Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬

Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud ‫جامعة االمام محمد بن سعود االسالمية‬

Islamic University (IMSIU) ‫كلية العلوم‬
College of Science ‫قسم االحياء‬
Department of Biology

Answer the following questions .

Q1.The principles of Zoological nomenclature should fulfill the three
basic requirements, identify these requirements (1Mark)
1. Principle of Uniqueness : This principle states that the first validly
published name for a taxon (a group of organisms) is the correct and
accepted name. It ensures that each taxon has a unique and stable
name, avoiding confusion and promoting stability in scientific
communication. According to the Principle of Priority, the oldest
available valid name takes precedence over later names, provided it
satisfies other requirements
- Uniqueness: The name of a taxon is like the index number of a
file. Uniqueness has
been achieved by adopting binominal nomenclature, as proposed by
Linnaeus.
2. Principle of Universality: The Principle of Universality emphasizes that
the rules of zoological nomenclature should be applicable universally. It
means that the same rules and principles should be followed by all
zoologists worldwide, irrespective of their geographic location or
affiliation. This principle facilitates global consistency and facilitates
effective communication and understanding among scientists.
- Universality: Scientific names should be known to all and be universally
accepted zoologists have adopted by international agreement a single
language, Latin, which is a dead language and therefore does not evolve
and is acceptable to everybody.
3. Principle of Stability: The Principle of Stability aims to minimize
unnecessary changes to established names and taxonomic classifications. It
states that once a name has been established and widely accepted, it should
be retained unless there is a compelling reason for change, such as the
discovery of new information that invalidates the previous name or
classification. Stability reduces confusion and allows for the accumulation
and retrieval of scientific knowledge over time.
- Stability: Zoological names would lose their utility if they were changed
frequently and arbitrarily.
Note These three requirements—Principle of Priority, Principle of
Universality, and Principle of Stability—play a crucial role in maintaining
consistency, clarity, and stability in the naming and classification of
animals within the field of zoology
Q2 Mention four salient features of the International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature (1Mark)
1. Priority of Names: The ICZN establishes the principle of priority,
which means that the oldest validly published name for a taxon is
considered the correct and accepted name. It provides rules for
determining priority when multiple names have been proposed for
the same taxon, ensuring stability and consistency in the naming of
animals.
2. Principle of Homonymy: The ICZN addresses the issue of
homonymy, which occurs when two or more names within the same
rank have the same spelling or sound. The Code provides rules for
resolving homonymy and ensures that each taxon has a unique and
distinct name
3. Principle of Type Specimens: The ICZN emphasizes the importance
of type specimens in the process of naming and defining taxa. It
establishes rules for designing and preserving type specimens, which
are individual specimens or illustrations that serve as a reference for
a taxon. Type specimens provide a standard for comparing and
identifying organisms, ensuring stability and clarity in taxonomic
research
 4. Amendments and Revisions: The ICZN is a living document that can
be amended and revised to accommodate new scientific discoveries
and advancements. The Code includes provisions for making
changes and updates to the rules, allowing adjustments in
nomenclature as new information becomes available. This feature
ensures that the ICZN remains relevant and adaptable to the evolving
field of zoological taxonomy

1/ Names must either be Latin or Latinized.

2/ Names of taxa higher than species should be uninominal.
3/ Name of a species is binominal.
4/ Name of a subspecies is a trinomen.
5/ Name of a subgenus is placed in parenthesis between genus and
species, e.g. Xorides (Gonophonus) nigrus.
6/ Family name should end in DAE , e.g. Tipulidae.
NOTE These four salient features of the ICZN contribute to the stability,
clarity, and consistency of zoological nomenclature, enabling effective
communication and understanding among scientists working in the field of
zoology.

Q1 compare between the following terms.

1- Chemotaxonomy and Molecular taxonomy (0.5 Mark)

Chemotaxonomy:

- Definition: Chemotaxonomy is a branch of taxonomy that involves the

classification and identification of organisms based on their chemical
composition, particularly the analysis of secondary metabolites.
 - Focus: Chemotaxonomy emphasizes the use of chemical markers, such as
alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other bioactive compounds, to infer
relationships and classify organisms.

- Methods: Chemotaxonomy employs various techniques, including

chromatography, spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry, to isolate, identify, and
analyze chemical compounds present in organisms.

- Applications: Chemotaxonomy has been widely used in the classification of

plants, fungi, and some groups of microorganisms. It helps in identifying
relationships between taxa based on shared or unique chemical profiles.

Molecular Taxonomy:

- Definition: Molecular taxonomy is a branch of taxonomy that uses molecular data,

such as DNA sequences, to determine evolutionary relationships and classify
organisms.

- Focus: Molecular taxonomy focuses on comparing and analyzing genetic material,

primarily DNA sequences, to understand the evolutionary relationships between
different organisms.

- Methods: Molecular taxonomy utilizes techniques such as DNA sequencing, PCR

(polymerase chain reaction), and bioinformatics tools to analyze and compare genetic
data.

- Applications: Molecular taxonomy has revolutionized the field of taxonomy by

providing more accurate and precise methods for species identification, classification,
and phylogenetic analysis. It has been extensively used across various branches of
biology, including plants, animals, and microorganisms

Comparison:

1. Basis: Chemotaxonomy is based on the analysis of chemical compounds, while

molecular taxonomy is based on the analysis of genetic material (DNA sequences).

2. Data Type: Chemotaxonomy focuses on chemical data, whereas molecular

taxonomy focuses on molecular data (DNA sequences).

3. Scope: Chemotaxonomy is applicable to organisms that possess distinctive

chemical characteristics, such as plants, fungi, and certain microorganisms.
Molecular taxonomy can be applied to a wide range of organisms, including all
domains of life.
4. Precision: Molecular taxonomy generally provides a higher level of precision and
resolution in determining evolutionary relationships due to the direct analysis of
genetic data, whereas chemotaxonomy may be more limited in its ability to resolve
complex relationships.

5. Complementary Techniques: Chemotaxonomy and molecular taxonomy are not

mutually exclusive and can be used in conjunction with each other. Combined
approaches can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary
relationships and classification of organisms.

2- Homology and Analogy (0.5 Mark)

Homology:
- Definition: Homology refers to the similarity between different organisms or
structures that is derived from a common ancestor. Homologous traits have a
shared evolutionary origin, even if they may have different functions in
different organisms.
- Basis: Homology is based on the principle of common descent, meaning that
organisms share a common ancestor and inherited certain traits from that
ancestor.

- Example: The forelimbs of mammals, such as humans, bats, and whales, are
considered homologous structures because they share a common skeletal pattern
despite being adapted for different functions (e.g., flying, swimming, or
grasping).

Analogy:

Definition: Analogy, also known as convergent evolution, refers to the similarity

between different organisms or structures that is not due to a shared evolutionary
history, but rather due to independent adaptations to similar environmental
conditions or selective pressures.

- Basis: Analogy is based on the principle of convergent evolution, where

different organisms independently evolve similar traits or structures in response
to similar environmental challenges.

Example: The wings of birds and insects are considered analogous structures
because they have evolved independently through convergent evolution to
perform the function of flight, despite having different anatomical structures and
evolutionary origins.
Comparison:

1. Evolutionary Relationship: Homology indicates a shared evolutionary

relationship between organisms or structures, whereas analogy does not imply a
shared ancestry.

2. Common Ancestor: Homologous traits can be traced back to a common

ancestor, while analogous traits arise independently in different lineages.

3. Genetic Basis: Homology often involves similar genetic sequences or

developmental pathways, while analogy typically arises from different genetic
mechanisms and pathways.

4. Structural Similarity: Homologous structures often share similar structural

patterns, whereas analogous structures may have different underlying anatomical
structures.

5. Functional Similarity: Homologous structures may have different functions in

different organisms, while analogous structures often have similar functions due
to convergent adaptations.

In summary, homology and analogy represent different types of similarities

between organisms. Homology indicates shared evolutionary ancestry, while
analogy represents convergent evolution and independent adaptations.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for studying evolutionary relationships
and the functional adaptations of organisms.

3- Asymmetrical and Bilateral Symmetric animals with example for each

(0.5 Mark).

Asymmetrical:

- Definition: Asymmetry refers to the absence of any specific pattern or symmetry

in an organism's body structure. It means that the organism lacks any plane of
symmetry, resulting in an irregular or random body shape.

- Characteristics: Asymmetrical animals have uneven body shapes, with no

distinct left-right symmetry. Their body parts are not arranged in a consistent or
predictable manner.

- Example: A notable example of an asymmetrical animal is the sponge (phylum

Porifera). Sponges lack any defined symmetry, and their body structure consists
of irregularly arranged pores and channels.

Bilateral Symmetry:
- Definition: Bilateral symmetry is a type of symmetry characterized by the
division of an organism's body into two mirrored halves along a sagittal plane.
The left and right sides of the body are generally similar or mirror images of each
other.

- Characteristics: Bilaterally symmetric animals have a distinct right-left

symmetry. Their body is often elongated along the anterior-posterior axis, and
they typically exhibit cephalization (the concentration of sensory organs and
nervous tissue in the head region).

- Example: An example of a bilaterally symmetric animal is the human (Homo

sapiens). Humans have a well-defined bilateral body plan, with distinct left and
right sides that are generally mirror images of each other.

Comparison:

1. Body Shape: Asymmetrical animals have irregular and unpredictable body

shapes, while bilaterally symmetric animals have a more streamlined and
elongated body shape.

2. Plane of Symmetry: Asymmetrical animals lack any plane of symmetry,

whereas bilaterally symmetric animals have a single plane of symmetry dividing
the body into two equal halves.

3. Internal Organization: Asymmetrical animals may exhibit internal complexity

but lack a consistent pattern, while bilaterally symmetric animals often have
distinct internal organization, with organs and systems arranged in a consistent
manner.

4. Evolutionary Advantage: Bilateral symmetry is associated with cephalization

and the development of a head region, which allows for better mobility, sensory
perception, and directed movement. Asymmetry does not offer the same
advantages in terms of directional movement or sensory focus.

In summary, asymmetrical animals lack any specific pattern or symmetry in their

body structure, while bilaterally symmetric animals have a distinct left-right
symmetry. Examples of asymmetrical animals include sponges, while humans
serve as examples of bilaterally symmetric animals.

4- Pseudocoelomate and Acoelomate animals with example for each (0.5

Mark).
Pseudocoelomate:

- Definition: Pseudocoelomate animals have a body cavity called a

pseudocoelom, which is a fluid-filled space that lies between the mesoderm and
endoderm germ layers. The pseudocoelom is not completely lined by mesoderm.

- Characteristics: Pseudocoelomate animals have organs and systems that are

suspended in the pseudocoelom and are surrounded by a mesodermal layer on the
outer side. However, the inner side of the pseudocoelom is lined by endodermal
tissue.

- Example: A well-known example of a pseudocoelomate animal is the

roundworm (phylum Nematoda). Roundworms have a pseudocoelom that allows
for internal organ movement and serves various functions such as hydrostatic
support and circulation of nutrients.

Acoelomate:

- Definition: Acoelomate animals lack a body cavity between the germ layers.
Instead, their body is solid, with the space between the outer body wall and the
digestive cavity filled with mesenchyme.

- Characteristics: Acoelomate animals lack a fluid-filled cavity that separates the

body wall from the digestive tract. Their organs and systems are embedded
directly in the solid tissue of the body.

- Example: A notable example of an acoelomate animal is the flatworm (phylum

Platyhelminthes). Flatworms lack a body cavity and have a solid body structure.
They possess a simple digestive cavity with organs directly embedded in the
mesenchyme.

Comparison:
1. Body Cavity: Pseudocoelomate animals have a fluid-filled pseudocoelom
between the mesoderm and endoderm germ layers, while acoelomate animals
lack a body cavity altogether.
2. Organ Placement: In pseudocoelomates, organs are suspended in the
pseudocoelom and are surrounded by a mesodermal layer on the outer side. In
acoelomates, organs are embedded directly in the solid tissue of the body.
3. Mesoderm Lining: Pseudocoelomates have a partial mesoderm lining the
outer side of the pseudocoelom, while acoelomates lack a mesoderm lining.
 4. Examples: Roundworms (Nematoda) are examples of pseudocoelomate
animals, while flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are examples of acoelomate
animals.

In summary, pseudocoelomate animals have a fluid-filled pseudocoelom

between the germ layers, with organs suspended within it. Acoelomate
animals lack a body cavity and have organs embedded directly in the solid
body tissue. Roundworms are pseudocoelomates, and flatworms are
acoelomates

Q4- Through your study of taxonomy of zoology course define the following
terms.

1- Metamerism (0.25 Marks)

Or segmentation: serial repetition of similar body segments (metameres) along
longitudinal axis.

2- Protostome animals (0.25 Marks)

Mouth first: 1) mouth forms, then anus 2) spiral cleavage 3) coelom forms by splitting 4)
mosaic embryo Two groups: Ecdysozoa—animals that molt & Lophotrochozoa—
lampshells (phylum Brachiopoda), snails (phylum Mollusca), and worms (phylum Annelida)
animals are a major group of animals characterized by a particular pattern of
embryonic development called protostomy. This developmental pattern is distinct from that of deuterostome
animals, which include vertebrates (such as mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish) and some invertebrates (such as sea
stars and sea urchins).In protostomes, the early embryonic development involves spiral cleavage, where the cells
divide in a spiral pattern. During gastrulation, a process in which the embryo forms distinct tissue layers, the first
opening that develops becomes the mouth. This is in contrast to deuterostomes, where the first opening becomes
the anus, and the mouth develops later.Protostomes encompass a diverse range of invertebrate animals and are
divided into two main groups: Ecdysozoa and Lophotrochozoa.

1. Ecdysozoa: This group includes animals that undergo growth by molting or shedding their exoskeletons. The
most well-known phylum within Ecdysozoa is Arthropoda, which comprises insects, spiders, crustaceans, and
other jointed-legged animals. Other phyla within Ecdysozoa include Nematoda (roundworms) and Tardigrada
(water bears).

2. Lophotrochozoa: This group includes a wide variety of animals that possess either a lophophore or a
trochophore larval stage. Lophophore is a specialized feeding structure, while the trochophore larva is a distinctive
larval form. Phyla within Lophotrochozoa include Mollusca (snails, clams, squids), Annelida (segmented worms),
Platyhelminthes (flatworms), and others.

Protostome animals exhibit remarkable diversity in terms of their body forms, habitats, and ecological roles. They can
be found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments, and they occupy various niches as predators, herbivores
filter feeders, parasites, and more. The group includes many economically important organisms, such as insects that
pollinate crops, arachnids that control pests, and mollusks that are harvested for food or used in the production of
valuable resources like pearls. Overall, protostome animals represent a vast and diverse assemblage of invertebrates that
play crucial roles in ecosystems and have a significant impact on human societies.

3- Paraphyletic group (0.25 Marks)

Leaves out some descendents from a recent common anceston
"Paraphyletic" is a term used in biology to describe a group that includes an ancestor and some, but not all, of its
descendants. It is the opposite of a monophyletic group, which includes all descendants of a common ancestor.
In a paraphyletic group, only a subset of the descendants of a common ancestor is included, while some descendants are
excluded. This exclusion typically occurs when certain lineages or species are removed from the group due to the absence of
certain key characteristics or traits. As a result, the excluded lineages are classified separately from the rest of the group.
An example of a paraphyletic group is the grouping of reptiles. Traditionally, reptiles were classified as a group that included
lizards, snakes, turtles, and crocodiles, but excluded birds. However, modern evidence from evolutionary biology and genetics
has shown that birds are actually descendants of a common ancestor shared with reptiles. Therefore, the traditional reptile
group is paraphyletic because it excludes birds, which are descendants of the reptilian lineage.
The recognition of paraphyletic groups has led to changes in the classification and understanding of organisms. In modern
taxonomy, the aim is to form monophyletic groups, where all descendants of a common ancestor are included. This approach
provides a more accurate representation of evolutionary relationships and reflects the shared ancestry among organisms.
It's worth noting that the concept of paraphyly is specific to the field of phylogenetics and is not applicable to other domains
or contexts.

4- Clade (0.25 Marks)

Groups of organisms that share derived character states

All the best of luck