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The Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs

What did the pharaohs of ancient Egypt accomplish, and how did they do it?

Introduction

In ancient Egypt, powerful leaders called pharaohs controlled the lands. The
people of ancient Egypt honored these rulers both during their reign and during
their believed afterlife.

In 1922, archaeologists discovered the tomb of a pharaoh. Inside a small burial

chamber, they found three coffins nested inside each other. The smallest coffin
was made of solid gold and held the king’s mummy. A mummy is a body that has
been preserved after death to prevent it from decaying.

On the mummy’s head was a magnificent golden mask. Jewelry and good luck
charms lay on the mummy and in the wrappings that protected it. Other rooms of
the tomb were filled with statues, weapons, furniture, and even a chariot.

These artifacts have much to teach us about this ancient civilization.For example,
the objects left behind told archaeologists that this tomb belonged to the famous
pharaoh called King Tutankhamun (too-tan-KAH-muhn), whom historians often
refer to by his nickname, King Tut.

The treasures in King Tut’s tomb provided a unique glimpse into ancient Egypt.
Other pharaohs also left behind rare riches and artwork. Many of these pharaohs
ordered great monuments to be built to celebrate their lives and accomplishments.

In this lesson, you will learn about three significantperiods in ancient Egyptian
history. Then you will meet four pharaohs who ruled during these periods, learn
what ancient Egyptians accomplished, and explore some of the monuments they
left behind.

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Social Studies
Vocabulary

Hatshepsut

pharaoh

Ramses II

treaty

Vocabulary Cards Glossary

1. Ancient Egypt and Its Rulers

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Ancient Egypt had three periods of stability and unity under the rule ofpharaohs.
Historians call these periods the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New
Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom lasted from about 2700 to 2200 B.C.E. During this time, early
pharaohs set up a strong central government. They also had great pyramids built
as tombs for themselves. Some historians call this time the Age of the Pyramids.

The Middle Kingdom (about 2000 to 1800 B.C.E.) is sometimes called the Period
of Reunification because it followed years of chaos and disunity. During this era,
Egyptians enjoyed many great achievements in literature, art, and architecture.

The New Kingdom (about 1600 to 1100 B.C.E.) is often called Egypt’s Golden Age.
During this time of peace and stability, ancient Egypt’s power reached its height.
Rulers, like Thutmose III, expanded the empire far up the Nile River into modern-
day Sudan and into the Levant, which is the coastal region at the eastern end of
the Mediterranean Sea.

Religion played a central role in Egypt’s social and political order.Pharaohs were
believed to be gods. They owned all the land and were responsible for their
people’s well-being. They were kings, generals, and religious leaders, all combined.

During the Old Kingdom, only pharaohs were thought to enter an eternal afterlife,
so their tombs were built to last. Many objects were buried with the pharaoh for
use in the next world.

The pharaohs directed the building of other monuments to glorify their power.
Let’s learn more about these structures and the pharaohs who ordered their
creation.

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This map shows some of the sites of great monuments built during Egypt’s three
periods of stability under the pharaohs.

2. Pharaoh Khufu: The Pyramid Pharaoh

The pharaoh Khufu (KOO-foo) ruled from about 2551 to 2528 B.C.E., during the
Old Kingdom period. Today, he is best known as the architect of a famous
pyramid.

Not much is known about Khufu. Some stories describe him as a cruel, harsh ruler.
Others say that he was powerful but kind.

Historians do know that Khufu helped establish the pharaoh as a centralauthority.

For example, he maintained strict control over Egypt's food supply. He oversaw
the harvest and the storage of extra grain. He also controlled a large network of
government officials who enforced his laws. Khufu emphasized his supreme
power by declaring himself a god.

Khufu and other Old Kingdom pharaohs had magnificent pyramids built as tombs

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for themselves and their families. Khufu was responsible for the building of the
Great Pyramid at Giza, one of the wonders of the ancient world.

The Great Pyramid sat at the center of a huge complex of temples, statues,
monuments, and smaller tombs. It was made of more than 2 million stone blocks,
perfectly fitted together. Inside, tunnels led to several burial chambers. The king's
chamber had six roofs to hold up the weight of the stone layers above it.

Building the Great Pyramid was an amazing feat. No one knows exactly how the
Egyptians constructed it, but it took about 20 years to complete. Khufu had strict
control of the project, organizing and feeding thousands of workers. The finished
pyramid was a stunning monument to Egyptian engineering.

This three-inch-high ivory statue of Khufu was discovered during the excavation
of a temple in 1903. It is displayed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

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When Khufu became pharaoh, he began construction on the Great Pyramid. How
it was built remains a mystery.

3. Pharaoh Senusret I: Patron of the Arts

The pharaoh Senusret I (SEHN-oos-ret) ruled from about 1971 to 1926 B.C.E.,
during the Middle Kingdom. He was a strong leader who ruled a stable, unified
Egypt. Art, literature, and architecture flourished during his reign.

The arts thrived during Senusret’s rule. The pharaoh controlled mines filled with
gold, copper, and gems such as purple amethyst. Artisans fashioned these
materials into beautiful, highly detailed pieces of jewelry, such as bracelets and
necklaces decorated with stones like turquoise.

Some of the greatest works in Egyptian literature were written during Senusret’s
reign. “The Story of Sinuhe” tells of a young official named Sinuhe who overhears
a plot to kill the pharaoh. Fearing for his own life, Sinuhe flees Egypt. He thrives in
his new land but grows very homesick. When a new pharaoh calls him home,
Sinuhe returns joyfully to Egypt.

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Senusret’s greatest accomplishments were in religious architecture. He had many
temples, shrines, and religious monuments constructed and improved.

Perhaps Senusret’s finest architectural achievement was the White Chapel. (A

chapel is a small temple.) It was made of alabaster, a hard white stone. Some
historians think that the chapel was originally covered in a thin layer of gold.

Beautiful artwork decorated the chapel’s pillars. Carved scenes showed the
pharaoh with various gods. Birds, animals, and Egyptian symbols were depicted.

Senusret wanted his memory to live on through his monuments, but few of his
buildings survived the passage of time. A later pharaoh took the White Chapel
apart and used the pieces in a monument of his own. Archaeologists discovered
the pieces and reconstructed the White Chapel.

Senusret helped fund the building of the Karnak Temple, whose pillars still stand
and show beautifully carved hieroglyphs. The statues seen here are guarding the
ancient artifacts within. Pharaohs from all three kingdoms contributed to this
temple’s construction.

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4. Pharaoh Hatshepsut: Promoter of Egyptian Trade

During the New Kingdom, the pharaoh Hatshepsut (haht-SHEP-soot) ruled Egypt
from about 1473 to 1458 B.C.E. Hatshepsut was one of Egypt’s first female
pharaohs. Under her rule, Egyptian art and architecture flourished. Hatshepsut
was also known for encouraging trade.

One of her greatest accomplishments was her rise to power since few women had
ever become Egyptian pharaohs. Sobekneferu, another woman who had become
pharaoh, ruled a few hundred years before Hatshepsut. Initially, Hatshepsut
shared power with her male relatives. However, she soon achieved sole
leadership.

Hatshepsut strengthened her position in several ways. She filled her government
with loyal advisers. She demanded the same respect shown to male rulers. To
reinforce her status, she sometimes dressed in men’s clothing, even putting on the
fake beard male pharaohs wore. Artists were often instructed to portray her as a
man. She also spread stories that her father was a god.

As pharaoh, Hatshepsut promoted trade with other countries. Her biggest trade
expedition was to the African kingdom of Punt, at the southern end of the Red
Sea. More than 200 men in five ships brought gifts and traded goods to Punt.

Hatshepsut left behind a large monument to her reign— a great temple at Dayr al-
Bahri (deer ahl-BAH-ray). The main part of the temple was built into a cliff above
the Nile River. At the entrance were two tall, thin monuments called obelisks. The
entrance was also graced by 200 sphinx statues. The sphinx is a mythical creature
with the body of a lion and the head of a man.

Scenes from Hatshepsut’s reign decorated the temple walls. Detailed carvings
portrayed the great voyage to Punt, and illustrated the valuable items the
pharaoh’s traders had brought back to Egypt.

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Hatshepsut actively encouraged trade. During her reign, trade helped spread
Egyptian influence along the Nile and in nearby Middle Eastern lands, like western
Asia.

5. Ramses II: Leader and Planner

The pharaoh Ramses II (RAM-seez) ruled from about 1290 to 1224 B.C.E., during
the New Kingdom. Called Ramses the Great, he is one of the most famous
pharaohs. He reigned for more than 60 years, longer than almost any other
pharaoh. He is best known for his military leadership and for overseeing the
building of numerous monuments and cities.

Ramses used his power to excess. He had over 100 wives and more than 100
children. Never shy about his importance, he had hundreds of statues of himself
built throughout Egypt, some of which stood over 60 feet high.

From a young age, Ramses was a fearless soldier, traveling alongside his father in
various campaigns. Children often helped their parents with work. At the age of
ten, Ramses became a captain in the Egyptian army, though he probably did not
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fight.

Ramses tried to defend an Egyptian empire that extended north into Canaan. His
most famous military campaigns were against the Hittite Empire in Anatolia
(present-day Turkey). At the northern border, struggles with the Hittites were
common. In his best-known battle, Ramses reached a standoff with the Hittites,
even though he was greatly outnumbered.

Ramses was also a peacemaker. He and the Hittites signed the world’s first peace
treaty, which lasted until the Hittite Empire collapsed around 1190 B.C.E.

One of Ramses’s greatest projects was the temple complex at Abu Simbel.The
main temple was carved into the side of a cliff that was on a bank of the Nile
River. Another temple at Abu Simbel honored the queen, Nefertari.

Four giant statues of a seated Ramses framed the entrance to the main temple.
The figures were carved right out of the rock face of the cliff and are among the
finest examples of the artistic skill of Egyptian sculptors.

The inside of the temple was also remarkable. Visitors passed through three large
rooms, called halls, to reach the temple’s main room. This room’s altar contained
statues of Ramses and three Egyptian gods. The temple was assembled so that,
twice a year, the sun aligned with the entrance, allowing beams of sunlight to shine
down the halls and illuminate the statues.

Ramses demanded more temples and monuments built than any other pharaoh in
history. When he died, he was buried in the tomb that he had ordered workers to
construct solely for him. His mummy is one of the best-preserved bodies ever
found.

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This painting displays Ramses II in battle. He was a brilliant military leader who
became a captain in his father’s army at the age of ten.

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This is the view, from below, of one of the four 66-foot statues of Ramses II,
seated at the entrance to the main temple at Abu Simbel.

Lesson Summary

In this lesson, you learned about the accomplishments of four of the pharaohs of
ancient Egypt who ruled during three long periods of stability.

Ancient Egypt and Its Rulers Ancient Egypt had three periods of stability and unity
under the rule of pharaohs. These periods were the Old Kingdom (Age of the
Pyramids) from about 2700 to 2200 B.C.E.; the Middle Kingdom, (Period of
Reunification) from about 2000 to 1800 B.C.E.; and the New Kingdom, (Golden
Age)from about 1600 to 1100 B.C.E.

Pharaoh Khufu During the Old Kingdom, Khufu set up a strong central
government. He also had the Great Pyramid built at Giza, which was a major
construction feat and one of the wonders of the ancient world.

Pharaoh Senusret During the Middle Kingdom, Senusret encouraged Egyptian art

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and literature. Artisans and architects created fine works, including the White
Chapel.

Pharaoh Hatshepsut Hatshepsut, Egypt’s first female pharaoh, promoted Egyptian

trade during the New Kingdom. She had a great temple built at Dayr al-Bahri.

Pharaoh Ramses II Ramses the Great was a superior military leader and builder of
monuments during the New Kingdom. He signed the world’s first peace treaty
with the Hittites. He had the temple complex at Abu Simbel built.

Exploring the Social Sciences

The Egyptian Mummy Project

King Tutankhamun—whose remains are one of the most well-known Egyptian

mummies—died in 1323 b.c.e. He was 18 or 19 years old. For a long time,
archaeologists wondered how the young pharaoh had died. In January 2005, for
the first time in 80 years, a team of scientists took “King Tut” from his tomb. They
used new technologies to reexamine the mummy, searching for answers to age-
old questions about the lives and deaths of ancient Egyptians.

The team of scientists removed the lid from King Tut’s sarcophagus, or stone
coffin. They lifted the wooden box containing the mummy and carefully carried it
outside. A van holding a computed tomography (CT) scanner was waiting near the
tomb. This scanner is a large, specialized X-ray machine that uses a computer to
show three-dimensional images of a body.

Inside the van, the scientists pulled back layers of cloth surrounding the king. Still
in its box, the mummy was placed in the CT scanner for about 15 minutes. The

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machine took around 1,700 images. Scanning King Tut was the first act of the
members of the Egyptian Mummy Project. Scientists from around the world took
part in this five-year project to study and preserve the ancient mummies of Egypt.

Ancient Embalmers

The ancient Egyptians turned their dead into mummies to prevent decay and to
preserve their bodies. The Egyptians believed that people would need their bodies
in the afterlife. The people who treated and preserved the body were called
embalmers.

The process of making a mummy was complex. First, the embalmers took the
internal organs out of the body. They dried the organs and the body with natron, a
type of salt that they found in the desert. The organs were then wrapped in linen
and stored in jars or placed back inside the body. Sometimes the body was stuffed
and decorated with makeup, jewelry, and clothing. Finally, it was wrapped in long
strips of linen and put in a coffin.

Kara Cooney, a well-known archaeologist, suggests that people began creating

unmarked tombs to store their mummified bodies after death to prevent theft or
robberies. She has also researched how coffins were reused.

Studying Mummies, Then and Now

In 1922, Englishman Howard Carter made one of the most important discoveries
in Egyptian archaeology—he found the tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the
Kings. This was important because King Tut’s mummy was found exactly as the
priests had left it more than 3,000 years earlier. In most other tombs, the
mummies were missing. This kept archaeologists from studying the details about
how ancient Egyptians were buried.

In Carter’s time, the study of mummies was a cruder process than it is today. Back
then, archaeologists would remove the bandages from a mummy to examine the
remains. But after a time, scientists began to realize that they were damaging the
bodies. Often, mummies fell apart when taken out of their wrappings. Today, it is
sometimes hard to tell if damage to a mummy dates from a king’s lifetime, the
embalming process, or the way archaeologists treated mummies that were
discovered in the 1920s.

Modern scientists like Salima Ikram, an archaeologist, use all sorts of technology to
study mummies. One technique is to x-ray the body. As people age, their bones
become thinner and weaker. By examining X-rays of bones, scientists can tell how

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old people are. Archaeologists like Ikram document their findings down to the
centimeter. In this way, they have discovered that ancient Egyptians lived short
lives, at least by modern standards. Most rich Egyptians lived no longer than about
35 years. For poor Egyptians, life was even shorter. Most did not live much
beyond about 25 years.

Since 1926, the year Carter returned King Tut to his tomb, the young pharaoh’s
remains have been x-rayed twice. The first time was in 1968. Those x-rays
showed a bone fragment inside the king’s skull. The finding prompted the idea
that King Tut might have died as a result of a blow to the head.

Was this pharaoh murdered? Scientists from the Egyptian Mummy Project set out
to answer that question. This time, in 2005, rather than rely on a one-dimensional
X-ray, scientists used the CT scan. They created three-dimensional images that
would show more information.

CT Scan Findings

Did the young pharaoh die from a blow to the head? Definitely not, say the nine
doctors who studied the CT images.

Scientists believe that the bone fragment discovered in the king’s head, in 1968,
occurred after his death. It is likely that this damage was caused by the team of
archaeologists led by Howard Carter. Scientists reached this conclusion because
they found no traces of embalming fluid in the wound.

Scientists have agreed that there is no evidence of head injury. But they also
found a broken bone in the mummy’s left leg. Some experts thought that the
broken bone was a serious injury Tut suffered shortly before death. They
wondered whether the break led to a life-threatening infection. From the CT
scans, scientists concluded that Tut died from complications from a broken leg,
made worse by disease, probably malaria.

Reconstructing King Tut’s Face

Scientists also used the three-dimensional CT scans to create the first busts of the
Egyptian king. A bust is a threedimensional sculpture of a head. Three separate
teams—from France, the United States, and Egypt—created busts of King Tut.

The National Geographic Society chose a French team to create the first bust. A
CT–scan–based skull model was made for forensic anthropologist Jean-Noël
Vignal. Using the CT images, Vignal created a rough plastic skull.

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Vignal gave the plastic skull to sculptor Elisabeth Daynès. Using Vignal’s data and
two wooden sculptures of Tut for reference, she created a lifelike clay face. The
bust was meant to show what Tut had looked like on the day of his death. It is the
most lifelike image ever seen of the long-dead ruler.

The National Geographic Society then asked a group of experts from the United
States to make a second bust. This time the experts weren’t told who their famous
subject was.

Susan Antón, an associate professor of anthropology at New York University, and

Bradley Adams, of New York City’s Chief Medical Examiner’s office, both studied
the CT scans. Antón determined that her subject was an 18- to 19-year-old male,
most likely of North African origin. Forensic artist Michael Anderson, of Yale
University’s Peabody Museum, used the CT scans and Antón’s data to create his
own bust of the mystery subject’s head.

Finally, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities chose an Egyptian team to make a

third bust. Like the French team, the Egyptians knew who their famous subject
was. The Egyptian team used the same CT scan data to build a plastic skull model.
They added clay features inspired by ancient portraits of Tut.

While research on mummies has improved, there is debate over whether

mummies should be put on display or even dug up at all. Some find mummy
displays disrespectful or disturbing. They point out that the tombs were sealed.
Others suggest that investigating helps our understanding.

Archaeologists have not been able to solve all the mysteries of King Tut’s death,
but they did solve some. First they asked key questions, and then they used the
latest technology to gather information. What questions do you have about
ancient mummies? How can you find out more? Do you think they should be
displayed in museums?

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Carter’s archaeologists found three nested golden mummyshaped coffins in King

Tut’s stone sarcophagus. Inside the third coffin was King Tut’s mummy.

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Pictured here is Salima Ikram, an accomplished professor of Egyptian archaeology.

Like teams that have worked on King Tut, her work has involved x-raying and CT
scanning mummified remains.

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Scientists from the Egyptian Mummy Project used a CT scan to create three-
dimensional images of King Tut’s mummy. Here, Dr. Zahi Hawass ensures the
mummy is carefully preserved during this process.

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This image was one of the many CT scans the three teams used to develop their
lifelike busts. Notice the degree of detail the scan provides. Daynès used that
detail to create a plaster mold with silicone “skin” and covered it with a flesh color
based on an average shade for modern Egyptians. Next, she added the hair,
makeup, and glass eyes.

Egyptian Trade

Egypt was separated from other civilizations by deserts to the east, south, and
west, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the north. These barriers sometimes kept
Egypt apart from the rest of the ancient world. At other times, there was contact
between Egypt and its neighbors. What would make people attempt to cross the
barriers that surrounded Egypt? It was trade, or the exchange of goods, that made
people want to travel between Egypt and other lands. The supply and demand of
goods played a big role in trade. Certain types of goods were only available in
specific countries. This led to a high demand, or want, of these goods in places
where they were not available. For this demand to be met, there had to be enough
supply, or amount of goods, for people to trade. As a result of this travel and

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exchange, Egypt made contact with civilizations in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

There were two main routes of travel from ancient Egypt to other regions. One
was north, across the Mediterranean Sea, to southeastern Europe and western
Asia. The Mediterranean sometimes acted as a barrier, but it also encouraged
travel for people who could build and sail ships. The other route of travel was
south, up the Nile River into Nubia (modern-day Sudan). The Nile was not
navigable (able to be traveled) in Nubia, but Nubians had routes over land that
allowed them to trade. Another route to the south was to sail on the Red Sea
along the eastern edge of Africa. This route could be reached by crossing the
desert east of the Nile.

Even with routes up the Nile River and across the Mediterranean and Red Seas,
travel was not easy. Thieves, hostile strangers, rough waters, and other dangers
awaited those who made such journeys. One voyager, a priest named Wenamon,
described the challenges he encountered on a trading trip he made across the
Mediterranean. Wenamon tells of being robbed of all of the gold he had for
trading, pursued by raiders, and blown off course to the island of Cyprus, where
the local people tried to kill him. His trip was so difficult that at one point he “sat
down and wept.”

What were the goods that inspired people to run such risks? Egyptians traded for
wood and other forest products from Lebanon that Egypt did not have. Copper
and bronze came from Cyprus, and pottery came from Minoa. Cyprus and Minoa
are islands in the eastern Mediterranean. Copper also came from Sinai, across the
Red Sea from Egypt. Turquoise came from Sinai too. Glass rods used to create
decorations on jewelry, furniture, and other items were purchased from
Mesopotamia. In fact, Pharaoh Akhenaten, who ruled in the 14th century B.C.E.,
personally requested glass from nations around the Mediterranean possibly
because Egypt was unable to produce all of the colors it needed. From the south,
Egypt traded for incense, timber, and live trees from Punt (modern Somalia). Gold,
copper, ivory, precious stones, leopard skins, ostrich feathers, and enslaved people
came from Nubia. Many of Nubia's trade goods came from areas farther south.
This gave Egypt access to products from much of Africa. In return, Egypt traded
gold, silver, animal hides, linen cloth, and papyrus, which was used to make paper.

Egypt stood at the center of much of the ancient world, located between
civilizations in Africa, Europe, and Asia. Although Egypt was separated from these
civilizations by seas and deserts, the trading of goods opened up and encouraged
contact among them all. Having different kinds of mediums for exchange to trade
made it possible to create international relationships. Although these interactions
were sometimes dangerous, they also helped develop bonds between civilizations.

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For example, around 1370 B.C.E., Pharaoh Amenhotep III was married to
Taduhepa, a woman from Mittani, located in present-day Syria. Their marriage
united Egypt and Mittani. Another good example is the Treaty of Kadesh in 1258
B.C.E., between Egypt and Anatolia, which was the world's first peace treaty. A
third example is found in the cuneiform tablets that archaeologists have found.
These clay tablets explain that Egyptian diplomats visited the Hittites. Similarly,
clay tablets, known as the Amarna letters, show that Egypt and Mesopotamia had
diplomatic relations in the 14th century B.C.E. Trading goods, forming marriages,
creating peace treaties, and maintaining diplomatic relations were all important in
fostering a connected, international community among Egypt and other
civilizations.

Analyzing Images of Pharaohs

From 1792 to 1750 B.C.E., a ruler named Hammurabi led the Babylonian Empire.
Hammurabi was considered a great king, having brought unity to his empire. After
expanding the empire and following many years of war, Hammurabi created a
code of laws that applied to all people in the Babylonian Empire. He told the
people that the code of laws was based on the word of the gods. He was also
praised for encouraging projects such as building and restoring temples,
establishing a postal service, and creating a system of roads.

During the time of Hammurabi's rule, ancient Egypt was coming to the end of its
Middle Kingdom, or Period of Reunification. Many years later, beginning in the
1600s B.C.E., Egypt was coming into its New Kingdom, or Golden Age. During this
time of peace and stability, ancient Egypt's power reached its height. Pharaohs
increased trade and had massive monuments built. Two pharaohs, Hatshepsut and
Ramses II, played key roles in expanding Egypt's power and cultural influence
during the New Kingdom. Many different images of these leaders still remain
today. What can these artistic works tell us about the qualities a pharaoh should
have?

Hatshepsut, a Female Pharaoh

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From about 1473 to 1458 B.C.E., a pharaoh named Hatshepsut ruled Egypt.
Hatshepsut was one of Egypt's first female pharaohs. At first, she was forced to
share power with male relatives. However, she eventually became Egypt's sole
ruler.

In order to strengthen her position as pharaoh, Hatshepsut demanded the same

respect shown to male rulers. One way she accomplished this was by spreading
stories that her father was a god. She sometimes dressed in men's clothing, even
putting on the fake beard male pharaohs wore. Artists were often told to portray
Hatshepsut as a man.

This statue of Hatshepsut is located outside her temple at Dayr al-Bahiri. How
does this statue accurately represent Hatshepsut based on what you know about
her? Why do you think Hatshepsut would want to be represented this way? Do
you think she would be pleased with this representation of her? Why or why not?

Ramses II, Monument Builder

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Almost 150 years after Hatshepsut's reign, control of Egypt passed down to
Ramses II. He reigned from 1290 to 1224 B.C.E. and was one of Egypt's longest
reigning pharaohs.

Ramses II was a great military leader. He was so skilled that by the age of ten, he
became a captain in the Egyptian army. He would often go into battle alongside his
father. For years, Ramses II defended the Egyptian borders through military
strength. However, he also signed the world's first peace treaty with a people
called the Hittites.

This painting of Ramses II is located at the entrance to the Temple of Luxor, Egypt.
What similarities do you see between the representations of Hatshepsut and
Ramses II? What differences do you see? Based on this image, what details do you
think the artist wanted to draw your attention to? Why do you think Ramses II is
so much larger than the other objects in the image? What does the action within
the image suggest about Ramses II as a ruler?

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