Presentation of Data

1) Tabular Presentation
a) Percentage or frequency tables
 Results are presented in a systematic manner (I.e. using a table)
b) Cross tabulation/ Contingency table
 Table listing 2 frequencies for the different combination of values of 2 categorical variables.
c) Frequency distribution table
 A grouping of all the observations into intervals or classes together with the count of the number of observations
that fall in each interval or class.

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE:

1. Find the range R:
R= Highest value- lowest Value

2. Estimate the number of classes or intervals; k:

i. k = √n
ii. K= 1+ 3.322 log10n

Where k= number of intervals

n= number of observations

R
3. Estimate class width C=
k
(round off this estimate to the same number of significant decimal places as the original set of data.)

4. List the lower and upper class limits of the 1st interval
i. 1st lower class limit should be the lowest score
ii. 1st upper class limit should be the number before the second lower class limit.

5. List all succeeding lower and upper class limits

 Lower class limits= lowest score+ class width

6. From the raw data set,

i. determine the interval in which a data belongs,
ii. and then tally the observations.
iii. Then get the total frequencies for each class interval
iv. Check sum of all f in all intervals sum up to n, the total no. Of observations.

7. Compute the class mark and class boundaries.

li
+ ui
i. Class mark; x i=
2
Where l= lower limit; u= upper limit

ii. Class Boundaries

1
 Li=lower cm − ( unit of accuracy)
2
 1
 U i=Upper cm+ (unit of accuracy)
2

8. Relative Frequency
 Divide class frequency by the total no. Of frequency.

d) Stem and Leaf Plot

 a technique used to classify either discrete or continuous variables.

2) Graphical Presentation
a) Bar chart
 Different classes are represented by rectangles or bars.

b) Frequency histogram
 Close resemblance of bar chart.

c) Line Chart/ frequency polygon

 Plotting its class marks against its frequency.
 d) Frequency Ogive
 Plotting the upper class boundaries on the x axis and the corresponding less than cumulative frequency in the y
axis.

e) Box and whisker plot

 Pictorial representation of the data distribution.

f) Pie Chart and Pictograph

 A circle divided into pie-shaped sectors, which look like pizza slices. The angle of a sector is proportional in size to
the frequencies or percentages.

Descriptive Measures
1) MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION FOR UNGROUPED DATA
a) Arithmetic Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
2) MEASURES OF VARIABILITY FOR UNGROUPED DATA
a) Range
b) Variance
c) Standard Deviation
d) Coefficient of Variation
3) OTHER MEASURES OF LOCATION FOR UNGROUPED DATA
a) Fractiles
i. Percentile
ii. Decile
iii. Quartile
4) MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION FOR GROUPED DATA
a) Arithmetic Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
5) MEASURES OF VARIABILITY FOR GROUPED DATA
a) Variance
b) Standard Deviation
c) Coefficient of Variation
6) OTHER MEASURES OF LOCATION FOR GROUPED DATA
a) Fractiles
i. Percentile
ii. Decile
 iii. Quartile
7) MEASURES OF SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS
8) OTHER MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION
a) Geometric Mean
b) Harmonic Mean

1) MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION FOR UNGROUPED DATA

a) Arithmetic Mean- *appropriate for data in the interval and ratio scale.
N
1
i. Population mean= μ= ∑ xi
N i=1
n
1
ii. Sample mean= x = ∑ x i
n i=1
k

∑ w i xi
i=1
iii. Weighted mean= x = k

∑ wi
i=1

b) Median- *observations are arranged in a ascending or descending order.* appropriate for data which are at least in
the ordinal scale.
i. If n is odd= ~
x = x((n +1)/2)
1
ii. If n is even= ~
x= ¿
2

c) Mode- *Value which occur the most number of times or the one with greatest frequency.

2) MEASURES OF VARIABILITY FOR UNGROUPED DATA

a) Range

i. R= highest value- lowest value

b) Variance

i. Population Variance=
∑ x 2i − N μ2
σ 2= i =1
N

(∑ )
n n
n∑ x − 2
i x i ❑2
ii. Sample Variance= i=1 i=1
s2=
n(n −1)

c) Standard Deviation

i. Population Standard Deviation= σ = σ 2 √

ii. Sample Standard Deviation= s= s 2 √
 d) Coefficient of Variation- *compare the variability of data sets with different unit of measurements.*unit less

(percentage)

σ
i. Population CV= ∗ 100 %
μ

s
ii. Sample CV= ∗100 %
x
3) OTHER MEASURES OF LOCATION FOR UNGROUPED DATA
a) Fractiles
i. Percentile (Pm) Steps for computing fractiles:
mn 1. Arrange the data in an increasing order of magnitude
L= 2. Solve for the value of L.
100
ii. Decile 3. If L is an integer:
mn x(L) + x( L+1 )
L= Fractile =
10 2
iii. Quartile If L is fractional:
mn Fractile is the next higher integer.
L=
4
*Fractile= X(k)

4) MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION FOR GROUPED DATA

d) Arithmetic Mean

i.
∑ f i xi
x= i=1
n
e) Median- *refer to cumulative frequency distribution

[ ]
n
− F (m − 1)
i. ~ 2
x=Lm + c
fm

f) Mode- *you can solve two modes; *look for the highest frequency

i. Modeg= Lmo +c
[ f mo − f 1
2 f mo − f 1 − f 2 ]
5) MEASURES OF VARIABILITY FOR GROUPED DATA

2
d) Variance- *Construct additional columns f i x i and f i x i in the FDT

( )
k k 2
n ∑ f i x 2i − ∑ f i xi
i. i=1 i=1
s2g=
n( n− 1)

e) Standard Deviation

i. S g=√ S 2g
 f) Coefficient of Variation

Sg
i. C V g= ∗100 %
xg

6) OTHER MEASURES OF LOCATION FOR GROUPED DATA

a) Fractiles

i. Percentile

1.

ii. Decile

iii. Quartile

7) MEASURES OF SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS

8) OTHER MEASURES OF CENTRAL LOCATION
a) Geometric Mean
b) Harmonic Mean