CAMPBELL

BIOLOGY TENTH
EDITION

Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson

Lecture 10
(based on Chapter 27)

Prokaryotes
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CELLS?
Bacteria, archaea Protists, fungi,
animals, and plants
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

 Basic features of all cells

 Plasma membrane
 Semifluid substance called cytosol
 Chromosomes (carry genes)
 Ribosomes (make proteins)
Fig. 6-6
A prokaryotic cell

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane

Bacterial Cell wall

chromosome
Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium
Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
OUTSIDE

INSIDE
Internal Organization and DNA

a)Prokaryotic cells usually lack complex compartmentalization, some

prokaryotes do have specialized membranes that perform
metabolic functions
b)The prokaryotic genome has less DNA than the eukaryotic
genome. Most of the genome consists of a circular chromosome
Internal Organization and DNA

a)The chromosome is not surrounded by a membrane; it is located in

the nucleoid region
b)Some species of bacteria also have smaller rings of DNA called
plasmids
c) There are some differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in
DNA replication, transcription, and translation. This allow people to
use some antibiotics to inhibit bacterial growth without harming
themselves
Reproduction and Adaptation

 Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission

 And can divide every 1–3 hours
 Rapid reproduction and horizontal gene transfer
 Facilitate the evolution of prokaryotes to changing environments

BINARY FISION
 Many prokaryotes form endospores
 Which can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries

Endospore

0.3 m
Major nutritional modes in prokaryotes

LIGHT ANDCHEMCALS

DIFF
Concept 27.3: Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations
have evolved in prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes can be categorized by how they obtain energy and
carbon
 Phototrophs obtain energy from light
 Chemotrophs obtain energy from chemicals
 Autotrophs require CO2 as a carbon source
 Heterotrophs require an organic nutrient to make organic compounds
The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
DEPEND

 Prokaryotic metabolism varies with respect to O2

 Obligate aerobes require O2 for cellular respiration
 Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or
anaerobic respiration
 Facultative anaerobes can survive with or without O2
MANAGE
Archaea

 Archaea share certain traits with bacteria and other traits with
eukaryotes
 Some archaea live in extreme environments and are called extremophiles
 Extreme halophiles live in highly saline environments
 Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments

BEAR ALOT OF HEAT =TACK POLYMARESE

Extreme halophiles

 Live in high saline environments

Extreme thermophiles

 Thrive in very hot environments

Concept 27.5: Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere

 Prokaryotes are so important that if they were to disappear the

prospects for any other life surviving would be dim
Chemical Recycling MOST IMPORTANT ROLE

 Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of chemical elements

between the living and nonliving components of ecosystems
 Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers,
breaking down dead organisms and waste products
 Prokaryotes can sometimes increase the availability of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium for plant growth
Examples

 Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers

 Breaking down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products

 Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes
 Add usable nitrogen to the environment
nitrogen cycle is important
Ecological Interactions

 Symbiosis is an ecological relationship in which two species live in

close contact: a larger host and smaller symbiont
 Prokaryotes often form symbiotic relationships with larger organisms
Relationships between organisms and their hosts

 Mutualism, both symbiotic organisms benefit

 Commensalism, one organism benefits while neither harming nor
helping the other in any significant way
the other one harming

 Parasitism, an organism called a parasite harms but does not kill

its host. Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens
Concept 27.6: Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful
impacts on humans
 Some prokaryotes are human pathogens, but others have positive
interactions with humans
Mutualistic Bacteria

 Human intestines are home to about 500–1,000 species of bacteria

 Many of these are mutualists and break down food that is
undigested by our intestines
Pathogenic Bacteria

 Bacteria cause about half of all human diseases

 Some bacterial diseases are transmitted by other species: For
example, Lyme disease is caused by a bacterium
 Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by releasing
exotoxins or endotoxins
Pathogenic Bacteria

 Exotoxins are secreted and cause disease even if the prokaryotes that produce
them are not present
 Endotoxins are released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology

 Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important advances in

DNA technology
 Bacteria can now be used to make natural plastics
 Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation, the use of
organisms to remove pollutants from the environment
 Bacteria can be engineered to produce vitamins, antibiotics, and
hormones
Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere

a) Live in places too acidic, salty, cold, or hot for most other organisms
b) There are more in a handful of fertile soil than the number of people who
have ever lived
c) Prokaryotes are divided into two domains: bacteria and archaea
Methanogens

like methane

a) Are archaean microorganisms that produce methane (CH4) as a

metabolic by-product in anaerobic conditions. They get poisoned by O2.
b) Found in wetlands (e.g. swamps)
c) Also in digestive tract of ruminant animals (e.g. cows, sheep, goats)
Concept 27.1: Structural and functional adaptations contribute to
prokaryotic success

a) Earth’s first organisms were likely prokaryotes

b) Most prokaryotes are unicellular, some species form colonies
c) Most prokaryotic cells are 0.5–5 µm, much smaller than the 10–100 µm
of many eukaryotic cells
The three most common shapes are spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals

1 µm
1 µm

3 µm
(a) Spherical (b) Rod-shaped (c) Spiral
Cell-Surface Structures
to classify them :

a) Nearly all prokaryotic cells have a cell wall for maintaining shape and
protecting the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment
b) Eukaryote cell walls are made of cellulose or chitin
c) Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a network of sugar polymers cross-
linked by polypeptides
d) Archaea contain polysaccharides and proteins but lack peptidoglycan
Gram staining

a)A technique used to classify bacteria according to cell walls

b)Many antibiotics target peptidoglycan and damage bacterial cell
walls
 a)Scientists can classify many bacterial species into
two groups based on cell wall composition, Gram-
positive and Gram-negative

Lipopolysaccharide

Outer
Peptidoglycan membrane
Cell wall Cell wall
layer Peptidoglycan
layer
Plasma membrane Plasma membrane

Protein Protein

Gram- Gram-
positive negative
bacteria bacteria

(a) Gram-positive. Gram-positive bacteria have
a cell wall with a large amount of peptidoglycan
that traps the violet dye in the cytoplasm. The
alcohol rinse does not remove the violet dye,
which masks the added red dye.
20 m
(b) Gram-negative. Gram-negative bacteria have less
peptidoglycan, and it is located in a layer between the
plasma membrane and an outer membrane. The
violet dye is easily rinsed from the cytoplasm, and the
cell appears pink or red after the red dye is added.
Gram-positive bacteria (a) Gram-positive bacteria

Have simpler walls with a

large amount of
peptidoglycan Peptido-
Cell
glycan
wall
layer
Plasma
membrane

Peptidoglycan traps crystal violet,

which masks the safranin dye.
Gram-negative bacteria
(b) Gram-negative
bacteria

Have less peptidoglycan Carbohydrate portion

of lipopolysaccharide
and an outer membrane
that can be toxic
Outer
Cell membrane
wall Peptido-
glycan layer
Plasma membrane

Crystal violet is easily rinsed away, revealing

the red safranin dye.
Figure 27.3c

Gram-positive Gram-negative
bacteria bacteria

10 µm
A polysaccharide or protein layer called a capsule covers
many prokaryotes
Bacterial
Bacterial capsule
cell wall

Tonsil
cell

200 nm
Fimbriae

Some prokaryotes have Fimbriae

fimbriae, which allow
them to stick to their
substrate or other
individuals in a colony

1 µm
 communication

Pili are longer than fimbriae and allow

prokaryotes to exchange DNA
Antibiotic resistance

a) When bacteria with antibiotic resistance die, they break apart and
release their DNA to the surroundings.
b) Other bacteria can then incorporate this released DNA, develop the
antibiotic resistance and transfer it to own daughter cells.
c) Nearly 2 million people are affected by antibiotic-resistant bacteria each
year and at least 23,000 deaths have occurred in the US alone.
Horizontal gene transfer (DNA uptake)

Bacteria pili to harpoon pieces of DNA and retract it back to itself to

incorporate into it’s own genomes. A process called horizontal gene
transfer take the genetic material- if its good he will take it
 A prokaryotic cell

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane

Bacterial Cell wall

chromosome
Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium
Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)

Most motile bacteria propel themselves by flagella scattered about the surface or
concentrated at one or both ends
Figure 27.7

Flagellum

Filament 20 nm

Hook
Cell wall Motor

Plasma Peptidoglycan
membrane Rod layer
Cilia and Flagella

 Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotors

appendages of some cells
 Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
 A flagellum undulates, it has snakelike motion.
 Cilia have a back and forth motion.
Direction of organism’s movement

Power stroke Recovery stroke

(b) Motion of cilia

15 µm
Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure:

 A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane

 A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
 A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of
a cilium or flagellum
 Fig. 6-24
Outer microtubule
0.1 µm Plasma
doublet
membrane
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke

no details
Protein cross-
Microtubules linking outer
doublets microtubules are orgenised
(b) Cross section of
Plasma cilium
membrane
Basal body

0.5 µm
(a) Longitudinal 0.1 µm
section of cilium Triplet

(c) Cross section of basal body

How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia:

 Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer

microtubules
 Protein cross-links limit sliding
 Forces exerted by dynein arms cause microtubule doublets to curve,
bending the cilium or flagellum
Fig. 6-25a

Microtubule
doublets ATP

Dynein
protein
(a) Effect of unrestrained dynein movement
Fig. 6-25b

ATP
Cross-linking proteins
inside outer doublets

Anchorage
in cell

(b) Effect of cross-linking proteins

1 3
2 cilia

(c) Wavelike motion