European Penetration into India: The Early European

Settlements; The Portuguese and the Dutch; The

English and the French East India Companies; Their
struggle for supremacy; Carnatic Wars: Part I
The Early European Settlements: The Portuguese and the Dutch
The Portuguese in India:

The landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut on Malabar coast in 1498 with three ships, guided by a
Gujarati pilot, Abdul Majid, is generally regarded as the beginning of a new era in the
relationship between Asia and Europe.
Objectives of finding Sea Route and factors behind advent of Portuguese:

Although Asia and Europe had been in commercial relations with each other since antiquity,
the opening of direct sea-relations between the Asia and Europe was not only the fulfilment of
an old dream (according to the Greek historian, Herodotus, the Phoenicians had rounded Africa
in the 6th century BC) it presaged big increase of trade between the two.
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. Merchandise from India went to the
European markets through Arab Muslim intermediaries. The Red Sea trade route was a state
monopoly from which Islamic rulers earned tremendous revenues. The land routes to India
were also controlled by the Arabs.
In the circumstances, the Europeans were keen to find a direct sea route to India.
A direct sea-link with India would displace the virtual monopoly of the Arabs and Turks
over the trade in eastern goods, especially spices.
For the Portuguese, the opening of a sea-route to India would give a big blow to the
Muslims—the Arabs and Turks, who were the traditional enemies of Christianity, and were
posing a new threat to Europe by virtue of the growing military and naval power of the
Turks.
They also hoped that by their exploration of Africa they would be able to link up with the
kingdom of the legendary prior John, and be in a position to attack the Muslims from two
sides. Thus, the commercial and religious objectives supported and justified each
other.
Interest shown by the Pope:
The Pope also showed his growing interest in the search for a sea-route to India when in
1453, he issued a Bull granting Portugal “in perpetuity” whichever lands it

“discovered” beyond the Cape in Africa upto India, on condition of converting the
“heathens” of those lands to Christianity
 heathens of those lands to Christianity.
Effect of Renaissance:
Interest in the search for a sea-route to India was spurred also by the Renaissance which
had gripped Europe in 15th century and which challenged rooted modes of thought, and
created a new spirit of daring.
Renaissance had called for the exploration.
Growing interest in oriental trade was shown by the arrival of many Genoese traders in
the Indian Ocean from the thirteenth century onwards.
The names of the Venetians, Nicolo Conti and Barbosa, of the Russian Nikitin are
only a few among the many others who travelled on the Indian Ocean, and reached
India during this period.
Economic development of Europe:
The economic development of many regions of Europe was also progressing rapidly with
expansion of land under cultivation, the introduction of an improved plough, scientific
crop management such as crop rotation, and increased supply of meat (which called for
spices for cooking as well as preservation).
Prosperity also grew and with it the demand for oriental luxury goods also increased.
With growing prosperity and growth, the dietary habits of the Europeans had also
changed, with more meat being consumed.
Much of the cattle in Europe had to be killed during winter due to shortage of fodder,
and the meat salted away.
Oriental spices were even more in demand in order to make the salted meat more
palatable.
Advances in the art of ship-building and navigation:
At the same time, Europe made great advances in the art of ship-building and navigation.
Hence, there was an eagerness all over Europe for adventurous sea voyages to reach the
unknown corners of the East.
Genoese Interest:
The principal rivals of the Venetians in Europe were the Genoese. The Genoese were also
active in distributing oriental goods in Europe, but had been side-lined by the Venetians.
Venice and Genoa which had earlier prospered through trade in oriental goods were too
small to take on the mighty Ottoman Turks or to take up major exploration on their own.
The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 was a big blow to the Genoese
because the Black Sea ports, their principal mart for oriental goods, were gradually
closed to them.
This, and their old rivalry with Venice were the main factors which led Genoa to help
Portugal and Spain with ships, money and nautical skills in searching for a sea -route
to India.
Christopher Columbus who ‘discovered’ America in 1492 in his effort to find a sea-
route to India was a Genoese.
It is also to be noted that Portugal had assumed the leadership in Christendom’s resistance
to Islam even as it had taken on itself the spirit of exploration
 to Islam even as it had taken on itself the spirit of exploration.
Also the idea of finding an ocean route to India had become an obsession for Prince Henry of
Portugal, who was nicknamed the ‘Navigator’; also, he was keen to find a way to circumvent
the Muslim domination of the eastern Mediterranean and all the routes that connected India to
Europe.
Arrival of Vasco Da Gama:

The arrival of three ships under Vasco Da Gama, led by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid, at
Calicut in May 1498 profoundly affected the course of Indian history.
The Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin (Samuthiri), however, had no apprehensions as to the
European’s intentions.
As the prosperity of his kingdom was due to Calicut’s position as an entrepot, he accorded
a friendly reception to Vasco Da Gama.
Zamorin, and permitted to trade in spices, and to set up a factory (ware-house) on the
coast.
Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession
for trading rights from the Zamorin. But, the Portuguese were unable to pay the
prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold.
The Portuguese wanted to enforce a monopoly over the spice trade to Europe, and claimed
the right of searching the ships of Arab traders.
This led to a fight in which the Portuguese living in their factory were massacred.
In retaliation, the Portuguese ships bombarded Calicut before they withdrew.
Vasco da Gama stayed in India for three months.
When he returned to Portugal, he carried back with him a rich cargo and sold the
merchandise in the European market at a huge profit.
The spices carried back by Vasco da Gama were computed at sixty times the cost of the
entire expedition.
The importance of direct access to the pepper trade was made clear by the fact that elsewhere
the Europeans, who had to buy through Muslim middlemen, would have had to spend ten
times as much for the same amount of pepper.
Not surprisingly, other profit-seeking merchants of European nations were tempted to
come to India and trade directly.
In 1502, Vasco da Gama returned with a fleet of twenty-five vessels, and demanded that the
Zamorin should expel all the Muslim merchants settled there, and not to allow any Muslim
merchants to land at any of his ports, or to have any trade relations with them.
Zamorin rejected these demands on the ground that the port of Calicut was open to all,
and that it would be impossible to prohibit anyone from trade, whether he was a Muslim or
not.
Gama’s answer was a brutal assault on Calicut. This was followed by establishing a number
of forts at Cochin, Quilon etc. to dominate the Malabar trade. His rupture with the Zamorin
thus became total and complete.
Vasco da Gama set up a trading factory at Cannanore.
Portuguese Governors in India:

Francisco De Almeida:
In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed a governor in India for a three-year term on the
condition that he would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: at Anjediva
Island, Cannanore, Cochin and Quilon.
He was equipped with sufficient force to protect the Portuguese interests.
Almeida’s vision was to make the Portuguese the master of the Indian Ocean. His policy
was known as the Blue Water Policy (cartaze system).
He said: “As long as you may be powerful at sea you will hold India as yours; and if you
do not possess this power, little will avail you a fortress on shore.”
Alarmed at the growing power of the Portuguese, the Sultan of Egypt fitted a fleet and
sent it towards India.
The fleet was joined by a contingent of ships from the ruler of Gujarat.
The Zamorin of Calicut, the rulers of Bijapur and Ahmednagar also lent his support.
After an initial victory in which the son of the Portuguese governor, De Almeida, was
killed, this combined fleet was routed by the Portuguese in 1509.
This naval victory made the Portuguese navy supreme in the Indian Ocean for the
time being, and enabled the Portuguese to extend their operations towards the
Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
Alfonso de Albuquerque:
Albuquerque, who succeeded Almeida as the Portuguese governor in India, was the real
founder of the Portuguese power in the East, a task he completed before his death.

He advocated and embarked upon a policy of dominating the entire oriental commerce
by setting up forts at various strategic places in Asia and Africa This was to be
 by setting up forts at various strategic places in Asia and Africa. This was to be
supplemented by a strong navy.
Defending his philosophy, he wrote “A dominion founded on a navy alone cannot last.”
Lacking forts, he argued, “neither will they (the rulers) trade or be on friendly terms
with you.”
The Portuguese, under Albuquerque bolstered their stranglehold by introducing a permit
system for other ships and exercising control over the major ship-building centres in the
region.
The nonavailability of timber in the Gulf and Red Sea regions for ship-building also helped
the Portuguese in their objectives.
Albuquerque initiated this new policy by acquiring Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510
with ease; the principal port of the Sultan of Bijapur became “the first bit of Indian territory
to be under the Europeans since the time of Alexander the Great”.
The island of Goa was an excellent natural harbour and fort.
It was strategically located, and from it the Portuguese could command the Malabar
trade and watch the policies of the rulers in the Deccan.
It was also near enough to the Gujarat seaports for the Portuguese to make their
presence felt there.
Goa was, thus, suited to be the principal centre of Portuguese commercial and
political activity in the east.
The Portuguese were also able to extend their possession on the mainland opposite
Goa, and to blockade and sack the Bijapuri ports of Danda-Rajouri and Dabhol, thus
paralysing Bijapur’s sea-trade on the mainland.
They sacked and blockaded the Bijapuri ports of Danda-Rajouri and Dabhol till the
Adil Shah came to terms by ceding Goa.
From their base at Goa, the Portuguese further strengthened their position by establishing
a fort at Colombo in Sri Lanka, and at Achin in Sumatra, and the Malacca port which
controlled the exit and entry to the narrow gulf between the Malay peninsula and Sumatra.
The Portuguese also established a station at the island of Socotra at the mouth of the Red
Sea, and besieged Aden.
Vasco da Gama had failed to capture Aden—his only failure in the area. However, he
forced the ruler of Ormuz which controlled entry into the Persian Gulf to permit them
to establish a fort there.
During this period, a major concern of the Portuguese was to bring under control the forts
of Diu and Cambay which were the centres of Gujarati trade to the Red Sea.
The Portuguese made two attempts in 1520-21 to capture Diu but both were defeated
by its governor, Ahmad Ayaz.
An interesting feature of his rule was the abolition of sati.
In order to secure a permanent Portuguese population in India he encouraged his men to
take Indian wives.
Nino da Cunha:
He was a governor of Portuguese possessions in India from 1528 to 1538
He was a governor of Portuguese possessions in India from 1528 to 1538
He shifted the headquarters of the Portuguese government in India from Cochin to Goa.
Before the Gujarat-Turkish alliance could be consolidated, a bigger threat to Gujarat
appeared from the side of the Mughals.
Humayun attacked Gujarat.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, during his conflict with the Mughal emperor Humayun,
secured help from the Portuguese by ceding to them in 1534 the island of Bassein
with its dependencies and revenues. He also promised them a base in Diu.
However, Bahadur Shah’s relations with the Portuguese became sour when Humayun
withdrew from Gujarat in 1536.
Following the expulsion of the Mughals from Gujarat, he once again appealed to the
Ottoman sultan for help and tried to limit the Portuguese encroachments at Diu.
The Portuguese started negotiations, in the course of which Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
was invited to a Portuguese ship and killed in 1537.
Subsequent efforts to recapture Diu failed.
Hence The Portuguese acquired several territories from the Sultans of Gujarat:
Daman (occupied 1531, formally ceded 1539);
Salsette, Bombay, and Baçaim (occupied 1534); and
Diu (ceded 1535).
Da Cunha also attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal by settling many
Portuguese nationals there with Hooghly as their headquarters.
The Ottomon Turks, under Sulaiman, were passing through the most magnificent period of
their history; they were poised to attack Europe, and also to complete their conquests in
Asia.
Turks had defeated the ruler of Iran in 1514 and then conquered Syria, Egypt and
Arabia. This implied an increasing role of the Ottoman Turks in the Indian Ocean.
The sultan of Gujarat sent an embassy to the Ottoman ruler congratulating him on
his victories, and seeking his support.
In return, the Ottoman ruler expressed a desire to combat the infidels, that is
the Portuguese, who had disturbed the shores of Arabia.
From this time onwards, there was a continuous exchange of embassies and letters
between the two countries.
After ousting the Portuguese from the Red Sea in 1529, a strong fleet under Sulaiman
Rais was despatched to aid Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat.
Bahadur Shah received it well, and two of the Turkish officials, who were given
Indian names, were appointed governors of Surat and Diu respectively.
Of these two, Rumi Khan was later to earn a great name for himself as a master-
gunner.
In 1531, after intriguing with local officials, the Portuguese attacked Daman and Diu, but
the Ottoman commander, Rumi Khan, repulsed the attack.
However, the Portuguese built a fort at Chaul lower down the coast.
The Turks made their biggest naval demonstration against the Portuguese in Indian
 The Turks made their biggest naval demonstration against the Portuguese in Indian
waters in 1536.
Many of the sailors had been pressed into service from the Venetian galleys at
Alexandria.
The fleet, commanded by Sulaiman Pasha, an old man of 82, who had been
appointed the governor of Cairo, appeared before Diu in 1538 and besieged it.
Unfortunately, the Turkish admiral behaved in an arrogant manner so that the Sultan
of Gujarat withdrew his support.
After a siege of two month, the Turkish fleet retired, following news of the arrival of a
formidable Portuguese armada to relieve Diu.
Note:
The Turkish threat to the Portuguese persisted for another two decades.
Meanwhile, the Portuguese strengthened their position by securing Daman from
its ruler.
A final Ottoman expedition was sent under Ali Rais in 1554.
The failure of these expeditions resulted in a change in the Turkish attitude.
In 1566, the Portuguese and the Ottomans came to an agreement to share the
oriental trade, including spices, and not to clash in the Arab seas.
Following this, the Ottomans shifted their interest once again to Europe. This
precluded a future alliance with the rising Mughal power and the Turks against
the Portuguese.
Favourable Conditions for Portuguese

In India, excepting Gujarat, ruled by the powerful Mahmud Begarha (1458-1511), the northern
part was much divided among many small powers.
In the Deccan, the Bahmani Kingdom was breaking up into smaller kingdoms.
None of the powers had a navy worth its name, nor did they think of developing their naval
strength.
In the Far East, the imperial decree of the Chinese emperor limited the navigational reach of the
Chinese ships.
As regards the Arab merchants and ship-owners who until then dominated the Indian Ocean
trade, they had nothing to match the organisation and unity of the Portuguese.
Moreover, the Portuguese had cannons placed on their ships.
Why did Indian powers permit the domination of the Indian Ocean by a small, and
economically backward state such as Portugal for more than a century
Technologically, the Indo-Arab boom and the Chinese junk could match the Portuguese
galleons and caravelles in their strength, holding capacity for goods in view of its tonnage,
and capacity to sail even in the face of the wind with their lateen (triangular) sail. They
had sufficient nautical skills to travel on open seas.

Where the Portuguese were superior was the maneuvering capacity of their ships, the Indo-
Arab ships being slow and clumsy on account of their heavy sails
 Arab ships being slow and clumsy on account of their heavy sails.
Also, the hulls of the Portuguese ships were stronger to withstand the shock of
firing cannons.
But, it was above all the determination of the Portuguese sailors which decided the issue.
The Indians, more used to fighting pirates, had no stomach for fighting on sea,
unbacked by their own rulers.
Thus, it was not military and naval technology alone, but a number of other factors which
enabled the Portuguese to establish a naval domination over the Indian seas for more than
a century.
The Indian powers reconciled themselves to this domination because it did not
threaten their own political positions on the mainland.
Nor did it adversely effect their income from overseas trade.
Hence, the task of undertaking a naval conflict with the Portuguese appeared difficult,
uncertain of success, and likely to yield little financial returns.
Religious Policy of the Portuguese

Portuguese brought with them the zeal to promote Christianity and the wish to persecute all
Muslims.
Intolerant towards the Muslims, the Portuguese were initially quite tolerant towards the
Hindus. However, over time, after the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa, there was a change
and Hindus were also persecuted.
But, in spite of this intolerant behaviour, the Jesuits made a good impression at the court of
Akbar, mainly due to the Mughal emperor’s interest in questions of theology.
In September 1579, Akbar forwarded a letter to the authorities at Goa requesting them to
send two learned priests.
The Church authorities in Goa eagerly accepted the invitation, seeing in it a chance to
convert the emperor to Christianity, and with him his court and the people.
Jesuit fathers, Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate reached Fatehpur Sikri in 1580.
They went back in 1583, belying the hopes the Portuguese entertained of Akbar’s
conversion to the Christian faith.
Jesuit priests continued to be in contact with Mughal emperor even during Jahangir.
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals:

In 1608, Captain William Hawkins with his ship Hector reached Surat. He brought with him a
letter from James I, King of England, to the Mughal court of Jahangir requesting permission to
do business in India.
The Portuguese authorities did their best to prevent Hawkins from reaching the Mughal
court, but did not succeed.
Jahangir accepted the gifts Hawkins brought for him and gave Hawkins a very favourable
reception in 1609.
As Hawkins knew the Turkish language well, he conversed with the emperor in that
language without the aid of an interpreter
 language without the aid of an interpreter.
Pleased with Hawkins, Jahangir appointed him as a Mansabdar of 400.
The grant of trading facilities to the English offended the Portuguese.
However, after negotiations, a truce was established between the Portuguese and the
Mughal emperor.
The Portuguese stopped the English ships from entering the port of Surat. A baffled Hawkins
left the Mughal court in 1611, unable to counter the Portuguese intrigues or check the
vacillating Mughal policies.
However, in November 1612, the English ship Dragon under Captain Best successfully fought
(The naval Battle of Swally) a Portuguese fleet.
Jahangir, who had no navy worth its name, learnt of the English success and was greatly
impressed.
The Portuguese acts of piracy also resulted in conflict with the imperial Mughal government.
In 1613, the Portuguese offended Jahangir by capturing Mughal ships, imprisoning many
Muslims, and plundering the cargoes. An enraged Jahangir ordered Muqarrab Khan, who was
the then in charge of Surat, to obtain compensation.
However, it was during the reign of Shah Jahan, that the advantages which the Portuguese
enjoyed in the Mughal court were lost forever.
Capture of Hooghly:
In 1579, the Portuguese had settled down on a river bank which was a short distance from
Satgaon in Bengal to carry on their trading activities.
Over the years, they strengthened their position by constructing big buildings which led to
the migration of the trade from Satgaon to the new port known as Hooghly.
They monopolised the manufacture of salt, built a custom house of their own and started
enforcing strictly the levy of duty on tobacco, which had become an important article of
trade since its introduction at the beginning of the 17th century.
The Portuguese not only made money as traders but also started a cruel slave trade by
purchasing or seizing Hindu and Muslim children, whom they brought up as Christians.
In the course of their nefarious activities, they seized two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal.
On June 24, 1632, the siege of Hooghly began, ending in its capture three months
later. Shah Jahan ordered the Bengal governor Qasim Khan to take action against the
Portuguese. A siege of Hooghly finally led to the Portuguese fleeing.
The Mughals suffered a loss of 1,000 men, but also took 400 prisoners to Agra. The
prisoners were offered the option to convert to Islam or become slaves.
The persecution of Christians continued for some time after which it died down
gradually.
Impact of the Portuguese on the Indian Trade

The Portuguese ended the era of unarmed open sea- trade in the Indian waters, and gave a
big blow to the virtual Muslim monopoly of the trade in the western part of the Indian
Ocean, and their trade of eastern goods to Europe.
Right from the time Portuguese arrived at Calicut they had demanded that other merchants
 Right from the time Portuguese arrived at Calicut, they had demanded that other merchants,
Indian as well as foreign, should be ousted and a complete monopoly over trade be granted to
them.
Portuguese ships equipped with arms and ammunition threatened other merchants and
confiscated their merchandise and vessels. (beginning of armed trade)
Introduction of Cartaz system:

In 1502, the Portuguese demanded an exclusive right over trade at Calicut to which the
Zamorin, the king of Calicut, did not yield.
The Vasco da Gama declared war on all ships plying in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean. He
introduced an expedient under which those ships which carried a cartaz duly signed by the
Portuguese authorities, namely the royal factor, were not to be attacked.
This certificate was first issued in 1502.
It was a sea-pass or trading license introduced by the Portuguese.
They declared trade in spices, drugs, dyes including indigo, copper, silver and gold, and
arms & ammunition and war horses as royal monopoly.
Traders of no other country, whether in Asia or Europe, including Portuguese private
traders and royal officials, were permitted to trade in these commodities.
Ships engaged in the trade of other commodities had to take a permit or cartaz from
Portuguese officials.
Its aim was to control and enforce the Portuguese trade monopoly over a wide area in the
Indian Ocean and to ensure that merchants paid the tax in Portuguese trading posts.
Indian merchants, rulers and all those engaged in maritime trade, had to take cartaz from the
Portuguese.
While issuing such passes, it was specifically mentioned that monopoly items were not to be
loaded on their ships.
Routes and destinations of such ships were also sought to be controlled.
The Portuguese attempted to force all ships going to the east or to Africa to pass by Goa
and to pay custom duty there.
To enforce these rules, the Portuguese searched any ships suspected of engaging in trade
without Cartaz or trade in monopolised commodities.
Any ship which was suspected of carrying “contraband” or banned goods, or which refused
to be searched could be treated as a prize of war, and sunk or captured, and the men and
women aboard treated as slaves.
Rulers like Akbar, and his successors, Nilam Shah of Ahmednagar, Adil Shah of Bijapur, kings of
Cochin, the Zamorins of Calicut and the rulers of Cannanore purchased passes from the
Portuguese to send their ships to various places.
Monopoly Trade:

When Portuguese arrived, merchants from various quarters of the world were found on the
coastal regions of India engaged in trade and commerce
 coastal regions of India engaged in trade and commerce.
As Vasco da Gama reported in 1498, there were merchants from Mecca, Tenasseri, Pegu,
Ceylon, Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, Tunis and various parts of India at the port of
Calicut.
It is well-known that Chinese merchants as well as merchants from the Red Sea areas used
to frequent the Indian ports.
There is no record of any group of merchants demanding exclusive right of trade in general, nor
of any attempt made to declare a few or all commodities set apart for anybody.
But, with the arrival of the Portuguese, this state of affairs underwent considerable change.
Kings were pressurised to forbid other merchants from trading with their ports.
Similarly, certain commodities were declared forbidden to be traded by others.
In other words, the Portuguese demanded monopoly of trade. The treaties concluded with
the Indian rulers specifically mentioned this.
The setting up of Portuguese fortresses at strategic places, surveillance by their patrolling
vessels, and the insistence on passes for other ships were the attempts made to establish
monopoly of trade in Asian waters.
Trade of the Indian Rulers and Merchants:

The Portuguese attempts at establishing total monopoly did not bring about a situation in
which trade conducted by the Indian rulers and merchants was totally uprooted.
The king of Cannanore, for instance, used to collect passes from the Portuguese to send his
vessels laden with commodities to Cambay and Hormuz.
He imported horses from the above-mentioned places though this was identified by
the Portuguese a monopoly item.
Sometimes such vessels ran the risk of being confiscated by the Portuguese.
The same was the case with the kings of Tanur, Challe and Calicut on the Malabar coast.
The nobles of Gujarat continued their trade despite the Portuguese monopoly.
Malik Gopi, Malik Ayaz, Khwaja Sofar and others interested in trade plied their ships with or
without passes from the Portuguese.
Monopoly was not very effective:
The local and foreign merchants settled in India carried on their trade with or without
cartaz.
The Portuguese soon found that they stood to lose more on land than gain on sea by
continuing their practices, because traders who lost on sea put pressure on their
governments to retaliate against Portuguese trade in their areas.
It was impossible to police trade along huge coasts of Asia.
Sea-pirates preying on Portuguese ships were active in areas such as Oman, Malabar,
and South-East Asia, and Portuguese policies brought them greater encouragement and
support from traders and small rulers.

It was estimated that out of the 60,000 quintals of pepper produced annually in the area
between Calicut and Cape Comorin only 15 000 quintals were delivered to the Portuguese
between Calicut and Cape Comorin, only 15,000 quintals were delivered to the Portuguese
factories and the remaining three-fourths were taken to other ports. This was termed
illegal by the Portuguese.
The Portuguese were not willing to enhance the price of pepper agreed upon in 1503 even
after several decades.
Hence, the producers of pepper did not have any alternative other than supplying it to
the merchants who might buy it and send it to other centres of trade without the
knowledge of the Portuguese.
The Arabs and Gujarati traders found ways to get around the Portuguese trade embargo
and regulation.
Even Portuguese private traders were unhappy due to royal monopoly and Cartaz and
royal officials who received small salary often bribed by private traders (Portuguese, Arabs,
Gujarati etc).
Several Portuguese officials conducted their own private trade in various commodities
without the knowledge of their government.
The Portuguese control over Indian ocean remained incomplete because of their failure to
capture Aden and thereby control entry to the Red Sea.
The Turkish conquest of Syria, Egypt and Arabia, and the expansion of their naval
power, both in the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, made it difficult for the
Portuguese to effectively carry out their blockade of Bab-el-Mendel, the entrance to
the Persian Gulf.
Portuguese monopoly was never effective in the Red Sea zone.
At the other end of the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese control even on the Spice Islands
weakened.
The Portuguese had to contend with a naval power there willing to take on their
warships. Using the traditional Javanese naval skills, Sumatra ruler, Sultan Ali
Mughayat Shah was able to defeat the Portuguese in many naval skirmishes, and to
capture large number of guns from the Portuguese to fortify Acheh.
He also approached the Ottoman Sultan for military equipment. The Ottomans
supplied bronze guns of a calibre to enable Acheh in north Sumatra to withstand a
siege.
This enabled Acheh to emerge as a major centre of the export of spices, in competition
to Malacca which was under Portuguese control.
Arabs and Gujaratis who were well entrenched at Malacca, used Acheh as a centre for
export of spices to the Red Sea via the Laccadives, thereby by-passing the Portuguese
controlled Malabar waters.
Thus, important factors in limiting the success of the Portuguese were:
the structure of the Asian trade net-work;
the strength and resourcefulness of the Asian merchants, Arabs, Gujaratis, Tamils and
others, who had long experience of operating the system;
the naval and military strength of Turkey and of the ruler of north Sumatra, and
the internal limitations of the Portuguese and of the working of the cartaz system in
 the internal limitations of the Portuguese and of the working of the cartaz system in
the Portuguese Empire of India (Estado da India).
The complete control over the oceanic trade by using Cartaz system did not succeed much and
the rules regarding giving Cartaz to local traders had to be liberalized.
This included Muslims traders. Trade in horses which was exclusively in the hands of
Muslims, was a highly profitable trade. It was also of great strategic importance to various
rulers.
The Muslims were also active in trade in many other commodities, such as textile products,
glass, aromatics and coffee in which the Portuguese had neither the money nor the ships
to engage themselves.
Hence, the dictates of trade and profit soon overcame religious prejudices.
Portuguese effort to push out the Muslims from the trade in oriental goods, and to establish a
Portuguese monopoly over the trade in West Asia had only limited success.
Thus, by the middle of the sixteenth century, in spite of the large volume of spices brought
to Lisbon and marketed in Europe, mainly through Antwerp, the Black Sea ports and the
markets of the Levant and Egypt were as well supplied with eastern goods—spices, dyes,
and cotton and silk textiles as before.
The Portuguese used the Cartaz system to control over the oceanic trade though not
completely until the other European powers like the Dutch and English made their appearances
in the 17th century.
Limitation of Portugal:

Portugal itself was a small country, and though it had developed rapidly in the field of
commerce, its financial resources were limited.
Thus, German and Italian merchants and merchant houses became the principal agents for
distributing all over Europe the eastern goods brought to Lisbon by the Portuguese.
Demand in Asia for European goods which could be exchanged for purchase of pepper and
other eastern goods was limited.
Hence, precious metals, especially silver had to be exported.
But unlike Spain, Portugal did not have the silver mines in America to fall back on, and
had to depend heavily on Italian and German financiers.
The expectation of the Portuguese king that Portuguese control of the coastal trade of India
would pay for the export of pepper and other eastern goods to Europe also remained a
misnomer.
Hence, the Portuguese trade to Europe remained confined to only twelve to thirteen ships
being sent each year from Lisbon to India.
However, this picture changed by the end of the 16th century.
The share of the private Portuguese traders in the Portuguese trade to Europe rose sharply,
amounting to over 90 per cent of the total.
The additional cargo consisted mainly of textiles and precious stones.
The Portuguese private traders financed this trade by large scale involvement in Asian
trade
 trade.
However, for the Portuguese government the Portuguese enterprise in the western part of
the Indian Ocean remained largely a “redistributive enterprise”, i.e. its main source of
income was taxing the trade of others rather than expanding trade, or opening up new
lines of trade.
A real expansion of trade between Europe and the East had to await the coming of the
Dutch and the English in the 17th century.
Significance of the Portuguese

Contribution in political system:

Portuguese impact on the political system in Asia was small.
They were too few in numbers to try to capture and keep hold of any large territories on the
mainland in India or elsewhere.
Hence, they wisely decided to keep their control confined to islands, and to forts on the
coast which could be defended and supplied by sea.
The island of Goa, which became their seat of government, was a prime example of
this.
Apart from this, they could, by threats and persuasions, induce rulers of small states, such
as Calicut, Cochin, Craganore etc. to act as their agents or brokers in the spice trade.
The Portuguese set-up at Goa was controlled by a Governor-General, assisted by a
Council which included the Ecclesiastical Head.
On account of their small numbers, the Portuguese encouraged mixed marriages and, in
course of time, a new Indo-Portuguese or Goanese society came into being.
But the society and government itself was organised on rigid racial lines, people of pure
Portuguese origin being at the head of the society, and people of mixed origins at the
bottom. Nor were the latter given any share in political power.
The Church exercised on occasions the dreaded “auto da fe” or burning at the stake to root
out heresy among Christians.
Thus, the contribution of the Portuguese in the field of politics or expansion of world trade
remained negligible.
Significance of the Portuguese opening the direct sea-route to India:
It opened the way for India’s closer integration with the growing world economy, and
contributed to the further growth of a market economy in India. It was also a blow to
India’s “introspectiveness”.
Most historians have observed that the coming of the Portuguese not only initiated what
might be called the European era, it marked the emergence of naval power.
The Cholas, among others, had been a naval power, but it was now for the first time a
foreign power had come to India by way of the sea.
Note: the Portuguese were first among Europeans to come (in 1498) and last to
leave (in 1961).
New trade links:
They established India’s trade links with Japan Philippines Latin America etc
 They established India s trade links with Japan, Philippines, Latin America etc.
The Portuguese also paved the way for the advent of other European powers like
Spain, Dutch, English, French etc.
Portuguese also introduced their coins Cruzado in Goa and their neighbouring areas and
these coins were accepted in areas of Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms also.
Introduction of technology:
The Portuguese were masters of improved techniques at sea.
Under Portuguese supervision, ship-building, using western techniques, was started
at Cochin.
Their multi-decked ships were heavily constructed, this permitted them to carry a
heavier armament.
In the Malabar of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese showed military innovation in their
use of body armour, matchlock men, and guns landed from the ships.
The Portuguese may have contributed by example to the Mughal use of field guns, and
the ‘artillery of the stirrup’.
Some other technologies which had made an impact or had far-reaching effects, such as
printing, clocks etc. though introduced in Goa, did not find acceptance on the mainland.
They are also known for building new roads and irrigation works.
Contribution in agriculture:
Many products of the Latin American world—Maize, potato, corn, pineapple, Tobacco,
chilli entered the Indian rural economy, just as new breeds of fruits had come in the wake
of the Turks.
Out of these, Tobacco became a major trade item.
Other plants introduced by Portuguese:
Papaya (first cultivated in Mexico),
Cashew (native to Brazil),
Guava(native to Central and South America).
The quality of mango and citrus fruits was greatly improved.
Better plantation varieties of coconut was introduced besides planting large groves.
Thus, the Indian peasant was not allergic to accepting new products if it meant a profit for
him.
Cultural contribution:
The missionaries and the Church were also teachers and patrons in India of the arts of the
painter, carver, and sculptor.
As in music, they were the interpreters, not just of Portuguese, but of European art to India.
Decline of the Portuguese

By the 18th century, the Portuguese in India lost their commercial influence, though some of
them still carried on trade in their individual capacity and many took to piracy and robbery.
In fact, Hooghly was used by some Portuguese as a base for piracy in the Bay of Bengal.
The decline of the Portuguese was brought about by several factors.
The local advantages gained by the Portuguese in India were reduced with the emergence
The local advantages gained by the Portuguese in India were reduced with the emergence
of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and North India and the rise of the turbulent
Marathas as their immediate neighbours. (The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in
1739 from the Portuguese.)
The religious policies of the Portuguese, such as the activities of the Jesuits, gave rise to
political fears. Their antagonism for the Muslims apart, the Portuguese policy of conversion
to Christianity made Hindus also resentful.
Their dishonest trade practices also evoked a strong reaction. The Portuguese earned
notoriety as sea pirates.
Their arrogance and violence brought them the animosity of the rulers of small states and
the imperial Mughals as well.
The discovery of Brazil diverted colonising activities of Portugal to the West.
The union of the two kingdoms of Spain and Portugal in 1580-81, dragging the smaller
kingdom into Spain’s wars with England and Holland, badly affected Portuguese monopoly
of trade in India.
The earlier monopoly of knowledge of the sea route to India held by the Portuguese could
not remain a secret forever; soon enough the Dutch and the English, who were learning the
skills of ocean navigation, also learnt of it.
As new trading communities from Europe arrived in India, there began a fierce rivalry
among them. In this struggle, the Portuguese had to give way to the more powerful
and enterprising competitors.
The Dutch and the English had greater resources and more compulsions to expand
overseas, and they overcame the Portuguese resistance.
Goa which remained with the Portuguese had lost its importance as a port after the
fall of the Vijayanagara empire and soon it did not matter in whose possession it was