.
This later acts as a junction to connect different nodes
present in Star Network, and at the same time it manages
and controls whole of the network.

Advantages of Star Topology

i As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t
necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations.
ii Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology nodes can be added or removed
easily without affecting rest of the network.
iii Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
iv Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s easy to
detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

i If the central device fails whole network goes down.

ii The use of an extra central device increases the overall cost of the network.
iii Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in
such topology is depended on capacity of central device.

III.4- Tree Topology

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology.
In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus.
This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks
as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.
Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology.
Advantages of Tree Topology

i Expansion of Network is possible and easy.

ii Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily
managed and maintained.
iii Error detection and correction is easy.
iv If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

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Disadvantages of Tree Topology

i Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks
whole network is crippled.
ii As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
iii Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

III.5- Mesh topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data
from other nodes. In fact, a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to
every other node in the network.

Advantages of Mesh topology

i Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This

topology can withstand high traffic.
ii Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesn’t get affected.
iii Expansion and modification in topology can be done without
disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

i There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.

ii Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
iii Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

III.6 Hybrid topology

Similarly, in this type of topology we integrate two or more
different topologies to form a resultant topology which has
good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent
basic topologies rather than having characteristics
of one specific topology.

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 Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology
i Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type
of topology.
ii Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
iii Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

- Complexity of Design: It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job
for designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
- Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These
hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with
different architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
- Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot
of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

III.2 Logical topology

The logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topologies.
Logical topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the
network. Different network accesses existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and Token Passing

a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to manage media access, as defined in the IEEE 802.3 specification.
Devices that have data to transmit listen for an opening on the line before transmitting (Carrier
Sense) and when a device detects an opening, it transmits its data. However, several devices may
simultaneously sense that the line is clear and they may all transmit at the same time. If this
happens, the data packets collide and the data is lost. This is called a collision.

Using the CSMA/CD protocol, the devices will each detect that a collision has occurred
(collision detection) and each of them will wait a random amount of time before retransmitting.
The likelihood of two or more devices randomly selecting the same delay is almost zero, so
retransmission is likely to be successful.

b) CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

With CSMA/CA, a device listens for an opportunity to transmit its data in a similar fashion to
CSMA/CD. However, when a device senses an opening, it first transmits a signal notifying other
devices that it is transmitting before actually sending the data. This means data packets will
never collide, although warning packets might. Unfortunately, CSMA/CA creates a significant
overhead as it adds unnecessary traffic to the network, slowing everything down. CSMA/CA was
commonly used by older AppleTalk networks, but nowadays most Apple systems can use
Ethernet hardware and use of CSMA/CA has declined. One area where CSMA/CA continues to
be used is in wireless networks. c) Token Passing
In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the
network increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a
host want to transmit data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is
circling the network in a very high speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait
for the token. When the token has reached the workstation, the workstation can take the token
from the network, fill it with data, mark the token as being used and place the token back to the
network.

IV. COMMUNICATION OVER A NETWORK

IV.1 What is data communication?
A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that
facilitates intersystem exchange of information between different devices.

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some form of wired or
wireless transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the
preservation of data during the transfer process.

IV.2 Characteristics of data communication

For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental characteristics should
be considered:

- Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the intended destination.
- Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).
- Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

IV.2- Data Communication Components

There are five basic components in a data communication system

- Message: The message is the information that is to be communicated.

- Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.
- Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
- Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message
from the sender to the receiver.
- Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information.
Both the sender and the receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data.
 IV.3- Data Transmission Mode
Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There
are three types of transmission modes—simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

1) Simplex: The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no capability
to support response in the other direction.
2) Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and
transmit information, but not at the same time.
3) Full-duplex: allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with traffic
flowing in both directions.

IV.4- Data Communication Measurement

The measurement of the quantity of data that can be passed over a communication link in a given
time is done in terms of bandwidth. On digital circuits, bandwidth is measured in bits per
second (bps). In the digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories.

- Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less.

There can be a number of 64 Kbps channels (N × 64 Kbps), but total capacity is not more
than 1.544 Mbps.
- Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth lies between 1.544 Mbps (also called T1 line)
and 45 Mbps (T3 line).
- Broadband: The bandwidth capacity is equal to 45 Mbps. Broadcast television, cable
television, microwave and satellite are examples of broadband technologies.
 IV.5 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
The major role of the physical medium is to move the data from one communicating device to
another. Depending on the form of signal used, data
transmission can be analog data transmission or digital
data transmission.

 Analog Signals: Values on analog devices are

(normally) infinitely variable. A speedometer
that shows a car's speed by means of a dial is an
analog device. The hand on that dial moves
smoothly around the dial and can take any
value that the car's engine can create.
 Digital Signals: Digital signals and objects deal
in the realm of the discrete or finite, meaning
there is a limited set of values they can be. That
could mean just two total possible 255,
values,
4,294,967,296, or anything as long as it’s not ∞
(infinity).

IV.6 Serial and Parallel Communication

The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent
with each clock tick.

IV.7 Data Transmission Method

While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous.
 With asynchronous transmission signal timing is not required; signals are sent in an
agreed pattern of bits and if both ends are agreed on the pattern then communication can
take place.
 With synchronous transmission is data transfer method in which a continuous stream of
data signals is accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to
ensure that the transmitter and the receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.
The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets) spaced by fixed time intervals.
V. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A transmission medium (plural transmission media) refers to the physical media through which
communication signals (data and information) can be transmitted from one point to another
media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer communications:

- Guided Media (or Bounded Media, or Wired Media)

- Unguided Media (or unbounded Media, or Wireless Media)

V.1- Guided Media

Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called Bounded media. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high
speed, good security and low cost. However, some time they cannot be used due distance
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These
are: coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and Fibre optic cables

a) Twisted-Pair Wiring

Twisted-pair wiring refers to a type of cable composed of four (or more) copper wires twisted
around each other within a plastic sheath. The wires are twisted to reduce outside electrical
interference. The RJ-45 connectors on twisted-pair cables resemble large telephone connectors.
Twisted-pair cables come in two varieties: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) and unshielded
Twisted Pair (UTP).

→ Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) UTP cable is the most common type of
telecommunication medium in use today and is generally the best option for school
networks. It is most suited for both data and voice transmission and hence is commonly
used in telephone systems. The cable has four pairs of wire inside the jacket. An UTP
cost less than STP easily available. There are five levels of data cabling
- Cat 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
- Cat 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
- Cat 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
- Cat 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps. -
Cat 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
→ A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

b) Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables have a single central conductor, which is made up of solid wire (usually copper).
This conductor is surrounded by an insulator over which a sleeve of metal mesh is woven to
block any outside interference. This metal mesh is again shielded by an outer covering of a thick
material (usually PVC) known as jacket. Coaxial cable is very robust and is commonly used in
Cable TV network. As compared to twisted pairs, it also offers higher bandwidth. A coaxial
cable is capable of transmitting data at a rate of 10 Mbps.

c) Fibre-Optic Cable

Fibre optic (or optical fibre) refers to the technology associated with the transmission of
information as light impulses along a glass wire or fibre. Optical fibre cable can transmit data
over long distances with little loss in data integrity. In addition, because data are transferred as a
pulse of light, optical fibre is not subject to interference. Fibre optic cable has the ability to
transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the
capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. however, it
is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fibre optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals.

Fig 4: bounded media

V.2- Unbounded Transmission Media

Unguided media facilitate data transmission through the Earth's atmosphere (air, water or
vacuum) at a much faster rate and provide wide area coverage. The data signals are not guided or
bound to a fixed channel to follow. Some commonly used unguided media of transmission
include radio frequency (RF) propagation, microwave transmission, satellite transmission,
infrared wave transmission, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

a) Radio Frequency Propagation

In radio frequency propagation, the signal is carried over

carrier waves (waves, which carry signals over them), which
have frequencies in the range of radio frequency spectrum.
There are three types of radio frequency propagation—ground
wave, ionosphere and line of sight.

b) Microwave Transmission

Microwave transmission use microwave signals that travel at a higher frequency and are
popularly used for transmitting data over long distances. Microwave communication uses
parabolic antennas (satellite TV dish antennas) that are mounted on the tower, which could be
tens of kilometers away, but in line of sight. Due to long distances, repeaters are used at regular
intervals in between the transmitter and the receiver to boost the signals

c) Infrared Wave Transmission

Infrared frequencies are just below the visible light

spectrum. These are the high frequency waves used for
short-range communication. The waves are cheap,
directional and can be easily built; however, the waves do
not pass through solid objects. Infrared waves are used in
TV remotes, garage doors and wireless speakers.
Computer machines in an office can easily be connected
to a wireless LAN using infrared waves

d) Satellite Transmission

Satellite transmission is similar to

microwave transmission except instead of transmission
involving another nearby microwave dish antenna, it
involves a satellite many miles up in space. The
communication is carried through uplinks and downlinks.
The uplink transmits the data to the satellite and downlink
receives the data from the satellite. Uplinks and downlinks are also called earth stations because
they are located on the Earth.

e) Bluetooth transmission

The Bluetooth technology is used to create a personal area network

(PAN) or piconet that lets electronic devices such as computers,
cell phones, PDAs and wireless keyboards to communicate with
each other within the range of 10 m. It uses radio signals that are
omnidirectional, that is, signals travel in all directions from the
source. Hence, the communicating devices need not be aligned with
each other.
 f) Wi-Fi transmission

The term Wi-Fi, which stands for Wireless Fidelity is widely used for creating wireless LANs
and also for providing wireless Internet access. To create wireless LAN, the devices in the
network such as computer, laptop and PDA should be equipped with wireless network interface
card (NIC) to send and receive Wi-Fi signals. A WI-Fi-enabled device should be within a
specific range (i.e. up to 50 m) from the network to connect.

Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical Error Transfer rate

Rate
Twisted-pair (LAN) 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) 10 Mbps – 100 Mbps
–7 –9
Coaxial cable (LAN) 1GHz Good (10 to 10 ) 10 Mbps – 1 Gbps
–9
Microwave (WAN) 100GHz Good (10 ) 6 Mbps – 54 Mbps
–9
Satellite (WAN) 100GHz Good (10 ) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
–11 –13
Fibre (WAN) 75THz Great (10 to 10 ) 50 Kbps – 100 Mbps
Table 2: Traditional Transmission Media Characteristics

VI. COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. If one
computer is sending information to another and they both follow the same protocol, the message
gets through; regardless of what types of machines they are and on what operating systems they
are running. As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol,
communication is possible.

VI.1 Network protocol

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

- Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented.
- Semantics: Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
- Timing: Timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent.

Some important protocols are:

Protocol Full meaning Its job
FTP File Transfer Protocol Allows file transfer between two computers
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol used in the web service
Protocol
TCP Transmission Control A reliable connection oriented protocol used to control the
 Protocol management of application level services between computers.
IP Internet Protocol identifier of each computer or communication devices on the
network and internet.
ARP Address resolution enables the packaging of IP data into ethernet package
protocol
ICMP Internet control provides management and error reporting to help manage the
message protocol process of sending data between computers.
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer An Internet protocol for transferring e-mail.
Protocol
POP post office protocol Transfer of e-mail, used to synchronize messages
Telnet Telephone Network A method of opening a user session on a remote host.
PPP Point-to-Point Data transfer using modem
Protocol
UDP User Datagram An unreliable connection less protocol used to control the
Protocol management of application level services between computers.
DHCP Dynamic host is a method of assigning and controlling the IP addresses of
configuration protocol computers on a given network
VI.2 The OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) is a
standard reference model for
communication between two end users in a
network. In 1983, the
International Standardisation
Organisation (ISO) published a document
called 'The Basic Reference Model for
Open Systems
Interconnection', which visualizes network
protocols as a seven separate but related
layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, session, presentation
and application layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

• Upper Layers: The upper layers of the OSI model consist of the application,
presentation and session layers. Primarily, these layers deal with application issues and
are implemented only in the software.
• Lower Layers: The lower layers of the OSI model comprise the transport, network,
data link, and physical layers. These layers handle the data transport issues. The
physical layer and data link layer are implemented in both hardware and software. The
network and transport are generally implemented only in software.
 This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through
the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of
Physical sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical
(Layer 1) aspects
Protocols: Fast Ethernet, ATM Data Unit: Bit
Device: Hubs, Repeaters, Cables and Connectors

Data Link Physical addressing, Provides low-level error detection and correction. For example if a
(Layer 2) packet is corrupted this layer is responsible for retransmitting the packet.

Protocols: PPP, FDDI, Token ring, Ethernet, SLIP

Device: NIC, Token Ring switches, Bridges
Data Unit: Frame

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known
as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
Network functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
(Layer 3) congestion control and packet sequencing.
Protocols: IPv4, IPV6, IPX, OSPF, NWlink, NetBEUI, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Data Unit: Packet, Datagram

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data
Transport transfer.
(Layer 4) Protocols: TCP, SPX and UDP
Device: Router, gateway Data Unit: Segments

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The
session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and
Session dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection
(Layer 5) coordination.
Protocols: NetBIOS Device: gateway Data Unit: data

This layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can
Presentation accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing
(Layer 6) freedom from compatibility problems. It is also called the syntax layer. Protocol:
SSL, WEP, WPA, Kerberos Device: Gateway
 This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are
considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is
Application application-specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail,
(Layer 7) and other network software services.
Protocol: DHCP, DNS, FTP, HTTP, IMAP4, NNTP, POP3, SMTP, SNMP, SSH,
TELNET and NTP
Device: PC Data Unit: Data

VII. LAN TECHNOLOGIES

Each computer in a LAN can effectively send and receive any information addressed to it. This
information is in the form of data 'packets'. The standards followed to regularize the
transmission of packets, are called LAN standards. There are many LAN standards as Ethernet,
Token Ring, FDDI etc. Usually LAN standards differ due to their media access technology and
the physical transmission medium.

VII.1- Ethernet Media Standards

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineer) 802 Standards comprises a family of
networking standards that cover the physical layer specifications of technologies. Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are the LAN technologies most commonly used today. They are
identified by three-part names, which is also known as Media Standard. An example of Media
Standard is 10BASE-T.
• The first part of the Media Standard specifies the transmission speed (10, in this
case specifies 10 Mbps)
• The second part of the name "BASE" specifies that the Ethernet signal is a
Baseband signal.
• The final part of the Ethernet Media Standard specifies the kind of cable used. Here
T specifies twisted-pair cable. The following table shows the common Ethernet
Media Standards.
Name Cable Type Connector Maximum Length Speed
10Base-T Category 3 or better RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 10 mbps
UTP cable
10Base-FL Fibre optic cable ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 10 mbps
100Base-TX Cat 5 twisted pair RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 100 mbps
100Base-FX Fibre Optic ST, SC, LC, MT-RJ 2000 meters 100 mbps
1000Base-T CAT5e or higher RJ-45 100 meters(328 ft) 1 gbps
Note: X represents a higher grade of connection, and 100BaseTX is twisted-pair cabling that can
use either UTP or STP at 100 Mbps. With fibre-optic cable such as 100BaseFX, the speed is
quicker than standard 10BaseF. The “L” stands for “Long” in long wave length lasers and "S"
stands for Short Wave Length.

VII.3- LAN protocols

a) Ethernet / fast Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses called CSMA/CD method.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over
wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fibre optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to
1000 Mbps. To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has
developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet.
Advantages of Ethernet are: Low cost components, Easy to install, Easy to troubleshoot

b) Local Talk

Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is CSMA/CA. The Local Talk protocol allows for
linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A primary disadvantage of Local Talk
is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

c) Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair
or fibre optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the
increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.

d) FDDI

Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) uses a dual ring physical

topology. The access method used by FDDI involves token-passing.
Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break
occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically using
portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major
advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fibre optic cable at 100 Mbps.

e) ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of
155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size;
whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such
as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with
fibre optic as well as twisted pair cable.
Protocol Cable Speed Topology Method
Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Linear Bus, Star,
Ethernet 10 Mbps CSMA/CD
Fibre Tree
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fibre 100 Mbps Star CSMA/CD
LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star CSMA/CA
Token Ring Twisted Pair 4 Mbps - 16 Mbps Star-Wired Ring Token passing
FDDI Fibre 100 Mbps Dual ring Token passing
ATM Twisted Pair, Fibre 155-2488 Mbps Bus, Star, Tree
Table Compare the Network Protocols
VIII. NETWORK ADRESSING

XI.1- What is an IP address?

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP

network. An IP address version 4 (IPv4) is a 32-bits binary number usually represented as 4
decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by
decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 140.179.220.200 becomes
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node.
The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network
address and which part belongs to the node address.

XI.2- Address Classes

The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate networks of
varying sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses assigned to hosts. The
class of address defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used for the
host ID. It also defines the possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.
Class 1st Octet 1st Octet Network/Host Default Number ofHosts per
Decimal High ID Subnet Mask Networks Network
Range Order (N=Network, (Usable
Bits H=Host) Addresses)
7
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (2 – 2) 16,777,214 (224 –
2)
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 (2 – 2) 65,534 (216 – 2)
14

C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 (221 – 254 (28 – 2)

2)
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting
E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research
Note:
→ Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback and
diagnostic functions.
→ Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses. The four high-order bits in a class D
address are always set to binary 1110. The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts
recognize.
→ Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future use. The high-order bits in a class E
address are set to 1111.
→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 1. All 1's in the network ID are reserved for use as
an IP broadcast address.
→ All bits within the network ID cannot be set to 0. All 0's in the network ID are used to
denote a specific host on the local network and are not routed.

Private IP Addresses: There are addresses used in the private networks

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask Address Range
A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

IX. NETWORK SECURITY

Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administrator to
prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer
network and network-accessible resources.
IX.1 Network Security Problems
Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined areas: secrecy,
authentication, nonrepudiation and integrity control.

1. Secrecy: This is also called confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of
the hands of unauthorized users.
2. Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing
sensitive information or entering into a business deal.
3. Nonrepudiation: This deals with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that Kartik indeed
placed an order for a book, which Kartik claims he never placed?
4. Integrity of service: How does one ensure that the message received was really the one
sent, and not something that a malicious adversary modified in transit or concocted?

IX.2 Types of attacks over a network

We classify the attacks that compromise network security as passive attacks and active attacks.
 a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,
transmissions. The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted.
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect since they do not involve the alteration of the
data. Two types of passive attacks are:
- release of message contents where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is
being transmitted. This can be prevented by encryption
- traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of
messages being exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the
communication that is taking place.
b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the
creation of a false stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so
would require physical protection of all communications facilities and paths at all times.
Instead, the goal is to detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by
them.

IX.3 Data compression and data encryption

In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to compress it in other to reduce
space for storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the process of
converting data from a large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm.
Some popular examples of data compression techniques include:

a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is
used for storing and transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer
network such as
Internet
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for
storing and transferring colour photograph and high quality images in relatively small
files over computer network such as Internet
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for
storing and transferring digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files
over computer network
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a
data file are converted to a binary code, where the most common characters in the file
have the shortest binary code, and the least common have the longest.
e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing,
long, repetitive character strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a
monochrome image file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio
of a compressed file to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data
compression: lossless compression and lossy compression.
 - Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be
restores exactly. (ex: zip)
- Lossy-compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be
restored exactly due to loss of some of its elements (ex: mp3)
Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform
plaintext into cypher text, a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of
an encrypted message uses a key which triggers the algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data,
transforming it to the original plaintext version.