EXTRA PRACTICECONSOLIDATION EXERCISE Paragraph to practice the use of "base + ing" Read the paragraph and do the exercises below: Tissues Concerned in Water Conduction.—[t has already been mentioned that the xylem or wood is the watemconducting tissue of the plant. While, in many paris of the plant, water and dissolved tnorganic substances pass through parenchyms cells, it is chiefly through the tracheids and vessels that those substances aro transported. The very structure of these elements indicates this, but it can also be demon- strated experimentally. If, for example, a cut stem is placed in a solution of thionin or any other nonpoisonous dye and allowed to stand for sn hour or more, cut seotions of the stem will reveal that only the tracheids and vessels are stained by the dye, proving that the liquid must have Pasord through these cells. That it did not move primarily in the walls of these cells ean be proved by dipping the cut end of leafy stem into gelatin, ‘made liquid by warming it, and allowing the gelatin to be absorbed by the cut stem. If the gelatin in the stom is allowed to solidify by cooling in water, and a small piece of the end of the stem is then out of 30 as to cxpese the cell walls, and the stem is again placed in water, the shoot will befound to wilt. This wilting results because the cavities of the trachelds and vessels have been clogged with gelatin. Similarly a leafy shoot that has been allowed to wilt will often fail to recover from the wilted condi- ‘ion when the stem is placed in water because the cavities of the celle are clogged with air. Still further evidence of the path of movement furnished by gindling. Removing a ‘loos not cause a plant to wilt, hutif the stem Ie supported and the xylem carefully eu out through a complete section of the ston, without injuring the phloem and cortex, the plant will wilt. This proves that the aylenn the only tissue that ean conduct water at a rate fast enough to prevent wilting. "In nome trees, oly the saprvond functions in water eondwetien, the older wood becoming clogged with tyloses, which ato bladdecting Drotrusions into the trncheids and. vessels from the adjacent, living Parenchyma cells. In other trees the entire xylem continues to functi in water conduction. J is generally believed that most of the inorganic substances are also catried in the tracheids and vessels (taken from Botany-Structure and Physiology of Seed-plants-stems) ing of bark down to the eambium, ‘omy n 1 - True or False? Justify, ‘The experiment with thionin demonstrates that water and dissolved inorganic substances are transported only through tracheids and vessels. 2~ Do water and dissolved inorganic substances move through the walls of tracheids and vessels?. Justify your answer. 3. True or False? Justify By carefully cutting out the xylem of a stem, and bein ig Careful not to injure its phloem and cortex, we can prevent fast wilting ofa plantContextual References ‘Say what these words refer to: It it these substances: these elements: this: these cells: it: ir it: ‘Translate the whole paragrap!UNR Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias Ingles ~ Ciclo Superior Man has been concemed with plant stress since the first prehistoric cave dweller selected seed for Propagation from plants that performed better than their neighbours.any effort toward genetically improving the environmental adaptation of a crop species, or cultural practice aimed at improving the cultural habitat, has been a move to lessen the impact of environmental imbalance on the plant. However, sometimes in our rush to maximize yields, we have packaged a greatly altered environment with a ‘crop genotype of extremely specific requirements. When the energy-rich inputs are reduced, yields drop disproportionately because these super genotypes lack environmental resiliency. Agricultural scientists thus have been concemed with plant stress when studying nutrient, temperature or water needs of plant species. In like manner, geneticists and breeders selecting for high performance of crop species under field conditions are stress oriented. Physical and biochemical responses of plants to environmental stress have been studied for over a century and a great mass of data is available relating what temperature, water, light, nutrition, and so on do to alter Plant physical and chemical processes. There has been too little progress in using such basic data as selection criteria for genetically improving stress resistance in crops or as a basis for development of cultural techniques to ameliorate stress effects on plants. Research to develop ways to prevent or ameliorate stress impact has been largely piecemeal with little national or international interrelation of research effort. Allso, there has been a lack of integration among basic research, whole plant response studies, and field testing, especially as related to interaction of environmental factors (people are freezing specialists, nutrition specialists, etc.) Glossary: Resilience / resiliency: the ability of a substance to return to its former shape when pressure is removed: flexibility. A resilient substance returns to its former shape when pressure is removed. 1. Complete the text with the correct title. Which NOUN PHRASE can you use? Answer the following questions in SPANISH. ‘What is the main idea of the first paragraph? ‘What research needs have been brought about by the efforts to maximize yields? List the neglected aspects in the research to develop methods to prevent stress impact. 3. Complete the following ideas. a. Even though man has always tried to reduce the effect of environmental imbalance on the plant, b. In spite of the fact that there is a great mass of studies of physical and biochemical responses of plants to environmental stress, ... Thei 2 rhe these super genotypes: .. Such basic data: 5. Translate the passageSeta 1 nore wk he big bal BQ gaat eagle Maddy A= berticnes, eye pert oe ify ecemebtylan SSP stale sad: Laurent Inuit aise = wslnieb sok virgen lenestna ae Bifvaaqe: tora bh Rattan iterpbeme hoe etd mu Sere cratic Loasrtineniann! 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Parlier this year, the family called in a enncul- tant to advise On, the feasibility of cuaverting 10 organic methods. “The notion that you ean reduce output. so. putting less pressure (on land and livestock, und make a better provit than before, is xeduetive and we had been thinking about the orgunic option for some litne,” Mr ‘Goodman said, AL present the Goodmans have a dairy herd of 145 cows, 63 beef cuitle, 96 hectares of permanent and temporary pasure aad 49 hecures of wheut, barley and fodder erops. Mix Goodman also iuns free-range flock of 1 £00 geese. Under : the consultant's Bluepeint. the Goodmuns would have conccatrated on producing milk and cereals, The beef cattle would have gone, leaving more pasture for the dairy herd. The land now under barley and fedder beet would have been tumed over to wheat and Sats, Only furmyand manure would have been permitted as fertiliser. To maintain ferility, the Goodmans would have to rely on crop rotation, which in turn would have entailed re-seeding up to 81 hectares with clover sich grass to “fix* nitrogen in the soil, No chemical pesticides would have bean allowed Atleast 10 per cent of the cows! feed would aE eg PTE have hud wo be organically grown, Veterinary drugs ‘would have been allowed if unimals fell ill, but there would have been a ban on routine wie of satibiolies {0 prevent infections. : Cereal yields, it was calculated, would have fallen from 3 to 1.8 tonnes and milk yields from 6.000 to 5 300 lives per cou. This fallin output however would have heen more than offset by the ussummed higher price of organic produce — 22.29 w litée for milk (compared with 18.3p for non organic) and £220 tonne for cereale (as agaiast £112), Money would fave been saved on ferilisers, chemicals and drugs, but feed-stuffs, fuel and machinery maintenance would have cost more. A seennd full-time furmhand might have been need ced. Still the bottom line looked quite good: once the farm was running as an organic unit, the fami- ly could expect net income of £29700 a year, £10 000 more than sow. The snag wan how to get there. The Goodmans were told they would teed 10 spend £40 000 on re-sceding pasture, on extra stor- age for grain and manure and on néw machinery for spreading muck and weeding un-speayed Fields. More worrying was the estimate that full organic status might take five year to achieve. During that time, farm output would be felling without the compensation of higher prices, ‘We simply did not see how we could contem- plate these risks and costs. purticularly when we are already paying £1 7RS0 a year in rent and inte et on bank loans. I was also noc persuaded tha! he market premium for orgunic produce would always be there. Fraakly. milk is about as natural a commodity as you can get, however you produce Figure 3.21 One farmer tries the sustainable route (Source: The Times, 21 Oct, 1991} © Times Newspapers Lid 1991EXERCISES A) COMPREHENSION. Answer the questions according to the text: 1. How would the Goodmans put less pressure on land and livestock? 2. In which circumstances the use of ordinary drugs would not have been banned? B) SAY WHETHER THESE SENTENCES ARE TRUE OR FALSE: 1. Higher prices of organic produce would offset the fall in output. ..... 2. Considering their economic Ae the Goodmans’ problem would be how to reach the organic status. 3, The Goodmans would always be confident on the market premium for organic commodities. ©) COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING IDEAS ACCORDING TO THE TEXT: 1, Had the Goodmans turned to organic farming, their net income. 2. Whereas saving on fertilizers, chemicals, and drugs would have been considerable, \CONSOLIDATION EXERCISE Practice : Perfect Tenses - "If" Clauses - The use of "Would" ‘Read the text carefully. then do the exernises The crossing of wide area by more mobile disseminules would be most likely to succeed if there were ‘thinly populated habitats in the distant location that would be most receptive to an immigrant. Also long distance dissemination would more likely be successful if the species were self-compitible, If not self ‘compatible, the plant would have to be long-lived, orbe capable of reproducing itself vegetatively in the new locality until a second individual arived. Even thea in dioecious plants there would be only a $0:50 chance that the second individual would provide the proper sex. ‘The east coast bulge of Brazil is 2900 km from the west coast of Afica, but a number of plant ranges indicate that tansoceanic erossings have been made here, Neatly 2000 species of Brameliaceae are netiveto the Americas, but only one (Piieairnia felfciana) occurs in the Old World as well as the New, and that species is restricted to the west coast of Attica opposite the bulge of Brazil. Owing to the abundance of bromeliads in South Americs in contrast to the single disjunction, the situation cannot be interpreted 2s a ‘consequence of former land continuity. Furthermore, approximately 500 other plants have closely similar patterns of disjunction between South America and Affica, some of the pairs showing the reverse pattem. with the more poorly represented member in South America. ‘The volcanic islands now scattered over the Pacific Ocean have never been connected with any continent, + their native biotas bear testimony that in time many terrestrial species can cross tracts of sea water, if these ‘0 not extremely wide. This may be accomplished by “island hopping”, by rafting, by violent storms, or by nigratory birds. Hawaii is futher from North America (3900 km) than Aftica is fiom Biazil, yee at least 52 ta have crossed the Pacific Ocean from North America to Hawaii. [Long ago the simplest way of interpreting transoceanic disjunctions was to hypothesize land bridges thet srose from the ocean floor, then sank after certain taxa had made the crossing. But geology provided no evidence in support of such hypotheses, and they fell inio disrepute, In recent years, however, there have ‘een discovered evidences ofislands no longer in existence that could have played the role of stepping stones or “insular isthmuses” which allowed species to cross oceans, either simultaneously of in series: Submarine ‘idges have been found rising from the ocean floors midway between continents, and volcanic islands on ‘hese ridges and on either side of them could have provided land areas spaced closely enough to have served 3 migratory pathways. Then too, when sea levels were lowered by about 100 m during Pleistocene slaciations; saltwater gaps were narrowed.TI. COMPREHENSION: ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH OR SPANISH. 4. Which ofthe four paragraphs best expreses hypothetical ideas? b. What facts are provided to support the assumption that transoceanic disjunctions are not necessarily @ consequence of former land continniy? & @ What could be the source ofthe passage? Gi) Provides suitable tite for the text, TL _ REFERENCE: LOOK BACK AT THE TEXT AND FIND OUT WHAT THE WORDS IN BOLD REFER TO. .-and that species is restricted to... (ine 9): the situation cannot be interpreted..line 11): © «some of the pairs showing the reverse pattem...(ine 13): d. This may be eccomplished by..line 17): such hypotheses..(line 22): HL CONNECTORS: COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES USING INFORMATION FROM THE TEXT. ‘Since only one of the nearly 2000 species of Bromeliaceae native to the Americas occurs in the Old World as well as the New, .. a reind af _ b. As the volcanic islands over the Pacific Ocean have never been connected with any continent, c. Even though “land bridges” hypotheses to interpret transoceanic disjunctions fell into disrepute, IV. TRANSLATION: TRANSLATE PARAGRAPHS I AND ILINTENSIVE READING Source of the passage: The Sunflower - Charles Heiser Read the following passage and do the exercises below: h 2 3 le Is Is 7 8 9 10 ha 12 fey ir 1s 16 17 18 19 20 la 22. 23 4 las I26 a7 28. 29 30 Ia [Av this point one may well ask why sunflowers remain as distinct species if they hybridize. ‘Should not hybridization bring about a levelling effect so that eventually we would have only a single variable species? The answer is no, for several reasons. First of al the hybrids are only partly fertile, and hence their reproductive capacity is lower than that of the parental types. For this reason the hybrids are at a disadvantage — they simply cannot produce as many seeds as the parents. The fact that the two species are adapted to different soil types also ‘helps prevent amalgamation. Presumably certain visible characters are linked to those enabling the plant to grow in a particular habitat. Thus, in general, we would expect plants which look most like the Ccucumber-leaf sunflower to grow in sandy soil, and those like the common sunflower to grow in the heavier soils. That is exactly what we find. Still third reason is that the two species have slightly disferent blooming seasons. Obviously the two species must have some overlap in blooming season for hybridization to take place, but the cucumber-leaf sunflower blooms early in the summer, and the common sunflower reaches its peak Inte in the summer, Thus there is 2 greater opportunity for plants of each species to cross-pollinate among their own species. These three basriers do not appear strong ‘enough to prevent some gene exchange between species but at the same time are great enough to prevent complete amalgamation, ‘The common sunflower hybridizes not only with the cucumber-leaf sunflower but with several other ‘annual species as well. In other parts of Texas it is known to hybridize with the silver-leaf sunflower (H. argophyllus). In California it hybridizes with a native sunflower of thet region, H. bolanderi, and in ‘many parts of the west it crosses with H. petiolaris. Through backerossing of the hybrids a trickle of sgencs may enter the common sunflower, increasing Its variability and adaptability. This may help to ‘explain why the common sunflower bas become such a wide-ranging and successful weed. Om the other hand, hybrids of the common sunflower with the perennial species are unknown in nature because strong bamriers to hybridization have developed betweea the peremnial and the annual species (although we shall see that it is sometimes possible to produce artificial hybrids between species of the two groups). The pereanial species hybridize with each other fairly readily. In fact hybridization has been so rampant in some of the perennials that itis almost impossible to classify some individuals, causing no ‘end of confusion to the taxonomist. Some plants that have been named as species have recently been shown to be nothiag more than hybrids. Our understanding of the details of these complexities is due in a large measure to the recent work of the botanists Dale Smith, Raymond Jackson, Robert Long, and William Martin.1- COMPREHENSION. Answer the following questions in Spanish: |'a. What would happen to the common -leaf sunflower if hybridization brought about a complete leveling effect? lb. Classify the following sunflower species into annual and perennial: cucumber-leaf sunflower, common sunflower; silver-leaf sunflower (H. argophyllus). lc. Does the difference in blooming season between the common sunflower and the cacumber-leaf ‘sunflower completely prevent cross-pollination between them? I>, REFERENCE: Look back at the text and find the word or words the following words refer to. 3, PARAGRAPH HEADING. Decide which of the following headings best summarizes the content of each paragraph. la. Gene exchanges between the common sunflower and the cucumber-leaf sunflower. lp. Re-classification of sunflower species: species or hybrids? lc. Barriers to complete amalgamation between the common sunflower and the cucumber-Ieaf sunflower. ld. Hybrids of the common sunflower with the perennial sunflower species. le. Hybridization between the common sunflower and species other than the cucamber-leaf sunflower. lz. Extent of hybridization between perennial sunflower species. Its consequences. PARA. 32... =i PARA. 1 PARA. 2:.. \s. CONNECTORS. Complete the following seatences using information from the text, la. (Para, 1) Since the hybrids are only partly fertile... (>. (Para. 1) ‘In general, we would expect plants which look most like the cucumiber-leaf sunflower 10 ‘row in sandy soil, and those like the common sunflower to grow in the heavier soils, for. (Paid 3} As strong bares to hybridization have developed berween the perennial andthe annual species, : . - ree |s. TRANSLATE THE PARAGRAPH BETWEEN BRACKETS. (Paragraph 1, lines! through 16).ANTS MAY HAVE GOOD ADVICE FOR FARMERS (Paraphrased article written in the ‘Buenos Aires Herald’ Sept. 28 1998 - by Maggie Fox — Reuter) Ants that have grown fungus farms for 50 million years could offer valuable insights to human farmers, researchers said recently. They said they found that ants regularly swap seed crops of fungus, and occasionally have to delve back into the wild for seed crops after a disaster such as flood or blight. This shows biodiversity is a more basic need than anyone imagined. What the ants have demonstrated is that it may not -be possible to maintain an agricultural life for long periods without some connections to free-living close relatives (of the species being farmed). One of the researchers, U. Mueller, a biologist, said: “Maybe there is a message to humans. We might need that genetic material that lives out there in the wild. This says something fo me about the need to protect some of the biodiversity out there. We have to maintain some sort of genetic backup system out there.” Waiting in the journal Science, researchers said they did a genetic analysis of more than 500 different kinds of fungi taken fiom ant nests. They determined that ants have domesticated several different varieties of fungi at several different points in their 50 million-year history. That ants have been farming for much longer than humans is not news. Mueller said scientists have known for at least a hundred years that some species of ants keep fungus farms in their nests — fertilizing them, using natural pesticides to control weeds and depending on their crop. Only a few animals farm like this - some termites, groups of beetles, and humans. “But what people have assumed is that way back in time, and we now know it was about 50 million years ago, there was this one ficak accident, when ants domesticated a fungus,” Mueller said, [It had been believed that all ant fungus farms stemmed from this one early colony. “We show now that the ants have, Tepeatedly throughout their evolutionary history, domesticated different kinds of fungi,” Mueller said. Also, the ants pass their fungi around between species, although probably not in a friendly way. “We are now looking actively at how these exchanges take place. Fungi gardens are delicate, and can be flooded out or wiped out by a pathogen,” Mueller added. Should a pathogen endanger the ants? crops, they would have to get some more fungi to reseed their garden or die. In such a situation of desperation, because of loss of a fungus means death, they would become quite belligerent. They may try to take over another nest, Kill them, drive them out or take some fungus. In that case, ants would not be different from humans. Whenever stakes are so high, aggression tends to come through in a lot of animals.] Mueller said ants are known to engage in other surprisingly human-like behaviours, waging wars and even taking slaves. They raid other species and they Kill the queen, and bring the brood home to their own nest and have them labour in their own nests Once they have acquired what people have called slaves, they no longer take care of the basic duties in the nest. They have their slaves do that.“Ants may have good advice for farmers” EXCERCISES ‘COMPREHENSION - Answer these questions in Spanish 1: Inwhat way do ants” farming practices show that it is necessary to protect biodiversity? 2 — Scientific research has shed new light on the history of fungus farming by ants. ‘Summarize the main findings. 3. True or Fake? Justify your answer. “ants present an ages, hanks behaviour nl when a pathogen endangef their crops” .. LOCATING INFORMATION — Complete the following ideas with information from the text: 1- Apart from domesticating different kinds of fungi, ants 2-Since ants have to get more fungi or die, they Pas... 3-It: 4-We:_. 5- them: .CONSOLIDATION EXERCISE Intensive Reading (Practice: The Perfect Tenses) Source: "Ecology" Begon- I.L.Harper - C.R. Townsend - 1996-97 - ff 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 Insect, ‘and especially parasitoids have been used successfully against Insect pests in all four types of biological control. The exarnple of ‘classical’ biological control, which is probably sill the best, is itself a classic. Its success marked the start of biological control in ‘a modem sense. The cottony cushion scale insect, Icerya purchdsi, was first discovered as a pest of Californian citrus orchards In 1868, Dut by 1886 it nad brought the citrus industry close to the point of destruction. Would - be pest controllers initiated a world-wide correspondence to try ‘and discover the natural home and natural enemies of the scale, and in 1887 they received a report from Adelaide, Australia of apparently natural populations of the scale along with a Gipteran parasitoid, Cryptochaeturm. sp. In 1888, an expert insect taxonomist, Koebele, was 10 despatched to collect some for importation into California, In spite of his expertize, and in spite 11 of a widespread tour of Australia, he discovered that both scale and parasiloid were hard to find. 12 Eventually ne was successful, but he also found a ladybird beetle, the vedalia, Rodolia 13 cardinalis, feeding on the scale insect. Then, on his way home, he visited New Zealand and 14 found the vedaiia doing very well on the scales. So, in all, he despatched around 12000 15 Cryptochetum and around 500 vedalia back to California. Initially, the parasitoids seemed | 16 simply to nave disappeared, but the predatory beetles underwent such a population explosion 16 that all infestation of the scale insects in Califomia were controlled by the end of 1890_ In fact, 18 although the beetles have usually taken most or all of the credit, the long-term outcome has 19 been that the vedalia has been largely instrumnental in keeping the scale in check inland, but 20 Cryptochetum has been, and is, the main agent of control on the coast. 21 This example illustrates some important general points. First, species often become pests | 22 simply because, by colonisation of a new area, they escape the control oftheir natural enemies. 23 The situation is typically as follows. Most crops have been introduced to most of the areas in 24 which they are grown. Their pests have commonly followed them. We therefore tend to go back 25 to where the erop came from to find the predators of the pest. Biological control by importation is 26 thus, in an important sense, restoration of the stalus quo. Second, it requires for is success the 27 classical, perhaps unfashionable skils of the taxonomist in finding the pest in its native habitet, 28 and particulary in identifying and isolating its natural enemies. Third, this may often be a 29 difficult task — especially ifthe natural enemy or enemies are potentially valuable by virtue of } 30 their efnciency, since in that case they are likely to keep the pest (and themselves) rare in their 31 natural habitat. Nevertheless, the rate of retum on investment can be highly favourable. In the 32 case of the cottony cushion scale, biological control has subsequently been transferred to 50 33 other countries and savings have been immense: the outlay, including salaries, was around 34 $5000. in addition, this example illustrates the importance of establishing several. hopefully 35 complementary enemies to control a pest. And lastly, classical biclogical control, iike natural 36 control, can be destabilised by chemicals. The first use of DDT in Californian citrus orchards in |32. 1946-1947 against ine cticola scale Coccus psudomagnoliarum led to an outbreak ofthe (by 39_of DDT was terminated (Metclef, 1980). 38 then) rarely seen cottony cushion scale when the DDT almost eliminated the vedalia. The use|1.GOMPREHENSION. Answer the following questions in Spanish, a. Whyis it often difficut for the taxonomist to find the natural enemies of 2 pest in their natural habitat? b. Explain the following statement: ‘Biological control by importation is thus, in an important sense, restoration of the status quo’. cc. The passage describes one of the four types of biological control. Which of the following Gefinition summarizes the type of biological control described in the passage? (Justify your choice), The release of a natural enemy in order to supplement an existing population. D The periodic release of a control agent where itis unable to persist throughout the year, with the aim of providing control for only one or perhaps a Fewgonerations. 1D The introduction of a natural enemy from another geographical area - very often the area in which the pest originated prior to achieving pest status - in order that the control agent should persist and thus maintain the pest, long — term, below its economic threshold, 2.REFERENCE, Say what the following words refer to. This: Gine 26): They: dine 30) 3.-TITLE CHOICE: Choose the most suitable title for passage. Justify your choice. ‘a. Use of complementary enemies to control the cottony cushion scale in Californian citrus orchards. b.Control of the cottony cushion scale in Californian citrus orchards; a classic case of classical biological control, or importation. ‘©. Control of the cottony cushion scale in Californian citrus orchards; a case of classical biological control, or natural control kh. Tauslate te fest pamy. [ltues 4 fo Ro ine]