The Role Concept and Social Case Work: Some Explorations: I.

The "Social" in Social

Casework
Author(s): Helen Harris Perlman
Source: Social Service Review , Dec., 1961, Vol. 35, No. 4 (Dec., 1961), pp. 370-381
Published by: The University of Chicago Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30016712

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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK:
SOME EXPLORATIONS

I. THE "SOCIAL" IN SOCIAL CASEWORK

HELEN HARRIS PERLMA

the manifestations of our personalities?

about fifteen years ago, at a party. One role calls certain behavior and per-
I First became interested in role
It was a square-dancing party, large sonality attributes to the fore and sub-
enough so that many of us were stran- ordinates others; another role, under-
gers to one another. Within one square taken in another hour, may make those
was a man who was the despair of us subordinated behaviors dominant. How
all. When the caller cried "right," this many of us, I wondered, know ourselves
man went left; when we were to stop, or can describe ourselves as persons
he skipped; "skip" and he stopped; without reference to our roles? And
when it was "swing your partner," he when in one's role as caseworker, I
stood stock still; he fumbled, stumbled, thought, one sees an applicant or client,
collided?by the end of the round he does one see him as a total personality?
was miserable, and so were the rest of Is it possible that the role of applicant
us. One of us went to our host to ask and, later, of client brings particular
who this poor misfit was. "Oh, that kinds of behavior to the fore?
one," he said, "he's Mr. X?the famous Then a number of problems and re-
physicist." current questions in casework practice
You know what happened. Our per- began to cast themselves into role ques-
ceptions did a somersault. We had seen tions. In our work with families, when
Mr. X in his role as a dancing partner we have a primary client, such as hos-
?he was inept, apologetic, bumbling to pitalized patient or an institutionalized
the point of stupidity. In his role as child, how do we deal with family mem-
physicist, internationally recognized, he bers? In what role do we cast them?
was keen, serenely confident, respected, Are they co-treaters? secondary clients?
and related to by others as a genius. informants on call? And in what role
And upon the somersault of our percep- versus caseworker, versus primary cli-
tions came the adaptation of our atti- ent, do they perceive themselves? And
tudes and behavior toward Mr. X. what do these perceptions have to do
Warm indulgence took the place of mildwith how they act and what they expect
annoyance; eager helpfulness replaced of themselves and of the caseworkers?
bland acceptance. Or in work with foster parents: would
This, and less dramatic instances like it be useful to define for ourselves and
it, set me to wondering. Which, I asked for them and thus for the child in place-
myself, is the real Mr. X? Which is thement what the role of foster parent re-
real me?or you? How much effect does quires and demarcates? Is the foster
a particular role we carry have upon parent, to the caseworker, a colleague?
370
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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 371

to the child, "a new mommy" or some might have been a sterile and rugged
lesser kin, or ? Is he supposed? pursuit to study the abstract and some-
since every role contains expectation? times abstruse social-science literature
to love freely, but not too much? to on role theory. Moreover, an explora-
want the child feelingly, but only until tion into new ideas is actually a per-
the agency rings the bell for ending? tosonal experience. One comes out of such
be parent?yet not quite? "treater" a pursuit not as out of a laboratory
?

yet where testsnot have been applied and one

placemen may say, "It is a fact that. . . ." Com-
if they ing out of an exploration of ideas, one w
The can only say, case"It seems to me . . ." or
problems "This is how it looks from my particu-
tity. lar perspective . . ." Inor "This is how
what I came to believe, is though I do not yet h
and know. . . ." liken
helpers The insistent question that I tried
setting, to hold before me as I read and thought
conflicts about "role" was this: What value does
with pr
role hold in general for casework theo-
held ry and, specifically, for actual casework e
to
analysis practice?
problem
tionship Among some of the basic questions in
examined within the framework of social casework are two that have long
role?1 concerned us all. One is, What is "so-
These?and a host of like questions cial" about social casework? The other
?led me to more intensive exploration stems from this: What is "social diag-
of role ideas and their possible useful- nosis"?
ness in casework. I have allowed myself In 1952, in an informal talk to a
this personalized and informal introduc- small group, I suggested that we "put
tion simply to indicate that what I am the social back in social casework."2
about to set down began and evolved in Had I been pressed at the time to say
everyday personal and professional ex- how to do this, I would have had to con-
perience. Certain perspectives and prob- fess that I had very little idea. All I
lems pushed for greater clarity, the con- knew was that I was struggling in an
cept of role offered a framework within inchoate way to find our special identi-
which to think, and thus I began to ty as social caseworkers. It was a
examine the ideas inherent in that con- struggle made all the more acute by a
cept. Without that professional motiva- growing recognition that much of what
tion and discontent and without a ma- I understood about people and their
trix of reflected-upon experience, it psychodynamics was understood by
several other helping professions; that
1 On the subject of social casework role as per- much of what I knew how to do to in-
ceived by the applicant to a social agency, see Helen
Harris Perlman, "Intake and Some Role Consid- 2" Tree Association on Problems of Child Wel-
erations," Social Casework, XLI (April, 1960), fare': Putting the Social Back in Social Casework,"
171-77. Child Welfare, XXXI (July, 1952), 8-9, 14.

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372 HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

trists?refer
fluence people's attitudes clients to social agencies, they
and behaviors
was known and being think
done of this source of help, not because they
by other
perceive that the person is "sick" or "desper-
helping professions; that
ate" counselors
or "bad," but because on
they perceive him
all sorts of problems were becoming
in a social sothose feelings
situation to which
numerous that half the population,
and actions are related. And it
in the final ap-
seemed, was counseling praisal
theas other
to whether or not the client has been
half?
helped, neither the client nor the worker nor
and that whether you were a "case-
the referral source ask whether all hazards to
worker," a "counselor," or ahave
adjustment "psycho-
been removed, or whether
therapist" depended more on your
all emotional fash-
conflicts have been ironed out.
ion sense than on your The sense
appraisal is of
ratherspe-
in terms of whether
the client'sone's
cial role. Yet, if one called ability to self
carry hisasocial roles and
"social caseworker," ithiswasnormal life-functions has been reasonably
imperative
restored or bettered. This says, then, that as
to be able to say what theone's particular
client and the community view it, the
professional focus or competence
person in interaction with areasome problematic
was, and why this was subsumed
aspect and
of his social reality is the focus of the
social caseworker's concerns.3
supported under "social work," I be-
came aware that many other social
If this proposal has validity?that the
caseworkers were likewise concerned
expectation from client and community
with this problem because the phrase is that the social caseworker's particu-
"putting the social back in social work" lar job is to help people who are experi-
became all but a professional shib-encing maladjustments in their social
boleth.
functioning, which is to say in their per-
My "quest for identity" and for theson-to-person, person-to-group, person-
place of "social" pushed me to setto-situation transactions?then it sug-
forth several propositions. Because I gests some rough boundary lines for so-
cannot yet state them better than I did cial casework's special knowledge and
then, I quote from a paper I presentedfunctions. These boundaries, while they
in 1952:
do not offer exclusivity to social case-
The problem which a client brings to a so-work, do demarcate where its particular
cial agency is perceived by him to be a prob-
competence and responsibility lie. They
lem in his social adjustment. It may be caused
demarcate a focus upon the human be-
by a breakdown of normal sources of social
sustenance, or it may be caused by the mal- ing in his current problematic function-
functioning of the person himself; but ing,
in in his troubled interaction between
either case the client sees and feels his prob-
himself and at least one other person,
lem in terms of social maladjustment because
it makes itself known to him as he plays out and/or between himself and the envi-
ronmental forces and instruments cre-
his social roles and engages in his social tasks.
Even when, as a disturbed personality, he ated is or controlled by other people. This
at the very heart of his problem, he rarely "field" of interaction is, by definition,
comes to the social agency saying, "I, my-
"social."
self, need help." He says, rather, "I need
help in relation to my unhappy marriage, my8 "Social Components of Casework Practice," in
bad child, my mother's interferences, my
Social Welfare Forum, 1953, pp. 130-31. (Italics
school work." He seeks a social agency be-
added.) Later, in "Psychotherapy and Counseling:
cause he assumes that it will relate to his Some Distinctions in Social Casework," Annals of
social difficulty, to remove it or provide him the New York Academy of Sciences, LXIII (No-
with some way of coping with it. When other vember 7, 1955), 386-95, these ideas were given
persons?laymen, teachers, doctors, psychia- some further development.

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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 373

Included in this proposal also was thebe given side-line attention or held in
idea of social role. I had equated it withabeyance.
social functioning, and, while I had The problem-to-be-worked in any
some uneasy question about whethergiven case at any given time may be so
they were fully synonymous, I did notself-evident, so spontaneously agreed
pursue this but turned instead to workupon between client and caseworker,
at what seemed to be a more perplex- that it needs no finding. It is there, cen-
ing problem: Was all of a client's so- tral and pressing. But there are many
cial functioning to be considered withinsituations in which a complex network
the caseworker's purview? If a client of problems confuses both caseworker
and client. Where to begin? Where to
functioned as a father, a husband, a fac-
tory worker, a union steward, a son-in- focus? Among all the problems here?
law, did all these areas of social inter-
Jeanie's health, Jackie's truancy, Mr.
action call for appraisal? Obviously theJames's alcoholism, Mrs. James's dis-
caseworker's focus would be upon the tracted housekeeping, the inadequate
ones in which problems were being en-income and worse-than-inadequate
management?which? Elsewhere I have
countered. But suppose problems per-
meated the person's functioning? suggested several criteria for priorities.5
For some time I did not see the con- The most telling of them is the criterion
nection between role and partialization of the client's own idea of what, at the
of the client's and caseworker's task. I moment, hurts him most, what he sees
worked, rather, on the problem of how as his uppermost problem ("upper-
to find diagnostic and treatment focus most," not "basic"), what he feels and
when, as the caseworker grows more thinks he wants help with. Almost al-
knowledgeable, he sees so much more ways in the social agency this will take
complexity in his cases. I came to the
the form of some impaired and frustrat-
idea of the "problem-to-be-worked,"4ing interaction between himself and an-
other person or persons, or between
which is simply a proposal that at any
given time in a case some particularhimself and some events or conditions.
problem (or problem cluster) must beThe problem may, indeed usually will,
in the center of the caseworker-clienthave many facets. But it is most likely
attention. During that hour or phase of
to be felt and expressed as a problem in
treatment, other problems may have to one major aspect of his social interac-
*I owe the useful phrase, "problem-to-be-tion. In this aspect he is unable to be
or
worked" (at any given time), to Mary Burns, pro- to do what is expected or required of
fessor of casework at the University of Michigan,
him (by others) or what he desires for
who coined it when, in a doctoral seminar, we
were struggling to define the difference between himself (and others). He is, in short,
what a caseworker may see and understand and unable to carry some vital social role.
what he does. Earlier I had called this partialized
problem the "unit for work" {Social Casework: AWhat this suggests, then, is that the
Problem-solving Process [Chicago: University problem-to-be-worked
of between a social
Chicago Press, 1957], p. 29). Later, I used this idea
caseworker and his client, different as it
of problem-to-be-worked as a way of delimiting
family diagnosis ("Family Diagnosis: Some Prob- will be for every case, will be a problem
of undertaking, carrying, or gaining
lems," in Casework Papers, 1958 [New York:
Family Service Association of America, 1958], pp.
5-17, and in Social Welfare Forum, 1958, pp. 5 See Social Casework: A Problem-solving Proc-
122-34). ess, pp.29-33.

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 374 HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

gratification in some numbers

necessaryof people in trou
social
relationships.
role. As I recognized this, it became clear
to me that "social functioning" is an
We are accustomed, in so
omnibus term covering work,the totalityto thinking
of that t
roles any person carrieswhich
at each
one of time
us relatesin
to another or
his life, and that the caseworker's
to a group of otherscon-
is the expression of
centrated efforts, both our diagnostic and
own personality. This is demonstra-
treatment, at any given time
bly so. Yet ourmust be
self-expressions in rela-
tion to others do not
upon the role in which difficulty is occur
feltin hit-or-
and manifest.6 miss, impulsive ways (except for the
emotionally
How is "the role in which blind), norisdo they occur
difficulty
in complete
felt and manifest" different spontaneity.
from, say, Our relation-
ships with
the problem that the client other people
is having and and to social
circumstances
feeling? Now it becomes necessaryoccur in
tocertain pat-
examine the concept of terned
role ways.
for That
its is, our individual,
con-
tent. personal ways of communicating are
for the most
Apparently social scientists part contained
have ar- within,
rived at no definition ofcolored
role by,that
and fashioned
suits by certain
over-all, socially
all tastes and contingencies.7 Sodetermined,
per- and or-
ganized patterns
haps a caseworker may dare his own of expected behavior.
These patterns
definitions, related to social of expected behavior?
casework's
and by "behavior"
purposes and developed out of casework we mean not only
what is done but also the accompany-
observation and experience with large
ing affects?are called "roles." Social
61 am indebted to two social work writers for
roles mark out what a person in a given
their signal contributions in casting social casework
social position and situation is expected
thinking into a framework of role concepts?Henry
Maas and Werner Boehm. The latter, in Vol. Xto
of be, to act like, and to feel like and
what the other(s) in relation to him
the "Social Work Curriculum Study," The Social
Casework Method in Social Work Education (New
are expected to be, to act like, and to
York: Council on Social Work Education, 1959),
suddenly identified for me the fact that "role" and feel like. Such prescriptions are very
"social functioning" are not synonymous, when general,
he to be sure, and, as Jessie
wrote, "Social functioning, then, is the sum of the Bernard has aptly put it, they usually
roles performed by a person," and when he went
on to say that one value in the role concept is that
allow for a good deal of "ad libbing"
within the script. But any observer of
it "permits identification of affected areas of social
?that is to say, it enables the case-
functioning" human behavior knows that the ways in
worker to differentiate between those areas of which
so- we function in our love and
cial functioning that are impaired and those in
which reasonable balance is being maintained. Seefriendship lives and in our work lives,
especially pp. 95-103. 7 For an account of a survey of the literature
Boehm's formulations, further developed, seem with reference to the role concept see Lionel J.
to derive from those of Maas, which were pub- Neiman and James W. Hughes, "The Problem of
lished earlier, but which I came on later. See "So-
the Concept of Role: A Re-Survey of the Litera-
cial Casework," in Concepts and Methods of Socialture," in Social Perspectives on Behavior, ed.
Work, ed. Walter Friedlander (New York: Pren- Herman D. Stein and Richard A. Cloward (Glen-
tice-Hall, 1958), chap. ii. coe, 111.: Free Press, 1958).
Perhaps this is the place to suggest that
The reader whothese
wishestwo
to study the role con-
reading references offer the most ready
cept?a real and com-
prerequisite, I believe, to its incor-
pact formulations of the possible relationships
poration into casework?willbe-find selected refer-
tween role concepts and casework, ences at the end of this article.

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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 375

our relationships with students, col- or inadequately defined, we may feel

leagues, celebrities, bus drivers, family and act in diffuse and inept ways.
members, doctors, are all determined When, on the other hand, we have the
not only by our personalities but also by knowledge, the capacity, and the mo-
our notions of what we and they are tivation to carry the requirements in-
supposed to be and do in relation to one herent in a role we have undertaken,
another. Our actions are heavily de- we are said to be, and we actually feel,
termined by our ideas of role require- "well-balanced"; we are "effective" in
ments or expectations. our social functioning. Freud, you re-
Our behavior in every social situa- member, when asked what marked the
tion may be said to be selected and mature man, said he must be able to
shaped by three dynamic factors: love and to work. In working we carry
1. Our needs and drives?what we our task-centered roles. In loving we
want, consciously or unconsciously our relationship-centered roles.
carry
In the combination of both are to be
2. Our notions and feelings about the
found all the facets of man's social
mutual obligations and expectations
functioning.
that have been invested (by custom,
I said before that "social function-
precept, and so on) in the particular
ing" is an omnibus term. It expresses
status and functions we carry
an idea of role clusters because in the
3. The compatibility or conflictcourse
be- of any day's social functioning
tween our conceptions of reciprocal
each of us carries a number of roles.
obligations and expectations and the
Some roles are in the ascendancy at a
conceptions of the other persongiven(s) time, and others are subordinate.
with whom we are in interaction
Their positions may be reversed, de-
The reader will be aware that our pending on time, place, and circum-
casework analyses of clients' behaviorstance. Some of these daily roles are
have tended to be more focused upon fairly mechanical, "outer-layer" opera-
(1) than upon (2) or (3). Items 2 and tions, easily put on and taken off. But
other
3 express the effect of role on behavior, roles we perform are deeply in-
vested with feeling and are embraced by
and it is these ideas, I submit, that need
our present careful consideration. For the personality because they meet or are
we know it to be true of ourselves that, expected to meet essential personal
when we find ourselves in a social situ- needs, because they provide or prom-
ation in which behavioral expectations ise gratifications, because they embody
(role) are not clear, we fumble in trial-emotionally and socially valued posi-
and-error adaptation. When we aretions. It is when one of these latter roles
clear what requirements are, but find is threatened or undermined that case-
work help is sought; it is with these
that they run counter to our drives and
needs, we feel conflicted. When our in-that the caseworker is concerned. Other
roles or aspects of the client's social
terpretation of requirements is different
from the interpretation made by thefunctioning may remain relatively in-
person with whom we interact, both tact, although psychological energies
conflict and confusion may result. Whenand maneuvering will be involved in
requirements themselves are ill-definedtheir management. The caseworker's

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 376 HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

diagnostic eye will lem

sweep
being examined,across and
what and how does
take account of those aspects
this person of does
do, what activities social
he
functioning in which carry
the person retains
out? (in his operations as a fa-
relative mastery. But his an
ther? a husband? diagnostic
employee?)
2. Role implies
concentration will be upon the interaction. No role
particu-
lar role(s), within total
can be carriedsocial
alone. (Even a func-
hermit's
tioning, in which thementalperson
world is probablyis peopled;
having at
trouble. This will give
least,boundary,
it is from others that he focus,
separates
and direction to the caseworker's
himself.) Every role involvesactiv-
one or
ity. more others. For the caseworker, this
But back to the question: What does means that any problem identified as
this idea of role hold that the idea of a role problem must be viewed as an
some uppermost problem does not pro- interaction situation. The role of
vide? Although the concept of role has mother includes the reciprocal one of
been defined in tens upon tens of ways, child; husband, of wife; student, of
the social scientists who have developed teacher; wage-earner, of employer or
and used the concept seem to be agreed boss or "company"; and so on. It sig-
that "social role" always implies at nals us to awareness that others than the
least four "constant elements." These individual client who presents himself
are the constant elements, the regulari- will be involved in causing or affecting
ties of content, that make it possible for his problem, involved in its solution or
us to view a person's role performance outcome, involved in its consequences.
in an organized, regularized way. Just Therefore it alerts us to the necessity
as the triad concept of id-ego-superego to consider those others, to consider
offers us a framework within which to those others not only in our diagnosis
view many variations of personality but in treatment. It forces us to view
structure and functioning, so that role the person not as an entity alone but
concept offers?or promises?a frame- always as involved in an interaction
work within which to view and examine process, and thus to consider whether
the many variations of social function- and how to deal with the other(s) in-
ing. volved.
When role is understood it regularly Family diagnosis with which case-
forces our attention upon these aspects work practitioners today are widely
of social behavior that are of primary concerned is probably not possible ex-
import to a caseworker: cept by use of role ideas. Yesterday's
1. Role implies that certain activities effort at family diagnosis was an addi-
and behaviors are requisite to any given tion of appraisals of individual per-
status. They may be required by com- sonalities which had an annoying way
mon agreements in a given culture or of refusing to result in a sum or conclu-
within given social units (community sion. Today's family diagnosis is an
or family unit) or they may be at- effort?not yet achieved for the most
tributed to the particular position by part-?to assess a configuration of
role participants. In any case, the fact forces, patterned not simply by the per-
for the caseworker regularly to ascer- sonalities involved but also by their
tain in any analysis of a client's role roles in relation to one another. One of
problem is: depending on the role prob- the major differences between yester-

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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 377

day's and today's family treatment is client who is experiencing some break-
that we are now reaching out to deal down or impairment in role perform-
not with all family members but with ance or who is violating role require-
those whose roles seem vital to the prob- ments finds himself at odds with what
lem-to-be-worked.8 he expects of himself and of others, or
3. Role implies that there are certain with what others expect of him.
(Csocial expectations" and social norms The caseworker will need first to
for these activities and interactions be- learn from the client what his ideas of
tween and among human beings. As the role norms are (as well as what he
soon as this is said, we face the persist- has invested in them emotionally). He
ent and valid arguments that for some will need to match those conceptions of
social behaviors there are no norms, norms against the range of what is given
that in a rapidly changing society acceptance or sanction in the communi-
norms are in flux, that class and culture ty. He may need to help his client come
subgroups in a society have differing to accept different norms, or to help his
norms, and so forth. These arguments clients, two or more, develop compro-
are all true, and all important to take mises among their standards for them-
into account. Yet if the caseworker is selves and for one another. But, except
to avoid paralysis and not himself be- in instances of legal violation, the case-
come a victim of normlessness, he mustworker surely will not plant his feet at
take measure of those norms and stand-one spot in the continuum of behavior
ards that are considered acceptable and and say to his client, "There is only this
desirable by the community which his one way to act as a mother, or wife, or
agency, and therefore he, represents.child." Nor, hopefully, would he com-
To do this is not as stultifying or asmit the opposite folly and say in effect,
regimenting as we sometimes pretend it "Since nobody has codified exactly
is. First of all, a norm or standard ofwhat a mother should or should not be
human behavior is not a sharply definedand do [heaven help us if this were to
?to do or to
point. It represents, rather, a range of happen], I will help you"
"usualness," a sketched model. Withinbe what? to overcome discomfort in re-
such a range or model many variations lation to what?
and interpretations of behavior are so- The fact is that social expectations
cially acceptable. "Good social func-and social norms are carried by every-
tioning" and "good role performance"one in a society. The role concept calls
can be assessed only on a continuumthis fact to our attention and does not
allow us to overlook it or forget it. It
from what seems socially constructive
to what seems socially acceptable tosays that what we do, how we and our
what seems or is unacceptable; fromclients behave in any given situation, is
what seems personally satisfying anddetermined not alone by our uncon-
growth-producing to what seems per-scious drives and needs, not only by
sonally frustrating or destructive. The that organization of feelings and
8 For an elaboration of this point see Perlman, stances we call "personality," but also
"Family Diagnosis: Some Problems," op. cit., and by our conscious and half-conscious
"Family Diagnosis in Cases of Illness and Disabil-conceptions of what is called for, what
ity," in Family Centered Social Work in Illness
and Disability (Monograph IV [New York: Na-is expected from us by the other(s) in
tional Association of Social Workers, 1961]). a given social situation, and what we

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378 HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

have a right to expect culture in return. Thus

to culture. They may also differ
the idea implicit in role fromexpectations
person to person in the same
places upon the caseworker small familyseveral
unit. Therefore, treat-
necessities: to learn from his client ment of a problem of role conflict or
what he sees (his perceptions) as roleap- violation requires that the case-
propriate behavior between the oneworker
and start where the client is?with
his role partner; to learn from him the
whatclient's own definitions of what his
he believes (his emotion-laden concep-
role requires of him and ought to pro-
tion) each is supposed to be or do;vide
tofor him, then with the "other's"
ask himself (the caseworker) whether
ideas of his expectations of himself and
the expectations invested in the his "partner" in terms of giving and
role
getting. Then the caseworker takes
are realistic and valid (if the problem
counsel with himself to recognize his
is confined to interpersonal conflict);
own subjective biases about what peo-
or, when the problem is one of role-vio-
lation, a community concern, to ple at-ought to be and do in given roles
tempt to assess it in the light of and
cur-to separate these, if necessary,
from what current knowledge and cur-
rent knowledge and current social sanc-
tions; and then to try to so influencesanctions hold to be the norm-
rent
the feelings and perceptions and expec-range, the latitude of norms. Of course
tations of the client that he modifies there may be conflicts here. The com-
his expectations of himself and othersmunity says, "The unmarried mother
with consequent better adaptation. should be punished"; the casework
This last paragraph carries too heavy agency says, "She should be understood
a burden within its narrow scope. What and helped." Only a very simple culture
the caseworker must do to negotiate is free of such conflicts about role ex-
between role partners on their mutualpectations. But the caseworker who
expectations, or between a role violator starts from what his client sees and
and societal requirements, is material wants, and who works to bring that
literally to fill a book. It is the content client into more harmonious relation-
of casework treatment. I mention it ship with what others require or expect,
here chiefly to take note of a comment will not readily "impose" his values,
that seems common among caseworkers "middle-class" or other.
today to the effect that the caseworker Social expectations and norms and
"must not impose his middle-class val-
personalized expectations of give and
ue system upon his client." As the com-
get, effort and reward, action and re-
ment is usually made, it is "middle-
sponse, obligation and reciprocation?
class values" that are deplored. It
all are charged with emotion. The con-
seems to me it should be "impose" that
cept of role, then, carries a fourth con-
is deplored. To impose and to influence
stant implication:
are two very different actions, with very
different consequences for the individ- 4. Role implies that certain emo-
tional values or sentiments tend to be
ual. The fact that must be given atten-
injected, in any human activities that
tion is, I believe, that expectations of
involve
called-for or required behavior are held given-and-taken relationships
with others, either into the activities
by everyone who carries a role in rela-
tion to another. Such expectations do themselves or into the reciprocal rela-
tionships, or both.
not differ only from class to class, from
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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 379

"Ought," "supposed to," "must,"ers might "just naturally" carry out

"good," "bad," "wise," "stupid," these behaviors, every mother in our so-
"kind," "mean" ?these are only a few ciety knows that she is "supposed" to do
of the emotionally charged value judg- these things?that they are inherent
ments that express people's feelings in her role as mother of an infant. Then,
about how they themselves and othersif the baby violates his role?if, for ex-
carry their role tasks and relationships.ample, he refuses the breast or gives no
These value judgments and sentimentsindication at the prescribed time that
are of two major sorts: First, there are he recognizes, responds to, "loves" his
those that are generally agreed upon inmother?a whole series of small rup-
a culture at large. (A mother who neg- tures begin to occur in the emotional
lects her child is "bad" ?we deplore and behavioral interaction between
her; a man is "supposed to" support mother and child. All the baby books
his family?we are indignant when he that mothers and fathers and social
does not.) These are cultural attitudes
workers peruse with varying degrees of
and feelings which come attached to intensity are, in effect, codifications of
the evolving roles of infant and child
role expectations generally. The second
sort of sentiment and emotion in role and of the reciprocal behavior expecta-
performance is the more personalizedtions of parents.
kind?the feelings which each of us The concept of the id?that combina-
individually, within the larger culture, tion of those life-forces that push and
invests in certain roles. It is with these pull us in certain ways and directions
that the caseworker is particularly con-?is a concept that actually depends
cerned. for its full meaning upon a recognition
Roles are carried and experienced by of the social forces and conventions that
individual personalities. All or any as-require us to move in certain ways and
pects of personality may be involved indirections. The concept of superego is
an idea of incorporated social expecta-
the performance of vital roles. So the
role concept carries the constant re-tions that are harmonious with or in
minder that feelings, attitudes, person-conflict with the id's demands, or are in
ality itself, are the product4n-processconflict with or harmonious with any
of old and current experiences of social-given day's social role demands or so-
ly required behavior (roles) and so-cial role rewards. The concept of ego is
cially provided rewards and frustra-an idea of a negotiating function be-
tions (role valuations). This is the rec-tween the person's inner drives and
ognition essential to our seeing that outer demands and opportunities. Per-
"role" is not something superficial orception is the ego's first function; it is
external to the personality. Rather, the function upon which all adaptation
from infancy, roles shape personalityand negotiation depend. Ability to
and are shaped in turn in an interac-carry a role depends on the ego's clear
tion process between our outer andperception of it. Turn this around?
inner realities. From the beginning, as one must, because an interaction
certain behavior and reactions are "ex- process is in operation here, too?and
pected" from the infant in response to it is plain to see that role demands may
the feeding, cleaning, cuddling activities be so stressful or role definitions so
prescribed for the mother. I say "pre- ambiguous that a person's perception
scribed" because, although most moth-will be strained and dimmed and, con-
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380 HELEN HARRIS PERLMAN

sequently, the ego may retreat

person's difficulty behind
in taking on or in
defense-works. We know the some
carrying relation
role?new of or familiar?
seems to me to be the locus
the ego-ideal to the personality's quest for social
for self-image and goals. How
casework's success-
activities. This role may be
ful that quest, how realistic
that of spouse or theparentego-
or student or
ideal, how appropriate patient the goal?all
or applicant to a social agency
stem from the individual's past
or probationer?and the and
role problem-
to-be-worked
present role experiences, his masterymay shift fromor time to
failure in the various time
emotion-charged
in the life of a case. Our diagnos-
tic concerninfancy
roles he has carried from is to understandon.those fac-
tors
All this is to postulate that interwoven
the cause or are associated with
relationship betweenthat
the growth
difficulty and
and those that may be
functioning of the personality and
mobilized to cope with the
it, This will re-
successful or thwarted carrying
quire of
our closer study andso-
understand-
cial roles. Social roles are at once the ing of the dynamics of social interaction
vehicles and the molders of personali- and of the psychology of the social.
ty, the means through which personality Although the role concept is not fully
is expressed and also by which it is
developed, it promises to alert and sen-
shaped. sitize us to these four aspects of our
The implications for casework are client's problems in social functioning:
several-fold: if important roles are that in the role in which he is experi-
charged with feeling, then our case- encing crisis or chronic trouble there are
work eyes and hands must take full ac- certain social activities and tasks in-
count of the emotional and psychologi- volved; that he carries these in social
cal imports of failures or damage in the interaction with others; that between
everyday, humdrum role problems of him and others there are psychologically
our clients. We need to attend more significant and socially determined
closely than has been our wont to "thenorms and expectations as to the way
social determinants of behavior." We he and the other(s) perform their
will need to understand more fully howtasks; that personal attitudes and vital
unconscious and half-conscious drives feelings are invested in these social
and wants not only affect how we carrytasks, in the role interaction, and in
a given role but may, in turn, be af-
the expectations of outcome. Within
fected by the gratifications or frustra-these as yet crudely identified parts of
tions we harvest in carrying our vitalthe role concept there lie, I believe,
roles. Consequently, our caseworkmany further implications for case-
treatment content, focus, and goals maywork's social understanding and action,
undergo some shifts. But this goes be- and some new pathways open to further
yond the scope of this paper. explorations in casework diagnosis and
treatment.9
As the concept of social role hasUniversity of Chicago
begun to open up for me, I have come to Received August 10,1961
some fuller understanding of the mean-
9 A second article, entitled, "The Role Concept
ing of "social" in social casework andand Social Casework: Some Explorations, II: What
to some firmer sense of the professionalIs Social Diagnosis?" will appear in the March,
identity of the social caseworker. The
1962, Social Service Review.

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 THE ROLE CONCEPT AND SOCIAL CASEWORK: SOME EXPLORATIONS 381

READING REFERENCES

These references are selected from among the many writings on role be-
cause they offer relatively ready entry to the grasp of the role concept and
its varied implications. Footnote references in the above article are not
repeated in this listing.

1. Ackerman, Nathan W. "'Social 7.

Role'
Linton, Ralph. "Concepts of Role and
and Total Personality," American Journal Status," in Readings in Social Psychology,
of Orthopsychiatry, XXI (January, 1951), ed. Theodore M. Newcomb and Eugene
1-17, or L. Hartley. New York: Henry Holt ft
2. ?. "Social Role and Personality," in Co., 1947.
Psycho dynamics of Family Life, chap. iv. 8. Pollak, Otto. Integrating Sociological
New York: Basic Books, 1958. and Psychoanalytic Concepts. New York:
3. Bernard, Jessie S. Social Problems at Russell Sage Foundation, 1956. Pp. 149-
Midcentury. New York: Dryden Press, 52.
1957. 9. Sarbin, Theodore R. "Role Theory," in
4. Cottrell, Leonard S., Jr. "The Adjust- Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. W.
ment of the Individual to His Age and Sex Gardner Lindzey, II, 223-55. New York:
Roles," American Sociological Review, VII Addison-Wesley, 1954.
(October, 1942), 617-20. Also in Read- 10. Spiegel, John P., M.D. "The Resolution
ings in Social Psychology, ed. Theodore
of Role Conflict within the Family," Psy-
M. Newcomb and Eugene L. Hartley.
chiatry: Journal for the Study of Inter-
New York: Henry Holt ft Co., 1947.
5. Group for the Advancement of Psy- personal Processes, XX (February, 1957),
1-16.
chiatry. Integration and Conflict in Fam-
ily Behavior. Report No. 27. New York, 11. ?. "Some Cultural Aspects of Trans-
1954. ference and Countertransference," in In-
6. Leighton, Alexander H., M.D. My dividual and Familial Dynamics, ed. Jules
Name Is Legion. New York: Basic Books, Masserman. New York: Grune & Strat-
1959. See references to role in Index. ton, 1959.

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