MEAT

● Meat refers to the flesh and some internal organs of animals that are used for
human consumption.

● The main reason for the high price of meat is the amount of time, effort and
feed it takes to rear animals for meat.

● Animals for meat are slaughtered in abattoirs (slaughterhouses).

● The butcher cut the meat into joints or cuts, according to:
-the amount and position of bones, lean meat, and fat on the various parts of
the body.

● Lean, tender joints are more popular and difficult to procedure and therefore
cost more, so the butcher must separate these accurately.

Structure and Composition of Meat

● Most lean meats are made up of : -muscle tissue

-connective tissue
-fat
● Liver and kidney are exceptions. They contain no muscle fibres or
connective tissues and are cellular in structure.
Muscle tissue
● Lean meat is composed of the muscles that move the body in an animal. Muscles are
composed of cells in the form of long, slender fibres.

● Muscle fibres are made of 2 main proteins :

-myosin
-actin

● The size of muscle fibres affect the tenderness of the cooked meat.
For example : - slender, small fibres are associated with tender meat.
- large, long fibres are associated with tougher meat.

● The older the animal, the tougher the meat because of the increase in size of muscle
fibres.

● Parts of the animal such as neck, skin and forearm, have the largest muscle fibres thus
making them tougher meat due to receiving regular and the most physical work.

● Individual muscle fibres are formed into bundles, surrounded by a substance called
connective tissue.

● Whole muscles are attached to bones by rough, gristly tissue called tendons.

Connective tissue
● Connective tissue is made of 2 proteins:
❖ Collagen
❖ Elastin

● Collagen is the white to transparent tissue component of tendons and connective tissue
surrounding muscles, particularly those that do the most work.

● Collagen is less flexible than elastin.

● Collagen when heated in the presence of moisture is converted into soluble gelatine,
which greatly increases the tenderness of connective tissue and therefore of the meat.

● Gelatine is water-soluble and offers little or no resistance to chewing. The amount of

collagen converted to gelatin during cooking increases with cooking time.
 ● Traditionally, tough cuts of meat were cooked by slow moist methods such as stewing to
facilitate the conversion of gelatine to take place.

● Elastin is a main component of ligaments (in-between bones), and has the ability to
stretch and return to its original shape. Very little change occurs in elastin during
cooking.

● Elastin is an insoluble and tough protein, but there is less elastin than collagen in
muscles. Thus, elastin does not have a major influence on the toughness of meat.

Fats
● A certain amount of visible and invisible fat is found in meat.

● The amount and kind of fat in meat vary with the kind of meat, the age and diet of the
animal.

● Invisible fat is the fat that is distributed between cells as tiny globules.

● Visible fat is located between muscles, around organs and directly under the skin of the
animal.

● Fats are found in the following places:

○ Under the skin in adipose tissue around vital organs, e.g. kidneys (suet)
○ Between bundles of muscle fibres (invisible fat)

● The fat under the skin may be yellowish, because of the presence of carotenes from
plants, depending on what the animal fed on.

● The visible fat between the bundles of muscle fibres gives the meat a ‘marbled’ effect.

● One of the reasons why lean meat is so expensive is because the large amounts of feed
required producing it.

● The fat content of meat helps to give flavour, moisture and texture to the cooked meat.
Texture and Colour of meat
● Texture refers to firmness and smoothness. Firmness is desirable because it
suggests a good diet and therefore a good flavour. Smoothness is associated
with short, fine fibres and tenderness.

● Meat colour is also a good indicator of tenderness and flavour. Dark-

coloured meat is usually tough, and more strongly flavoured than light
coloured meat.

● The darkness of colour may be a sign of staleness. In this case, meat has a
brownish hue.

● Yellow fat and grey flinty bones are associated with older animals and are
therefore signs of toughness and strong flavours.

● The colour of meat is mainly due to the presence of myoglobin, which is a

purple/red tissue protein, and haemoglobin from the blood.

● Haemoglobin takes oxygen to the muscles, and myoglobin old it there to

facilitate muscle work. It can be drawn that there is more myoglobin in well-
used muscles e.g. heart and shin and in other animals. (the colour of the
meat is darker in both cases.)

● Oxymyoglobin is bright red meat colour.

 ● Metmyoglobin is brown/red colour of meat

Choosing Meat
Consider the following:
● Value for your money
- Too much bone in a joint reduces its value of money
- Cheaper, tougher cuts of meat are just as nutritious as more expensive,
leaner cuts.
- There should not be too much visible fat on the joint.

● Appearance
The following physical characteristics should be noted:
-Colour

Meat Colour of lean Colour of fat

Lamb pink/ brown cream/ white
Mutton dark pink/ brown white
Beef red/brown cream/ pale yellow
Pork pink white

-Moist but not dripping

-smell fresh
-marbled appearance if lean meat
-slightly springy to the touch

● Intended use
○ Allow for possible shrinkage during cooking when choosing a joint.
○ When stewing or casseroling, it is uneconomic to use expensive, lean
joints of meat.
○ 100 grams of meat per person
The effect of heat and changes during cooking
● Texture and tenderness
○ The protein s of the meat denature at temperatures of 40 degrees
Celsius to 65 degrees Celsius. As this occurs, the structure of the meat
tightens and the meat becomes firmer.

○ The protein of muscle fibres may toughen during some cooking

methods.

○ The connective tissue is tenderized during cooking. It becomes shorter

and thicker so that the meat shrinks in size.

Meat can be partially tenderized before cooking by:

❖ Mechanically pounding, scoring, and cutting across the muscle
fibres to reduce their length.

❖ The use of enzymes, such as papain, which partially digests the

protein

❖ Marinating in vinegar or alcohol

● Fat
○ The adipose tissue becomes more tender when cooked

○ The fat melts, and penetrates the lean meat during cooking, which
increases the energy value of the lean meat.

○ The fat content may also make the meat appear more juicy

○ On the skin of roasted meat, the fat becomes crisp and brown

● Colour
○ During cooking, the colour of the meat changes from red to brown,
due to the oxymyoglobin being converted to haemochrome.
 ● Flavour
○ Cooking meat improves it palatability.

○ In dry cooking methods, extractive containing flavour are squeezed

out of the meat on to the surface as the protein denatures and shrinks.
These extractive give meat its characteristic taste. The fat melts and
gives a crisp surface to the meat.

○ In moist methods of cooking, the extractives are leached into the

cooking liquid, which should be served with the meat to give it
flavour.

● Nutritive value
○ Protein: -affect very little during normal methods of cooking
-if overcooked, they become less digestible

○ Vitamins: -fat-soluble vitamins remain stable

-In moist methods of cooking, the water-soluble b vitamins
may be leached into the cooking liquid.
-In dry methods of cooking, thiamin, being heat sensitive
may be destroyed.

○ Minerals: -some leaching of minerals into the cooking liquid may

occur in moist methods of cooking.
-the liquid should be served with the meat.

The importance of meat in the diet

 ● Meat is an important food as it is a good source of : -protein
-B vitamins
-iron
-zine

● Meat is a main source of high biological value for many people.

● The nutritional value of lean meat of most types is an average:

○ Protein - 20%
○ Fat - 5%
○ Minerals - 1%
○ Water - 74%

● Pork is a good source of thiamin

● Both the protein and fat in meat are readily digested and absorbed in the
body

Ways to tenderizing Meat

1. Pounding
2. Salting
3. Marinating
4. Velveting
5. Slow Cooking
6. Enzymatic Application
7. Scoring

Processed Meats
 ● Meat can be bought cured, canned, frozen or dried

● Cured products include:

○ Ham
○ Bacon
○ Salted meats
○ Sausages
○ Luncheon meats

● Ham is usually made from the hind legs and shoulders of the pig.

● Bacon is made from the side and belly

● Sausages and luncheon meats are made from chopped or ground meats
blended with a variety of seasonings and spices.

● Canned products are usually fully cured or cooked products such as ham,
corned beef and stew. Most can be stored without refrigeration.

Dried meats may be prepared by sun or over drying. Meats that are dried in
commercial quantities are cured or cooked, then dried under controlled conditions,
to allow moisture to evaporate.

Cuts of Meat
Lamb and Mutton

Joint Method of cooking

Scrag end Stew, braise
Middle neck Stew, braise
Shoulder Roast, braise, barbecue
Cutlets Grill, fry, barbecue
Best end of neck Roast, braise
Loin Fry, grill, roast
Chump chops Grill, fry, roast, barbecue
Leg (fillet end) Braise, pot-roast
Leg (shank end) Roast, boil
Leg (whole) Roast, braise
Chops Grill, fry, roast, barbecue
Breast Stew, roast, braise
Pork

Joint Method of cooking

Blade bone Pot-roast, braise
Spare rib As chops - fry, grill, roast, barbecue
Loin As chops - fry, grill, roast, barbecue
Fillet of leg Roast - slice and salt skin Salt and boil
Chump Fry, grill, barbecue
Knuckle/shank end of leg Roast, Salt and boil
Belly Pot-roast, boil, braise As slices - fry, grill
Hand and spring Roast, braise, Salt and boil

Beef
Joint Method of cooking
Chuck Braise, stew
Fore rib Roast
Sirloin Roast
As steak - grill, fry, barbecue
Fillet Grill, fry, barbecue
Rump Grill, fry, barbecue
Topside Roast, pot-roast, braise
Silverside Roast, pot-roast, braise
Boil, salt and boil
Buttock steak Braise, pot-roast, stew
Top rump Pot-roast, braise
Flank Salt and boil, stew
Wing rib Roast
Brisket Braise, pot-roast
Salt and boil
Thick rib Roast
Shin Stew, braise
 POULTRY

What is Poultry?
● Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or
their feathers.
 ● Poultry is the name given to birds eaten for food and includes:

Chicken

Duck Pigeon
Goose

Turkey

Structure and Composition

● Poultry meat has the same basic structure as other meat, except that there is
less connective tissue, so the meat is more tender. The legs and wing
muscles which do the most work are generally tougher and darker because
of the presence of myoglobin

● Except for goose and duck, there is less fat in the meat of poultry, so it is
drier when cooked.

● The flavour of poultry is generally not strong, and develops during cooking
similarly to that of other meat.
Choosing Poultry
Appearance
 1. Poultry meat (except for pigeon, which is darker) should be pink/white, with
darker meat on the wings and legs.

2. It should be plump and springy to the touch.

3. It should have a fresh smell

Intended use
● Poussins are a very young bird that are cooked and served whole or in
half.

Nutritive Value
● The protein of poultry is easily digested and of high biological value.
Except for goose and duck, poultry contains less fat than red meat.
There is also less iron, thiamin, riboflavin, and nicotinic acid than in
red meat.

Uses of poultry in food preparation

Chicken
● Whole or joints - roast, braise, boil, casserole.
● Joints - coat in egg and breadcrumbs and fry; grill, casserole.
● Cooked chicken can be eaten cold, in salads, snacks, and picnic meals

Turkey
● Turkey can be cooked similarly to chicken. Boneless turkey rolls can
be roasted to provide 3 to 4 servings

Duck and goose

● Duck and goose are usually roasted. To reduce the fattiness of the
meat, they can be placed on a rack during cooking and pricked with a
knife at regular intervals to release the fat. Bones can be boiled to
produce stock for use in the soups, stews and sauces.
Poultry products
● A variety of poultry products are available, including:
 ○ Chicken nuggets and nibbles
○ Chicken wings
○ Poultry burgers
○ Poultry sausages
○ Rissoles

Storage of poultry
● Freshly killed birds should be hung in a cool, dry place, with all the internal
organs in place. This is to ensure that the meat becomes tender before it is
cooked.

● Fresh poultry should be kept in a cold place after the goblets (internal
organs-neck, gizzard, and liver) and other organs have been removed. It
should be eaten soon after purchase. (two to three days if kept in the
refrigerator).

● Frozen poultry should be allowed to thaw completely before being cooked,

and then thoroughly cooked to avoid salmonella food poisoning.

Reflection
Despite a time-planning hiccup while preparing sweet and sour chicken, the post-frying addition
of seasoning and sauce resulted in a delightful surprise. The unconventional approach yielded a
unique blend of crispy exterior and succulent tenderness, with flavors harmonizing perfectly.
 OFFAL

What is Offal?
● The edible entrails, internal organs of an animal used as food.

Examples of offal
Liver Kidney
 ● Tripe (stomach of
an ox or sheep)
Heart ● Chitterlings (pig’s
intestine, often
used as sausage
casing)
● Tail (e.g. oxtail)
● Feet (e.g. pig’s
trotters)
Brain ● Ears
● Head
● Eyes

Tongue

● Sweetbread (the
pancreas and
thymus glands)
Choosing offal
All offal, particularly the kidneys, liver and heart, should be bought very
fresh. It should be eaten within 24 hours of purchase, and carefully washed and
prepared before eating. Thorough cooking is necessary to prevent food poisoning
and to tenderize the offal.

Importance of offal in the diet

● Protein:
○ The protein of offal is of high biological value, and it well cooked is
readily digested.

● Carbohydrate:
○ Liver may contain a little glycogen, but is not an important source.

● Vitamins:
○ Retinol (vitamin A) is stored in the liver, so liver is a very rich source.
Kidney and heart also contain some retinol.
○ Heart and liver contain useful amounts of thiamin. This is some
vitamin C in liver, but it is not a valuable source.

● Minerals:
○ Tripe contains a useful amount of calcium. Liver and, to a lesser
extent, kidney, are important sources of iron.

Storage for offal

Offal should be kept in a cold place and used as soon as possible after
purchase. It can be frozen for long-term storage.
FISH
What is fish?
A limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills

Types of fish
Fish are classified in 2 ways:
1. According to their origin:
● Freshwater fish (e.g. salmon, trout)
● Seawater fish, which are further divided into:
○ Pelagic fish (which swim near the surface) e.g. herring,
pilchard, mackerel
○ Demersal fish (which swim near the bottom) e.g. plaice, cod,
hake

2. According to their fat content and type:

● Oily fish have more than 5% fat in their flesh, which is therefore quite
dark. E.g. mackerel, herring, pilchard, sprat, sardine, salmon.

● White fish have more than 5% fat in their flesh, which is therefore
white. They have oil in their liver. E.g. halibut, cod, whiting, coley,
plaice, haddock, sole, hoki.

● Shellfish, which are divided into:

○ Molluscs (small, soft-bodied sea animals which live inside a
had shell), e.g. cockles, mussels, winkles.
○ Crustaceans (soft-bodied, joined sea animals which are covered
by a hard protective ‘crust’ or external skeleton), e.g. lobster,
crab, shrimp.

Structure
Fish is similar to meat in muscle composition, but there is less connective
tissue. The fibres in fish are shorter and finer than those of meat and are packed
together in flakes or myotomes with little connective tissue.
Choosing Fish
As fresh fish deteriorates rapidly, it is important to choose it carefully. Fresh
fish should have:
1. Bright eyes, not sunken
2. Plump, firm flesh
3. Plenty of bright scales, firmly attached to the skin
4. Moist skin
5. A fresh, sea smell
6. Bright red gills, not sunken

Fish is available in frozen form too. Many trawlers freeze fish just as they
are caught because of the long journey to shore. Some points to observe in the
selection of frozen fish are:
1. Packaging: These should be solidly frozen. The wrapping material should
be moisture and vapour proof and the packages wrapped tightly.
2. Flesh: The flesh should be firm and glossy, with no discolouration or fading
of the fish.
3. Opening: When the packet is opened, there should be no frost or ice crystals

Nutritive Value
Oily Fish White Fish Shellfish (edible part)
Protein 19.0% 17.5% 15%
Fat 15.0% 0.9% 4%
Water 67.5% 80.0% 8.5%
Carbohydrate none none trace
Minerals 2.5% 1.2% 1.4%

Vitamins
 ● Fat soluble:
○ Oily fish contain a useful amount of vitamins A and D in their flesh.
Canned oily fish contains the most vitamin D.
○ White fish contain vitamins A and D in their liver oils, not in their
flesh.
○ Shellfish are not good sources of their vitamins, as they have a low fat
content.

● Water-soluble:
○ Fish does not contain any vitamin C. Most fish contain small amounts
of the B-group vitamins.

Mineral elements
● Calcium:
○ Most calcium in fish is found in the bones. If the bones of canned fish,
which have been softened, are eaten, they provide a useful source of
calcium.
● Iodine and fluoride seawater fish are good sources.
● Iron:
○ Fish are poor sources of iron,
● Sodium, chlorine, potassium, and phosphorus are found in all fish.

Methods of preparation and cooking

Fish can be used in many dishes. Some include :
● Frying: This is the most popular method of cooking fish. Fish is coated with
seasoned flour, egg and crumbs or batter and fried in shallow or deep fat. It
is usually served with potato chips. The coating keeps in the juice of the fish
and becomes crisp during cooking. Overcooking tends to lead to dryness and
breaking up of flesh.

● Grilling: This is suitable for whole fish and cutlets of 25 mm or 1"

thickness. The flesh is scored with a sharp knife and the surface is brushed
with fat. The grill should be moderately hot, and the fish is turned only once
to prevent it from breaking.
 ● Baking: Baked fish retains its full flavour and is not liable to flake during
cooking. The fish is put on a greased oven-proof dish and covered with dabs
of fat or wrapped in foil.

● Poaching: This can be done on the hot plate or in the oven. Fish is cooked in
milk or liquid to which salt, lemon juice or vinegar, onion and herbs are
added. The liquid simmers gently and is basted over the fish.

● Steaming: This is done by placing prepared fish between two greased plates
or a steamer over boiling water.

● Stewing: Put prepared fish in a casserole, cover with milk or stock. Cook
until tender

Storage of Fish
Fish should be eaten as soon as possible after purchase, and should be stored
in the coldest part of the refrigerator (but not the ice box), well wrapped, to prevent
the strong odours from contaminating other foods.

It is not advisable to freeze fresh fish bought from a shop, as it must be

frozen while very fresh.

Preserving
Apart from being frozen, fish can be preserved by:
Curing:
 ● Smoking is carried out over wood smoke in carefully controlled conditions.
The smoke develops flavours in the fish and has a preservative action. Some
fish are cooked and smoked (e.g. smoked mackerel), others are left raw.
Examples of smoked fish:
● Haddock
● Salmon
● Herrings are prepared in different ways:
○ Kippers - produced by splitting herrings open, soaking in brine, then
smoking.
○ Buckling - the heads are removed, and the fish is salted, then smoked
and cooked at the same time.
○ Bloaters - the fish are salted whole, then smoked.
○ Roll mops - the filleted fish are marinaded in vinegar and brine for ten
days, then rolled with pickling spice, and pickled.
● Salting - some varies of ish are salted and dried, e.g. cod.
● Canning:
Several varieties of only fish are canned (e.g. tuna, sardine, pilchard,
herring), and may be served with oil or tomato sauce. The bones are softened
and can be eaten, providing a good source of calcium.

Fish products
A variety of fish products are available, including:
● Fish fingers
● Ready-prepared fish pieces for oven baking
● Fish nuggets and rissoles
● Ready - prepared meals, e.g. seafood pie

Forms of fish marketed

Form Definition Best ways to Picture

 cook

Fin Fish, Whole or Fish, just as they are caught, must Bake, poach,
Round fish, Fresh be cleaned by taking the insides broil, fry, steam
out (gutted removing their viscera
(stomach, roe sacks, other guts)),
and the scales must be taken off
before they can be cooked. The
head, tail and fins may be cut off
too.

Steaks, Fresh or Steaks are slices of fish about 3/4 Bake, poach,
Frozen to 1 inch thick. They have been broil, fry, steam
cut across the fish. A part of the
backbone is the only bone in a fish
steak. They are cut perpendicular
to the spine. Steaks are ready to
cook.

Fillets, Fresh or Fillets are the meaty sides of a Bake, poach,

Frozen fish. They have been cut away broil, fry, steam
from the backbone. They are
ready to cook.

Dressed or Pan- A dressed fish has been cleaned Bake, poach,

dressed Fresh or and scaled. The head, tail, and fins broil, fry, steam
Frozen are usually cut off too

Butterfly fillets Butterfly fillets are the two sides Bake, poach,
Fresh or frozen of the fish cut lengthwise away boil, fry, steam
from the backbone and held
together by the uncut flesh and
skin of the belly.

Sticks and fingers Blocks of frozen fish are cut in Fry, poach, broil,
uniform sizes and ready to use. A steam
processed food made using white
fish.
Preserved fish Salted fish: fish cured with dry Boiling for 15
salt minutes then
frying

Canned fish: fish which has been Frying

processed and out in a can

Reflection

Crafting tuna spread crostini, I faced a delayed potato base. Adding water expedited softening.
Despite the hiccup, the eschallot garnish added flair. The final result: a delicious blend of
textures and flavors, illustrating the essence of adaptability in the kitchen.
 Reflection

Deep-frying chicken took a flavorful turn with cucumber and eschallot garnishes, creating a
harmonious blend of textures and flavors. The crispy chicken's golden-brown exterior paired
perfectly with the refreshing crunch of cucumber and the subtle bite of eschallot.
The kind of dressing used depends on personal preference, but there are some salad
and dressing combinations that are commonly used, e.g., French dressing with
tossed salads and cooked dressings with fruit salads.
 Reflection

Baking strawberry custard evolved into a delightful experience, enriched by vibrant strawberry
and blueberry garnishes. The velvety custard, infused with natural strawberry sweetness, offered
a comforting treat. The colorful berries added visual and taste contrast, elevating the dessert's
elegance.

Reflection

The process of baking a chocolate pound cake using the creaming method evolved into a
sumptuous confection, embellished with a luxurious chocolate glaze and lively sprinkles. The
glossy chocolate glaze not only conferred a polished finish but also heightened the indulgent
flavor profile. The introduction of vibrant sprinkles imparted a whimsical element, enhancing
both the visual allure and the pleasing textural juxtaposition.

Enhancing the classic rock cake ,using the rubbing-in method, recipe with a delightful touch, I
incorporated decadent chocolate chips. This culinary journey became an adventure, filling the
kitchen with a rich aroma. The rustic charm of the rock cakes met indulgence as the chocolate
chips melted, creating a satisfying, sensory delight.

Reflection

Baking pastry empanadas alongside a side of guacamole introduced a delightful

twist. The golden, flaky pastry envelopes, brimming with savory goodness, paired
harmoniously with the creamy and zesty guacamole. Despite the outer dough being
slightly tough due to over-rolling, the warm empanadas and cool guacamole
offered a balanced interplay of textures and flavors, showcasing the art of
thoughtful culinary pairings.

Reflection
Strawberry jam preparation were stewed for a truly soft jam and intensified flavor.
The process of crushing them fully yielded a luscious strawberry jam, rich and
vibrant.