Parts of words

Many words in the English language are formed by taking base words or root words and
adding combinations of prefixes and suffixes to them.

A root word is the primary form of a word. While root words may contain the core meaning
of the word, they cannot stand alone. For example, “bene” is the root in the word “beneficial.”

A base word is slightly different from a root because a base is the basic form of a word that
can stand on its own. For example, “commit” is the base in the word “commitment.” To
differentiate the two, just remember that a base can have affixes attached to it, but it does
not have to; a root must have an affix (prefix or suffix), or another root, attached to it in order
to make it a whole word.

A prefix is a word part that is placed at the beginning of a word to change or enhance its
meaning. For example, “dis—” is the prefix of the word “disagree.”

A suffix is a word part that is placed at the end of a word to change or enhance its meaning.
For example, “—ful” is the suffix of the word “thankful.”

Most English words are derivatives of ancient Greek and Latin words. Knowing Greek and
Latin roots is important because you can determine the meaning of an unknown word if you
are familiar with any of the prefixes, suffixes, or root words attached to it. When deriving
meaning from the context fails, breaking down words into their smallest parts can ensure you
will be successful.

ACTIVITY 1
1. Identify the roots, prefixes and/or 1.6. Redeemable
suffixes in the following words: 2. Write down a definition and example
1.1. Disbelief for each of the following:
1.2. Reheat 2.1. Simple word
1.3. Understandable 2.2. Compound word
1.4. Disagreeable 2.3. Complex word
1.5. Determination 2.4. Simple compound word
2.5. Complex compound word
 Nouns & Pronouns

WHAT IS A NOUN?
Nouns make up a lot of the English language. There are also many different types.
These are all nouns:
The following places are Nouns can also be things.
⮚ My father
also nouns:
⮚ Tap
⮚ Your aunty ⮚ My house
⮚ Football
⮚ The Queen ⮚ Mount Everest
⮚ Table
⮚ Elvis Presley ⮚ The bathroom
⮚ Freedom

1. COMMON NOUNS
Generic (common) nouns can be put into three categories. These are collective nouns,
abstract nouns, and concrete nouns.
1. A collective noun is a collection or a group. Examples of a collective noun:

⮚ A murder of crows.

⮚ A pack of dogs.

2. A concrete noun is something physical, or real. Examples of concrete nouns:

⮚ I have a cup of coffee.

⮚ I heard some music.

3. An abstract noun is something we cannot perceive. Examples:

⮚ The bravery he had shown.

⮚ They had a lot of compassion.

2. NOUNS AS SUBJECTS
All sentences have a subject. The subject is always a noun—a person, thing, or a place that
is being or doing the verb. Examples of nouns as subjects:

⮚ Edward felt excited.

 ⮚ Louise was happy.

(Edward and Louise are the subjects in each of their sentences.)

3. PLURAL NOUNS
A plural noun differs from a collection or group. A plural noun will require a -s or a -es to be
added to the singular form. There are some exceptions.
Examples of plural nouns:

⮚ Singular: A dog Plural: The dogs

⮚ Singular: A car Plural: The cars

⮚ Singular: A taxPlural: The taxes

4. POSSESSIVE NOUNS
A possessive noun is a noun that possesses something. You will see a possessive noun as it
has an apostrophe.

⮚ It was Joshua’s ball.

⮚ I went to Ella’s house for dinner.

When there is a plural noun that ends in s, the apostrophe is moved.

⮚ My nephews’ first suit was expensive.

5. NOUNS AS OBJECTS
A noun can be an object in a sentence. Examples of a noun asana object:

⮚ Give the shoes to them.

⮚ Pass the books to her.

ACTIVITY 2
Identify the nouns (in bold) in the sentences below:
1. Maria invited her friends to her birthday party.
2. We visited the Eiffel Tower during our trip to Paris.
3. Courage is needed to overcome life's challenges.
4. The team celebrated their victory with loud cheers.
5. The class observed a flock of birds flying overhead.
6. The library is a quiet place for studying and reading.
7. Honesty and integrity are important values in society.
8. The company hired a group of talented artists for the project.
9. The mountain range stretched across the horizon.
10. A pride of lions roamed freely in the savannah.
WHAT IS A PRONOUN?
A pronoun’s distinguishing feature is that within a sentence, you can replace it. A pronoun is
a word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.

⮚ Robert decided to sleep. Robert has always enjoyed taking long naps.

⮚ Robert decided to sleep. He has always enjoyed taking long naps.

⮚ Robert decided to sleep. My brother has always enjoyed taking long naps.

In this case, the second Robert is replaced with ‘he’ and ‘my brother’. The change of
pronoun stops the sentence from getting boring.

1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns are:

⮚ They, Them, We, You, Me, I, Her, She, He, and Him

2. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun connects relative clauses to independent clauses. They include:

⮚ What, who, which, whom, that

Examples of using a relative pronoun:

⮚ The person who posted these cards forgot to leave a number.

⮚ My plant is very large, that new pot will fit perfectly.

3. ANTECEDENTS
A pronoun can be almost anything. It is a very versatile part of the English language. An
antecedent is a noun or a noun phrase that is replaced later in a sentence.
Example of an antecedent:

⮚ My friends are the best; I love to be around them.

In this example, the antecedent is family and replaced later by them.

⮚ Henry is my dog; he is loud and loves to run.

In this example, the antecedent is Henry, and the pronoun replacement is he.
4. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
For some occasions, you will not need to name a person or an object. In this case, you can
refer to them with an indefinite pronoun. Examples of indefinite pronouns:

⮚ Other, anybody, no one, none, some, everybody, one

Example use of indefinite pronouns:

⮚ The traffic jam meant that everyone was late.

In this case, the indefinite pronoun used is everybody.

5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
An interrogative pronoun will be used in a question. Examples of interrogative pronouns:

⮚ What, which, whose, and who

An example use of an interrogative pronoun:

⮚ What is your last name?

In this example, the interrogative pronoun is what.

⮚ Which colour is your favourite?

In this example, the interrogative pronoun is which.

ACTIVITY 3
Write the correct pronoun in each of the blank spaces below:
1. The teacher gave the students a challenging assignment. __________ worked on
__________ diligently.
2. Mark forgot to bring __________ textbook to class.
3. Emily invited __________ friends to __________ birthday party.
4. __________ need to finish the project before the deadline.
5. I can't find __________ keys anywhere.
6. The dog wagged __________ tail happily.
7. __________ are going to the movies tonight.
8. Each student must submit __________ assignment by tomorrow.
9. The company awarded __________ with a certificate for outstanding performance.
10. We enjoyed __________ at the beach last weekend.

1.
 Verbs & Modalities

WHAT IS A VERB?
Let’s start with the basics: What is a verb? Verbs are words that describe actions, whether
physical or mental. Verbs also describe a “state of being,” like the verbs be,
become, or exist.

1. Dynamic (action) verbs

Most verbs describe a physical action or activity, something external that can be seen or
heard. These verbs are formally known as dynamic verbs, but can also be
called action or event verbs.

⮚ Examples: walk, laugh, swim, play, eat, drink, sing, dance, talk, say

There are a lot of actions that take place in our minds and feelings, which are not external.
Verbs that describe mental or internal actions are still dynamic verbs, but they’re not always
so obvious. These include “process verbs,” which describe actions of transition.

⮚ Examples: consider, guess, change, grow, live, endure, succeed, fail

2. Stative (state-of-being) verbs

The opposite of dynamic verbs of action is stative verbs of being. Stative verbs describe a
subject’s state or feeling, including things they like and don’t like.

⮚ Examples: want, need, prefer, love, hate, like, dislike, seem, understand, know,

believe, involve, realize

One of the most important parts of stative verbs is that you can’t use them in the
continuous tenses. Stative verbs stick to the simple tenses, or occasionally use the
perfect.

3. Verbs that can be dynamic or stative

A lot of verbs have more than one meaning, so they can be used as dynamic or stative.
These include perception words: see, hear, taste, smell, feel. When perception verbs are
used as an involuntary action, such as passive or unintentional actions, they are stative.
This applies when these verbs are used in the general sense, a state of being that’s always
happening.
 ⮚ I can’t see without my glasses.

⮚ Cake still tastes great even if it’s not your birthday.

When those same verbs are used for a voluntary action—specific, deliberate, and/or
temporary events—they are dynamic. Among other things, it means they can be used in the
continuous tenses.

⮚ I haven’t been seeing well since I lost my glasses.

⮚ We were tasting cakes for the wedding all afternoon.

Likewise, some perception verbs have alternative meanings, especially if they’re part of
expressions or phrasal verbs. Often, this means they act as dynamic verbs. Other verbs,
like think, have, and, above all be, the same voluntary/involuntary rules are followed as
perception verbs. Depending on how they’re used, they can be either dynamic or stative.

⮚ I think toads are better than frogs. (stative: expresses an opinion or feeling always

there; involuntary)

⮚ All morning I was thinking about how toads are better than frogs. (dynamic:

expresses the temporary action of thinking; voluntary)

⮚ I have a ten-year-old dog. (stative: expresses permanent ownership; involuntary)

⮚ I am having a party for my dog’s eleventh birthday. (dynamic: used as part of phrase;

voluntary)

⮚ He is nice to everyone. (stative: expresses an ongoing state or personality trait;

involuntary)

⮚ He was just being nice to everyone to get a promotion. (dynamic: expresses a

temporary/intentional state; voluntary)

4. Auxiliary (helping) verbs

Auxiliary verbs, or “helping verbs,” are used in English to change another verb’s tense,
voice, or mood. When auxiliary verbs are used, there’s always a main verb that represents
the main action. However, the auxiliary verb must still be conjugated correctly. The main
auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do. We explain how they’re used specifically for
conjugating below, but here are a few quick examples:

⮚ I have eaten sushi many times before. (tense)

⮚ That piece of sushi was eaten by me. (voice)

⮚ Did you eat my sushi? (mood)

5. Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are phrases that act as individual verbs, often combining two or more words
and changing their meaning. The verb get, for example, becomes many different phrasal
verbs when combined with different prepositions.

⮚ When the bus stops, passengers get out on the sidewalk.

⮚ After losing his job, he’s getting by on savings.

The important thing to remember about phrasal verbs is that they act as a single verb, so
you can still use them with other verbs and prepositions. However, when you conjugate a
phrasal verb, you only conjugate the part of the phrase that’s actually a verb, like get.

6. Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive

Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive refer to how a verb acts with direct and indirect
objects. A direct object is the person or thing that the action happens to, while an indirect
object is the person or thing that receives the direct object.

⮚ Lindor threw the ball to deGram. In this example, the subject is Lindor and the verb

is threw. The direct object is the ball because that is what was thrown—Lindor did the
action to the ball. The indirect object is deGram because he received the direct
object, the ball.
Verbs that don’t use either a direct or indirect object are called intransitive. These verbs are
complete actions by themselves.

⮚ Examples: go, walk, run, talk, sit, sleep, work

Verbs that use a direct object, but not an indirect object, are called transitive. They don’t
always need a direct object, but they have the option.

⮚ Examples: clean, like, love, dislike, hate, want, learn, deserve, say

Verbs that use both direct and indirect objects are called ditransitive. They don’t always
need an indirect object, but they have the option.

⮚ Examples: throw, make, buy, sell, read, give, lend, bring

Just as a verb can be either dynamic or stative depending on the meaning, a verb can
sometimes act transitive while at other times act intransitive. These are known
as ambitransitive. For example, if you ask someone if they’re hungry, they might respond:

⮚ No, I already ate. (intransitive)

⮚ No, I already ate a sandwich. (transitive)

7. Active vs. passive voice

In English, the standard format where the subject performs the action is known as the active
voice. However, you can switch around your words to make the direct or indirect objects the
subject of the sentence, known as the passive voice. You can make a verb passive by
adding a conjugated form of be in front of its past participle.

⮚ Stricklen threw the ball to Williams. (active)

⮚ The ball was thrown to Williams by Stricklen. (passive)

⮚ Williams was thrown the ball by Stricklen. (passive)

8. Linking (copular) verbs

A linking verb is any verb, dynamic or stative, that directly connects or “links” the sentence’s
subject to other words in the sentence. For example:

⮚ Garfield is a cat.
Here, “Garfield” and “a cat” are the same thing, so “is” acts as a linking verb. A linking
verb—also known as a copula or copular verb in formal linguistics—connects the subject not
just to other nouns and adjectives, but also to prepositional phrases and other verbs in the
infinitive form.

Although the verb be is the most-used linking verb in English, other linking verbs
like seem and become are also common.

⮚ Garfield is in the kitchen.

⮚ Garfield became fat by eating lasagnas.

⮚ Garfield seems to hate Mondays.

Likewise, perception verbs are often linking verbs as well, but only when they describe what
is being perceived.

⮚ The mild sauce also tastes spicy.

⮚ Birds look happy when the sun comes out.

⮚ The student felt pride when they used perfect grammar.

9. Regular vs. irregular Verbs

Verbs have different forms to show different uses, such as an action that happened in the
past, or an action that happens continuously. Normally, these forms follow the same patterns
of conjugation, so that you can use the same rules on all verbs. Verbs that use the normal
forms are regular verbs.

Unfortunately, some verbs don’t want to play by the rules. They have their own unique forms
with no patterns, specifically for the simple past tense and past participle forms. These are
the notorious irregular verbs, and there are quite a few of them—including the most
common verb be. To make matters worse, the only way to learn how to use irregular verbs is
to study them and all their forms. On the bright side, we explain the best ways to memorize
irregular verbs. But first, you’ll want to learn the standard verb forms of the majority regular
verbs below.
❖ Root

The root form is the basic form of the verb with no changes. It’s also the simple present
tense for everything except the third-person singular.

❖ Third-person singular present

Used with subjects like he, she, the singular they, or it, the third-person singular in the
present tense just adds an -s to the end of the root form most of the time.
For verbs that end in a consonant and -y (try, carry), you remove the y and
add -ies (tries, carries). If the verb ends in a vowel and -y (say, buy), you just add an –s like
normal (says, buys). Verbs that end in -ch, -sh, -x, -z, or -s add -es to the end instead of just
–s. For example, watch becomes watches and kiss becomes kisses.

❖ Simple past

The past tense shows an action that already happened. In most cases it’s made by
adding -ed to the end of the root form, or just -d if the root form already ends in an e.
However, be careful of irregular verbs—their rules for the past don’t tend to be consistent.

❖ Present participle: The present participle is used for the continuous tenses to show

ongoing or current action, and in more advanced English can be used for participial
phrases. In most cases you simply add –ing to the end of the root form, although
sometimes you have to remove an E first.

❖ Past participle: The past participle is used for the perfect tenses. In regular verbs, it’s

the same as the simple past tense, so there’s nothing extra to learn. However, irregular
verbs often use unique past participles, so you may have to memorize their forms.

❖ Infinitives and gerunds: Do you like to swim? Do you enjoy learning? If you want to use

a verb as a noun, you can turn it into an infinitive or gerund, the noun forms of verbs.
An infinitive adds the preposition to in front of a verb’s root form.

Although technically two words, an infinitive acts as a single word, usually a noun, but
sometimes also an adjective or adverb.
 ⮚ To forgive is divine. (noun)

⮚ Bring a snack to eat if you get hungry. (adjective describing “snack”)

Alternatively, you can turn the verb into a gerund by adding -ing, identical to the present
participle. A gerund is strictly used as a noun, and occasionally you can use them to
create gerund phrases, which act as a single unit to modify the gerund.
So what’s the difference between infinitives and gerunds? Often, they are
interchangeable—both infinitives and gerunds can act as subjects and direct objects.

⮚ Living with a dog changes your outlook on life. (correct)

⮚ To live with a dog changes your outlook on life. (also correct)

However, only gerunds can be the object of a preposition. Moreover, some transitive
verbs only use infinitives as a direct object—for example, want.

Although there are others, some common verbs use infinitives. They include the
following: choose, decide, hope, plan, prepare, promise, wish. In general, use the infinitives
for situations that are abstract, unreal, or haven’t happened yet. Use gerunds for situations
that are specific, real, or have already happened.

⮚ In the mornings, I really like to exercise. (abstract; infinitive)

⮚ This morning, I really liked exercising. (specific; gerund)

ACTIVITY 4:
Underline and identify the types of verbs in the sentences below:
1. Sarah sings beautifully in the choir.
2. The students studied diligently for the exam.
3. The sun shines brightly in the sky.
4. They planted flowers in the garden yesterday.
5. The baby cried for attention.
6. The chef prepared a delicious meal for the guests.
7. My grandmother tells fascinating stories about her childhood.
8. The waves crashed against the shore.
9. We celebrated our victory with a party.
10. The athletes trained hard for the upcoming competition.
11. The birds chirped cheerfully in the trees.
12. He runs five miles every morning.
 WHAT ARE MODAL VERBS?

Modal verbs show possibility, intent, ability, or necessity. Common examples of modal verbs
include can, should, and must. Because they’re a type of auxiliary verb (helper verb), they’re
used alongside the infinitive form of the main verb of a sentence. Modal verbs are used to
express certain hypothetical conditions, such as advisability, capability, or requests (there’s a
full list in the next section). They’re used alongside a main verb to inflect its meaning.

Consider the difference between these two examples:

⮚ I swim every Tuesday.

⮚ I can swim every Tuesday.

The first example is a simple factual statement. The speaker participates in a swimming
activity every week on Tuesdays. The second example uses the modal verb can. Notice how
the meaning changes slightly. The speaker does not necessarily swim every Tuesday;
they’re saying that they are capable of swimming every Tuesday or that the possibility exists
for them to swim every Tuesday. It’s hypothetical.

Because modal verbs are auxiliary, they can’t generally be used on their own. A modal verb
can appear alone in a sentence only if the main verb is implied because it has previously
been established.

⮚ Can you swim every Tuesday?

⮚ Yes, I can.

Modal verbs are quite common in English; you’ve seen them in action hundreds of times
even if you didn’t know what they were called. The most frequently used ones are:

⮚ can
⮚ may
⮚ might
⮚ could
⮚ should
⮚ would
⮚ will
⮚ must
There are other, less common modal verbs. Some—like shall and ought—are rarely used
any longer. There are also verbs that can function either as main verbs or as modal
auxiliaries depending on the context; got, need, and have all behave like modal verbs in the
common colloquial expressions got to, need to, and have to. Some modal verbs express
very specific conditions that don’t come up often, like dare in its modal form in “Dare I ask?”
The word used in the idiomatic phrase used to, as in “I used to be an English student too,”
behaves like a modal verb with only a past tense form.

1. Likelihood
Some things seem likely to be true but can’t be stated as definite facts. In these cases, you
can use the modal verbs should and must to show probability without certainty.

⮚ Her parents must be so proud.

⮚ My baby brother should be asleep by now.

2. Possibility
In a situation when something is possible but not certain, use the modal verb could, may,
or might.

⮚ Judging by the clouds, it might rain today.

⮚ She may become the youngest pro soccer player ever.

3. Ability
The modal verb can expresses whether the subject of a sentence is able to do something.
Likewise, the negative form, cannot or can’t, shows that the subject is unable to do
something.

⮚ She can speak three languages but none of them well.

⮚ You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.

4. Permission
If you want to ask permission to do something, start your question with can, may, or could.
Traditionally, may is considered more formal and polite usage for permission; if you ask “Can
I go to the bathroom?” it could be misinterpreted as “Do I have the ability to go to the
bathroom?” However, in modern informal usage, may and can are both perfectly acceptable
options for describing possibility or permission.

⮚ Students, you may leave early today.

⮚ Could I play too?

5. Request
Similarly, if you want to ask someone else to do something, start your question
with will, would, can, or could.

⮚ Would you get that box off the top shelf?

⮚ Will you turn that music down?

6. Suggestion/advice
What if you want to recommend a course of action but not command it? If you’re giving
suggestions or advice without ordering someone around, you can use the modal
verb should.

⮚ You should try the lasagna.

⮚ That guy should wear less cologne.

7. Command
On the other hand, if you want to command someone, use the modal verbs must, have,
or need. With the latter two, the main verb does not drop the word to from its infinitive form.

⮚ You must wash your hands before cooking.

⮚ You need to be here before 8:00.

8. Obligation or necessity
Modal verbs can express a necessary action, such as an obligation, duty, or requirement.
Likewise, the negative forms express that an action is not necessary. Use the same modal
verbs as with commands: must, have, and need.

⮚ We have to wait for our boss to arrive before we open.

⮚ You don’t need to come if you don’t want to.

9. Habit
To show an ongoing or habitual action—something the subject does regularly—you can use
the modal verb would for the past tense and will for the present and future. The
phrase used to is also acceptable when you’re talking about a habit in the past.

⮚ When I lived alone, I would fall asleep with music.

⮚ I will arrive early to every meeting and leave late.

ACTIVITY 5:
Read each sentence carefully and identify the modal verb(s) within the sentence:
1. Sarah can swim across the lake.
2. You should study for your exams diligently.
3. He might arrive late due to traffic.
4. We must finish the project by Friday.
5. They could have won the game if they had played better.
6. She will attend the meeting tomorrow.
7. Students ought to respect their teachers.
8. I would like to visit Paris someday.
9. The team should have practiced more before the match.
10. You may borrow my car for the weekend.
11. They might have forgotten about the appointment.
12. He should have called to inform us about the delay.
13. We will have to leave early to catch the train.
14. She might be able to help you with your assignment.

Adjectives & Adverbs

WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns:

⮚ enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity of

nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.

As you may already know, adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns. Adjectives do
not modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.

⮚ Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.

⮚ Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.

⮚ My cake should have sixteen candles.

⮚ The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.

In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot because they come immediately
before the nouns they modify. But adjectives can modify nouns even without appearing right
before them in a sentence. Acting as what’s called a subjective complement with the help of
a linking verb, a predicate adjective modifies the subject of a sentence. A linking verb is a
verb like to be, to feel, to seem, or to taste that, rather than describing an action, helps to
describe a state of being or a sensory experience.

⮚ That cow sure is happy.

⮚ It smells gross in the locker room.

⮚ Driving is faster than walking.

1. Uses of adjectives
Adjectives tell the reader what kind of something you’re talking about, or how much or how
many of something you’re talking about.

⮚ Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.

⮚ Three and white are modifying flowers.

2. Degrees of adjectives
Absolute adjectives describe something in its own right.

⮚ A cool guy

⮚ A messy desk

⮚ A rigid guideline

⮚ An awful situation

⮚ A mischievous cat

Comparative adjectives, unsurprisingly, make a comparison between two or more things. For
most one-syllable adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding the suffix -er (or just -r if
the adjective already ends with an e). For two-syllable adjectives, some use -er to form the
comparative while others use the word more. In general, two-syllable adjectives ending in
–er, –le, –ow, –ure, or –y can be made comparative by adding -er (in the case of -y words,
replace y with –ier). For adjectives of three or more syllables, add the word more.

⮚ A cooler guy

⮚ A messier desk
 ⮚ A rigider/more rigid guideline

⮚ A more awful situation

⮚ A more mischievous cat

Superlative adjectives indicate that something has the highest degree of the quality in
question. One-syllable adjectives become superlatives by adding the suffix -est (or
just -st for adjectives that already end in e). As with the comparative, some two-syllable
adjectives use -est to form the superlative while others use the word most. In general,
two-syllable adjectives ending in -y replace -y with -iest. Adjectives of three or more syllables
add the word most. When you use an article with a superlative adjective, it will almost always
be the definite article (the) rather than a or an. Using a superlative inherently indicates that
you are talking about a specific item or items.

⮚ The coolest guy

⮚ The messiest desk

⮚ The rigidest/most rigid guideline

⮚ The most awful situation

⮚ The most mischievous cat

3. Coordinate adjectives
Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma or the word and. Adjectives are said
to be coordinate if they modify the same noun in a sentence to the same degree.

⮚ This is going to be a long, cold winter.

⮚ Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the difference.

Sometimes, when two adjectives appear next to each other and modify the same noun, the
one closer to the noun is so closely related to the noun that they form a single semantic unit
together, and that unit is what is modified by the first adjective. In this case, the adjectives
are not coordinate and should not be separated by a comma.
⮚ My cat, Goober, loves sleeping on this tattered woolen sweater.
⮚ No one could open the old silver locket.
WHAT IS AN ADVERB?
An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (“he sings loudly”), an adjective (“very
tall”), another adverb (“ended too quickly”), or even a whole sentence (“Fortunately, I had
brought an umbrella.”). Adverbs often end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the
same as their adjective counterparts.
⮚ Tom Longboat did not run badly.
⮚ Tom is very tall.
⮚ The race finished too quickly.
⮚ Fortunately, Lucy recorded Tom’s win.

1. Degrees of comparison
Like adjectives, many adverbs can show degrees of comparison, although it’s slightly less
common to use them this way. With certain flat adverbs (adverbs that look exactly the same
as their adjective counterparts), the comparative and superlative forms look the same as the
adjective comparative and superlative forms. It’s usually better to use stronger, more precise
adverbs (or stronger, more precise adjectives and verbs) than to rely on comparative and
superlative adverbs.

An absolute or positive adverb describes something in its own right:

⮚ He smiled warmly.
⮚ They asked me to deliver a hastily written note.

To make the comparative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the word more:
⮚ He smiled more warmly than the others.
⮚ The more hastily written note contained the clue.

To make the superlative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the word most:
⮚ He smiled most warmly of them all.
⮚ The most hastily written note on the desk was overlooked.
ACTIVITY 6:
Read each sentence carefully and identify the adjective(s) within the sentence.
1. The green grass swayed in the breeze.
2. She wore a beautiful dress to the party.
3. The tall tree provided shade on hot days.
4. The delicious aroma of fresh bread filled the kitchen.
5. He lives in a cozy house by the river.
6. They admired the majestic mountains in the distance.
7. Sarah has a friendly smile that lights up the room.
8. The old book was filled with fascinating stories.
9. The sparkling stars lit up the night sky.
10. We enjoyed a peaceful afternoon by the lake.
11. The fierce lion roared loudly in the jungle.
12. She wore a vibrant red scarf around her neck.
13. The curious cat explored every corner of the room.
14. They admired the ancient ruins of the castle.
15. His brilliant idea helped solve the problem.

ACTIVITY 7:
Read each sentence carefully and identify the adverb(s) within the sentence.
1. She danced gracefully across the stage.
2. He speaks fluently in Spanish.
3. They arrived late for the movie.
4. The car moved slowly through the heavy traffic.
5. The children played happily in the park.
6. Sarah sings beautifully in the choir.
7. The team worked diligently to finish the project on time.
8. He drove carefully along the winding road.
9. She smiled warmly at the guests.
10. The birds chirped loudly outside the window.
11. They walked quietly through the forest.
12. The sun shines brightly in the clear sky.
13. He answered the question correctly during the quiz.
14. The train arrived unexpectedly early.
15. She reads slowly to savor each word.
 Parts of Speech (the rest)

1. Prepositions
❖ Prepositions tell you the relationships between other words in a sentence.

❖ You might say, “I left my bike leaning against the garage.” In this sentence, against is the
preposition because it tells us where you left your bike.
❖ Here’s another example: “She put the pizza in the oven.” Without the preposition in, we
don’t know where the pizza is.

2. Conjunctions
❖ Conjunctions make it possible to build complex sentences that express multiple ideas.

❖ “I like marinara sauce. I like alfredo sauce. I don’t like puttanesca sauce.” Each of these
three sentences expresses a clear idea. There’s nothing wrong with listing your
preferences like this, but it’s not the most efficient way to do it.
❖ Consider instead: “I like marinara sauce and alfredo sauce, but I don’t like puttanesca
sauce.” In this sentence, and and but are the two conjunctions that link your ideas
together.

3. Articles
❖ A pear. The brick house. An exciting experience. These bolded words are known as
articles.
❖ Articles come in two flavours: definite articles and indefinite articles. And similarly to the
two types of nouns, the type of article you use depends on how specific you need to be
about the thing you’re discussing.
❖ A definite article, like the or this, describes one specific noun.
⮚ Did you buy the car?
From the above sentence, we understand that the speaker is referring to a specific
previously discussed car.
❖ Now swap in an indefinite article:
⮚ Did you buy a car?
See how the implication that you’re referring back to something specific is gone, and
you’re asking a more general question?

ACTIVITY 8:
Read each sentence carefully and identify the preposition:
1. The cat sleeps under the table. 3. She arrived at the airport.
2. We walked through the forest. 4. The book is on the shelf.
5. They sat beside each other. 7. He ran around the track.
6. The keys are inside the drawer. 8. The ball rolled across the floor.

ACTIVITY 9: 4. They ate dinner early so they could

Read each sentence carefully and
identify the conjunction:
1. He likes both chocolate and vanilla
ice cream.
2. Sarah wants to go to the beach, but
it's raining.
3. We can go for a walk if the weather
improves.
catch the train.
5. She studied hard yet failed the exam.
ACTIVITY 10:
Read each sentence carefully and
identify the article
1. The dog barked loudly.
2. She bought an apple from the store.
3. They are going to a concert tonight.
4. He found the keys under the couch.
5. Sarah has a cat named Whiskers

Question Forms

1. Yes/No questions:

❖ Yes/No questions start with an auxiliary.

❖ To choose the right auxiliary verb, we need to consider the time of the action or state

(present, past, future) and whether the subject is singular or plural.

❖ If the affirmative sentence has an auxiliary verb, we simply invert the order of the subject

and auxiliary verb to make a yest/no question.

❖ In an affirmative statement, the subject always comes before the verb. (An affirmative

statement is a sentence that is not negative and not a question.) However, when we
make a question we need to remember to put the auxiliary verb or the verb be when it is
the main verb before the subject. This is what we call inversion.

2. Auxiliary verbs that appear in the affirmative sentence are:

 Verbs be: is, are, am, was, were
Verbs be can be the main verbs of sentences. In these cases, we use them to form
questions in the same way that we use verbs be as auxiliary verbs.

Modals: will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must. Here are some
examples:
● Affirmative: I am on time.
● Question: Am I on time? (Answer: Yes, you are. OR No, you aren’t.
● Affirmative: The boys are playing.
● Question: Are the boys playing? (Answer: Yes, they are. OR No, they aren’t.
● Affirmative: She can swim.
● Question: Can she swim? (Answer: Yes, she can. OR No, she can’t.

To make questions in present simple and past simple tenses, we use does or do in the
present and did in the past. Here are some examples:
● Affirmative: I eat a lot of fruits.
● Question: Do I eat a lot of fruits?
● Answer: Yes, you do. OR No, you don’t.
● Affirmative: She enjoys reading.
● Question: Does she enjoy reading?
● Answer: Yes, she does. OR No, she doesn’t.
● Affirmative: He slept early.
● Question: Did he sleep early?
● Answer: Yes, he did. OR No, he didn’t.

3. Wh-questions:
These questions are also called information questions because they require information to
be given in the response. The question word comes before the auxiliary verb. Below is a list
of question words and when we use them:
● What: asks about things
● Which: asks about things and people when there is a fixed set of options
● When: asks about time
● Where: asks about place
● Why: asks about reason
● Who: asks about people
● Whom: asks about people (as the object of a verb or preposition)
● Whose: asks about possession
 ● How: asks about the way or method

The question word How can also come in combinations with other words to ask about
quantity (How much, How many), frequency (How often), age (How old), or
measurements (How long, How tall, How wide, etc.).
Here are some examples:
● Affirmative: He lives in Cairo.
● Question: Where does he live?
● Affirmative: We are tired because we have been working since morning.
● Question: Why are you tired?
● Affirmative: They traveled yesterday.
● Question: When did they travel?
● Affirmative: She is 20 years old.
● Question: How old is she?
● Affirmative: This is my book.
● Question: Whose book is this?

4. Subject questions
To ask about the subject with who, what, or which, there is no inversion of subject and
auxiliary verb. To form questions in the present and past simple, we put the question
word before the main verb. Here are some examples:
● Affirmative: Ahmad will help the old man.
● Question: Who will help the old man?
● Affirmative: The storm broke the tree.
● Question: What broke the tree?
● Affirmative: Ms. Kasim teaches us history.
● Question: Which teacher teaches you history?

Notice the difference between subject and object questions.

● Affirmative: Ahmad will help the old man.
● Object Question: Who will Ahmad help? Answer: The old man.
● Subject Question: Who will help the old man? Answer: Ahmad.

ACTIVITY 11:
Read each sentence carefully and identify the interrogative or question tag within the
sentence:
1. What time is the meeting? 2. Where did you go yesterday?
3. How are you feeling today? 7. Which book did you choose?
4. Who won the competition? 8. Whose bag is this?
5. Why are you late? 9. Whom did you speak to?
6. When will the bus arrive? 10. Whose idea was it to go camping?