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Meat

Dr.Fatimah Yousef
+ Nutrient content of meat

Meat consists of water, protein, and fat, with a few minerals

(iron, zinc, copper, phosphours and a few trace minerals) and
some B-vitamins (B2, B6, B12 and niacin and some folate).
Trace amount of carbohydrate, no fiber and no vitamin C.
Water: It about 75% of the total weight, it is an important
elements that affect the softer tissues also affect the color
and taste.
Protein: Meat serves as an important source of high-quality
protein.
Fat: It content vary widely according to the grade of meat and
its cut.
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Types of meats

◼Cattle are classified according to age and gender.

◼Steers: Most of the consumed beef is supplied by
steers, male cattle that have been castrated while
young so that they will gain weight quickly.
◼Cows: Are female cattle that have born calves

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

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Types of meats

◼ Veal: Comes from calves of beef cattle, either male or

female, between the ages of three weeks and three
months. The meat of these very young animal have
pale color and tender texture. Calves three to eight
month sold are too old for veal and too young for beef.

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

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Types of meats

Lamb and Mutton:

◼ Lamb comes from sheep less than fourteen months
old.
◼ Mutton from those over fourteen months. is darker
and tougher than and has a stronger flavor.
The animal’s age, diet, and species affect the color
and texture of fat.

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

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Composition of meats
Structure of Meat:
◼ Meats are composed of a combination of:
◼ Water .
◼ Muscle.
◼ Connective tissue.
◼ Adipose (fatty) tissue.
◼ Bone.
The proportions of these elements vary according to: the
animal, and the part of its anatomy represented by the
cut of meat.
Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013
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Composition of meats

Muscle tissues:
◼ Most of the protein in animals is found in their
muscles, which serve as the main sources of dietary
meat.
◼ They are an important consideration in deciding how
the resulting meat should be prepared.
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 + Muscle contraction and relaxation

◼ Muscle fibrils play an important role in muscle contraction

and relaxation.
◼ It is separated into segments called sarcomeres, which
contain two protein actin (thin) and myosin (thick).
◼ Muscle contraction occurs when the sarcomeres shorten as
the thick and thin filaments “slide” past each other, forming
another protein called actinomyosin.
◼ The energy for muscle contraction is provided by (ATP).
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+ Composition of meats
Connective tissue:
◼ It is a part of ligaments and tendons, and it also
acts as the “glue” that holds muscle cells together.
◼ It is composed primarily of a mixture of proteins
and mucopolysaccharides.
◼ The most abundant protein is collagen**, which
it is: Pearly white, tough, and fibrous protein that
provides support to muscle and prevents it from
over-stretching. It consists of three collagen
strands twisted together.
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◼ The other two proteins in connective tissue are:

Elastin and reticulin, they have less effect on meats when
they are cooked .
◼ Elastin: Yellowish, rubbery, has elastic quality and often
referred to as “sliver skin” . It does not soften with heating,
so it should be removed before preparation. There is very
little in meats , expect in cuts from the neck and shoulder, it
is less likely to affect tenderness
◼ Reticulin consists of very small fibers of connective tissue
that form a delicate interlace around muscle cells.
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Elastin: “sliver skin” . It does not soften with

heating, so it should be removed before preparation.
+ Composition of meats

Adipose (fatty )tissues:

◼ It serves as insulation under the skin and as padding in the
abdominal cavity for sensitive internal organs.

◼ The outside fat in meat called cover fat, which help retain
the moisture of meats, but this separable fat is often
trimmed off meats prior to preparation.

◼ Fat found within muscles called marbling .

◼ Fat content, color and texture varies widely among meats

and is dependent on the source animal's genetics, age ,
diet and exercise, and on the cut of the meat.
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Why is marbling desirable in meat?

◼ When meat is cooked, the intramuscular fat deposits melt

and contribute to perceived flavor and juiciness. For this
reason, the more marbling in a cut of beef, the higher
the grade.

◼ Marbling: Fat deposited in the muscle that can be seen as

little white streaks or drops.
+ Composition of meats
Bone:
◼ Bone are used as landmarks for identifying the
various meat cuts from a carcass.

Meat pigments
◼ The color of meat is derived from pigment-containing
proteins.
◼ Myoglobin and to a lesser extent hemoglobin.
◼ The higher the concentration of myoglobin in raw meat,
the more intense its bright red color.
+ Meat pigments

◼ Meat color varies from species to

species, beef is darker than lamb.

◼ Heavily exercised muscle has a higher

demand for oxygen, so it is higher in
myoglobin and therefore redder than
less exercised muscles.
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Effect of oxygen on color:

◼ Exposure of meat to oxygen changes the color of myoglobin

and therefore the meat color.
◼ After cutting, meat undergoes several changes in color over
time that are due to modifications in the molecular structure
of myoglobin and/or hemoglobin.
◼ Myoglobin within the meat is purplish red (myoglobin).
◼ As soon as meat is cut and exposed to oxygen in the air, the
bright red compound (oxymyoglobin) forms a color
indicating freshness and desired by consumers.
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◼Over time meat left and exposed to less oxygen and

light all of which turn the bright red oxymyoglobin
is oxidized to (metmyoglobin), which is a
brownish-red color.
◼Older meat cuts look browner because myoglobin
or oxymyoglobin is converted to metamyoglobin
as the iron in the pigment is oxidized from its
ferrous (Fe +2) to ferric (Fe+3) state. This usually
occurs during storage long time. The brownish-red
color resulting from metamyoglobin is undesirable.
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Color change in meat

+ oxygen (oxidized)
Myoglobin Oxymyoglobin
-oxygen (reduced )
(Purplish red)
(Bright red)
Fe+2
Fe+2

Metmyoglobin
(Brownish-red)
Fe+3
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Why does a carcass stiffen?

◼ **Rigor mortis is caused by a cascade of events that take place

at the cellular level. Death interrupts the blood flow and prevents
oxygen from reaching the cells. Changes then occur within the
cells of the muscles, causing them to contract and stiffen.
◼ The rigidity of the muscles in rigor mortis occurs because the
crosslinks between the actin and myosin filaments overlap and
cause the sarcomeres to shorten. The automatic contraction of
fibrils in the muscle cells causes the characteristic muscle
stuffiness .
**Rigor mortis: From the Latin for “stiffness of death,” the
temporary stiff state following death as muscles contract.
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Aging

◼ Aging: Ripening that occurs when carcasses are hung in

refrigeration units for longer periods than that required for
the reversal of rigor mortis.

◼ Aging meats improves their juiciness, tenderness, flavor,

color and their ability to brown during heating.
 Purchasing meats
◼ It is important to ensure that consumers are
purchasing meat that is safe.

◼ Yield grade: The amount of lean meat on the carcass

in proportion to fat, bone, and other inedible parts.

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

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Cuts of meats :

◼ There are two major types of meat cuts, wholesale and retail.
◼ Priorto reaching the supermarket, a carcass is divided into
about seven wholesale or primal cuts.
◼ Wholesale (primal) cuts: The large cuts of an animal
carcass, which are further divided into retail cuts.
◼ These wholesale cuts are then divided into the retail cuts
purchased by consumers.
◼ Retail cuts: Smaller cuts of meat obtained from wholesale
cuts and sold to the consumer.

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

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+Effect of age on composition of animals

◼ The percentage of water: It decrease in the animal's body

in advanced aged.
◼ Fat: Fat content, color and texture varies widely among. It
is white in younger animal, and turns progressively more
yellow as the animal age because of carotenoid pigments in
the feed. Including more polyunsaturated fatty acids in the
animal's diet make its fat softer.
◼ Meat pigments: The red color of meat increases as the
animal ages.
◼ Older meat is less tender for two reasons: The collagen
content of meat increases with an animal's age.
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Extractives

◼ Extractives: Flavor compounds consisting of non-protein,

nitrogen substances that are end-products of protein
metabolism.
◼ The meat from older animals contains more connective
tissue and extractives and therefore yield more flavor than
that from younger.
◼ Extractives are water soluble so some of the flavor of boiled
or simmered beef may be lost in the cooking water.
◼ The flavor can be recaptured by using the cooking liquids in
the preparation of soup.
+ Tenderness of meats

Natural tenderizing
◼ The particular cut of the meat.
◼ Age at slaughter (connective tissue concentration).
◼ Heredity and diet.
◼ Marbling.

◼ Slaughtering conditions .
◼ Aging.

…all play a part in determining tenderness

Dr.Fatimah Yosef1, 2013

+ Effect of collagen on tenderness

◼ The amount and type of connective tissue found in a meat

cut determines its tenderness or toughness and the best type
of cooking methods.
◼ Cuts high in connective tissue are tough and need to be
properly heated in order to become more tender, such
as those found in neck, shoulders, legs and flank, contain
more collagen and tend to be tougher than muscles from
loin, or lower back and rib areas which get less exercise.
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◼ Tougher cuts require slow, moist heating at low

temperatures to convert, or hydrolyze the tough connective
tissue to softer gelatin.

◼ On the other hand, the tougher cuts have more flavor than
the tender ones.
 +Artificial tenderizing :

External treatments can be applied to meats to increase

their tenderness. These include the use of :

◼ Enzymes

◼ Salts.

◼ Acids

◼ Mechanical methods such as grinding and pounding.

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Artificial tenderizing:

1- Enzymes:
◼ Commercial meat tenderizers containing enzymes are
available for consumer to use.
◼ Tenderizers are sold as a salt or liquid mixture and differ
in the proteolytic enzymes.
◼ The most common enzymes used: Papain from
papayas, Bromelin from pineapples and Ficin from
figs.
◼ They are effective only on fairly thin cuts of meat
because they penetrate to a depth of only 2 millimeters.
◼ They are ineffective on larger cuts.
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◼ The enzymes are not active at room temperature. The

optimal activity temperature for papain, the most common
tenderizing enzyme is about (55-76 °C), which is reached
only during heating, exceeding temp. denatures the
enzyme, thus inhibiting its activity.
◼ Excessive amount of enzyme can cause the meat to have
an unappetizing mealy and mushy texture. .
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◼A more even distribution of enzymes may be achieved by

injecting a tenderizing solution of papain (proteolytic
enzymes) , into the bloodstream of animals 10 min before
slaughter, these enzymes are not activated until meat from
the animal is exposed to heat during preparation. This
process not only increases tenderness, but shortens the
time of rigor mortis and aging.
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2- Salts:

◼ Tenderness can also be increased by the addition of salts

in the form of potassium, calcium or magnesium chlorides.

◼ These salts retain moisture and break down the component

that surrounds the muscle fibers, resulting in the release of
proteins.
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3- Acids:
◼ Applying of acids (vinegar, lemon, tomato or other fruits
juices) tenderize meat by break down the outside surface
of the meat.
◼ Also they flavor and contribute to the color.
◼ The maximum benefits can be obtained by increasing the
surface area of the meat, this done by cutting the meat into
small pieces.
◼ Acids penetrate only the surface of the meat and therefore
acids not effective at tenderizing large cuts of meat.
◼ Meat must allowed to soak in the refrigerator, from half an
hour to overnight.
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4- Mechanical tenderization:

◼ Including: Grinding, cubing, needling and pounding.

◼ These actions physically break the muscle cells and

connective tissue, making the meat more tender and easier
to chew.
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Preparation of meats

◼ Whether meat is prepared by dry-heat methods or by any of

the various moist-heat methods, it should be wiped with a
paper towel to remove any surface moisture.
◼ Leaving water on the meat or washing it will result in a
faded color and the loss of some water-soluble nutrients
and flavor compounds.
◼ After it is wiped the meat can be trimmed of any visible fat
or connective tissue to reduce calories, and increase
tenderness.
+Changes during heating
1-Tenderness and juiciness:
◼ Cooking meats at the correct temperature for the right
amount of time will maximize their tenderness, juiciness
and flavor.
◼ Duringheating, the collagen molecule begins to denature at
(39°C) and collapses at (65°C) , resulting in a
considerable loss of volume and length in the meat.
◼ Exposing meat to high temperatures for too long time
will toughen, shrink and harden meat because it shortens
muscle fibers, denatures proteins and cause it to
dehydrate.
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Changes during heating

◼ Also,the freeing of some water as the meat's other protein

denature and lose their water-binding capacity.
◼ Longer cooking at lower temperatures makes meat,
especially the tougher cuts, more tender, because it breaks
down the collagen to gelatin.
◼ Anyfat in the meat melts as it is cooked, which increases
tenderness, juiciness and flavor.
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2-Flavor changes:
◼ Natural compounds in meat yield that characteristic flavor. Other
factors contribute to flavor as well including: Protein
coagulation, melting and breakdown of fats, organic acids and
nitrogen containing compounds .
◼ The trace amount of carbohydrates in meat contributes to the
special flavor of browned meat surface as these sugars react with
proteins in the Maillard reaction, producing the desirable
brown color.
◼ Storing meat for over two days in refrigerator or heating leftover
meat can result in an unfavorable warmed-over flavor.
◼ The flavor of baked or broiled meat can be enhanced by
seasoning.
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3-Determining doneness:
Various methods are used to determine doneness and
sometimes more than one method is used:
◼ Color change: Meat pigments change color as the meat is
cooked. Cooking meat initially converts the color of raw
meat to bright red. Denaturing of the pigment-containing
proteins by heat yields the classic color of well done meat.
◼ Storingcooked meat too long causes the denatured protein
to further break down, causing the meat to turn yellow,
green or faded.
+ Doneness can be determined by
observing the following colors in red
meats:
❑Rare: Strong red interior.

❑Medium: Rosy pink interior and not

quite as juicy as a rare piece of meat.

❑ Well done: Brown interior. No

traces of red or pink left. Moist but
no longer juicy.
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◼ Tough: Doneness can be determined by the firmness of the

meat. Pressing lightly on the center of the lean tissue can
help to determine whether the meat is rare, medium or well
done.
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Preparation of Meats

◼ Tender cuts are usually prepared by one of the dry-heating

methods:
◼ Roasting (baking).
◼ Broiling and Grilling.
◼ Panbroiling.
◼ Frying.
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Preparation of Meats

◼Less tender cuts of meat are usually

prepared by moist-heat methods such as:
◼Braising.
◼Simmering/stewing.
◼Steaming.
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Storage of Meats

◼Meat contains high percentages of water and

protein, both ideal for the growth of
microorganisms.
◼Consequently, meat should be stored in the
refrigerator or freezer.
◼Meats are best refrigerated at just above
freezing (32°F/0°C), between 32°F and
36°F (0° to 2°C).
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Storage of Meats

Wrapping Meat:
◼ Most retail meats are packaged with plastic wrap and can
be refrigerated in their original wrap for up to two days.
Frozen:
◼ Meats to be frozen should be wrapped tightly in aluminum
foil, heavy plastic bags, or freezer paper and stored at or
below 0°F (- 18°C).