Microwave Solid-State Devices

 Microwave solid-state devices are becoming increasingly important at microwave frequencies. These devices can be
broken down into four groups.

 In the first group are the microwave bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT),
and the tunnel diodes.

 The second group includes microwave field-effect transistors (FETs) such as the junction field-effect transistors
(JFETs), metal-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs), high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs),
metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), the metal-oxide-semiconductor transistors and
memory devices, and the charge-coupled devices ( CCDs)..

 The third group, which is characterized by the bulk effect of the semiconductor, is called the transferred electron
device (TED). These devices include the Gunn diode, limited space-charge-accumulation diode (LSA diode), indium
phosphide diode (InP diode), and cadmium telluride diode ( CdTe diode)..

 The devices of the fourth group, which are operated by the avalanche effect of the semiconductor, are referred to as
avalanche diodes: the impact ionization avalanche transit-time diodes (IMPATT diodes), the trapped plasma
avalanche triggered transit-time diodes (TRAPATT diodes), and the barrier injected transit-time diodes (BARITT
diodes).
HETEROJUNCTION BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS (HBTs}

 Bipolar transistors can be constructed as homojunction or heterojunction types of transistors.

 When the transistor junction is jointed by two similar materials such as silicon to silicon or germanium to germanium, it
is a homojunction transistor.
 The transistor junction formed by two different materials, such as Ge to GaAs, is called a heterojunction transistor.

When the lattice constants of two semiconductor materials are matched, they can be formed together as a heterojunction
transistor. This lattice condition is very important because the lattice mismatch could introduce a large number of interface
states and degrade the heterojunction operation.

Currently, Ge and GaAs are the two materials commonly used for heterojunction structures because their lattice constants
(a = 5.646A for Ge and a = 5.653A for GaAs) are matched to within 1 %. Since each material may be either p type or n
type, there are four possible heterojunction combinations:

1. p -Ge to p -GaAs junction

2. p -Ge to n -GaAs junction
3. n -Ge to p -GaAs junction
4. n -Ge to n -GaAs junction

Fig.1 shows the model diagram of a heterojunction transistor

formed by n -Ge, p-GaAs, and n-GaAs materials
 Fig. 3 Energy-band diagram for an n-
Fig. 2 Energy-band diagram for
Ge-p-GaAs junction.
isolated n-Ge and p-GaAs.

When an n-Ge and a p-GaAs are isolated, their Fermi energy levels are not aligned, as shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 5-2-2, the
vacuum level is used as reference, the work function is denoted by ϕ, n-Ge is designated as 1, and p-GaAs is referred to as 2.
The different energies of the conduction-band edge and the valence-band edge are given by
∆𝐸𝑐 = 𝜒1 − 𝜒2
And
∆𝐸𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔1 − 𝐸𝑔2 − ∆𝐸𝑐

Where 𝜒 =electron affinity in eV & 𝐸𝑔 = bandgap energy in eV.

When the two semiconductor materials are jointed together, their Fermi energy levels are aligned and their energy bands
are depleted at the junction, as shown in Fig. 3.

When the two materials are jointed together, the electrons in the n-Ge are injected into the p-GaAs, and the holes in the p -
GaAs are transferred to the n-Ge until their Fermi energy levels are aligned. As a result, the energy bands at the junction
are depleted or bent. The bending energy then creates a built-in voltage in both sides of the junction. The total built-in
voltage is expressed by
𝜓𝑜 = 𝜓𝑜1 + 𝜓𝑜2

Where 𝜓𝑜1 &𝜓𝑜2 are potential barrier in n-Ge and p –GaAs respectively.
At the junction, the electric flux D is continuous. That is,
𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝐸1 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟2 𝐸2
𝐷 = 𝜖1 𝐸1 = 𝜖2 𝐸2
The space charges on both sides of the junction are equal and it is given by
𝑥1 𝑁𝑑 = 𝑥2 𝑁𝑎
The electric fields in both sides can be written as
𝜓𝑜1 − 𝑉1
𝐸1 =
𝑥1
And
𝜓𝑜2 − 𝑉2
𝐸2 =
𝑥2
𝜓𝑜1 − 𝑉1 𝜖𝑟1 𝑁𝑑1 = 𝜓𝑜2 − 𝑉2 𝜖𝑟2 𝑁𝑎2
For the heterojunction shown in Fig. 3, the electron current from n-Ge to p-GaAs is very small because the potential
barrier across the junction for electron injection is very high.

In contrast, the hole current from the p-GaAs side to the n-Ge side is dominant because of the low potential barrier for
hole injection. Therefore, the junction current can be approximated as
𝐴𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑉
𝐼= 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1
𝐿𝑝

Heterojunctions have been studied since 1951 and have many applications in photon devices. The heterojunction bipolar
transistor is a potential candidate for high-speed switching devices such as GaAs MESFETs.
In other heterojunction transistors, such as the Ge-Si structure, the lattice mismatch (a = 5.646 A for Ge and a = 5.431 A
for Si) causes a high interface state density and recombination- and tunneling-current components must be counted.
MICROWAVE TUNNEL DIODES

 After the publication of Esaki's classic paper on tunnel diodes in 1958, the potential of tunnel diodes for microwave
applications was quickly established. Prior to 1958 the anomalous characteristics of some p-n junctions were observed by
many scientists, but the irregularities were rejected immediately because they did not follow the "classic" diode equation.

 Esaki, however, described this anomalous phenomenon by applying a quantum tunneling theory.

 The tunneling phenomenon is a majority carrier effect. The tunneling time of carriers through the potential energy barrier
is not governed by the classic transit-time concept-that the transit time is equal to the barrier width divided by the carrier
velocity-but rather by the quantum transition probability per unit time.

 Tunnel diodes are useful in many circuit applications in microwave amplification, microwave oscillation, and binary
memory because of their low cost, light weight, high speed, low-power operation, low noise, and high peak-current to
valley-current ratio.
Principles of Operation

 The tunnel diode is a negative-resistance semiconductor p-n junction diode.

 The negative resistance is created by the tunnel effect of electrons in the p-n junction.
 The doping of both the p and n regions of the tunnel diode is very high-impurity concentrations of
1019 𝑡𝑜 1020 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑚3 are used and the depletion-layer barrier at the junction is very thin, on the order of
100𝐴 𝑜𝑟 10−6 𝑐𝑚.

https://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/semiconductor-diodes/tunneldiode-howitworks.html
 Classically, it is possible for those particles to pass over the barrier if and only if they have an energy equal to or greater
than the height of the potential barrier. Quantum mechanically, however, if the barrier is less than 3𝐴 there is an
appreciable probability that particles will tunnel through the potential barrier even though they do not have enough
kinetic energy to pass over the same barrier.
 In addition to the barrier thinness, there must also be filled energy states on the side from which particles will tunnel
and allowed empty states on the other side into which particles penetrate through at the same energy level.
 In order to understand the tunnel effects fully, let us analyze the energy-band pictures of a heavily doped p-n diode. Fig.
4 shows energy-band diagrams of a tunnel diode.

 Under open-circuit conditions or at zero-bias

equilibrium, the upper levels of electron
energy of both the p type and n type are lined
up at the same Fermi level as shown in Fig.
4(a).
 Since there are no filled states on one side of
the junction that are at the same energy level
as empty allowed states on the other side,
there is no flow of charge in either direction
across the junction and the current is zero, as
shown at point (a) of the volt-ampere
characteristic curve of a tunnel diode in Fig.
5. Fig. 4 Energy-band diagrams of tunnel diode.
 Tunnelling current (solid curve) and
injection current (dashed curve)

I-V characteristic of tunnel diode

Fig. 5 Ampere-voltage characteristics of tunnel diode.

Step 1: Unbiased tunnel diode Step 3: Applied voltage is slightly increased Step 4: Applied voltage is further increased

Step 5: Applied voltage is

largely increased
Step 2: Small voltage applied to the tunnel diode
 Microwave Characteristics
 The tunnel diode is useful in microwave oscillators and amplifiers because
the diode exhibits a negative-resistance characteristic in the region
between peak current Ip and valley current Iv.
 The 1-V characteristic of a tunnel diode with the load line is
shown in Fig. 6.Here the abc load line intersects the characteristic
curve in three points. Points a and c are stable points, and point b
is unstable.
 If the voltage and current vary about b, the final values of I and V
would be given by point a or c, but not by b. Since the tunnel
diode has two stable states for this load line, the circuit is called
bistable, and it can be utilized as a binary device in switching
circuits.
 However, microwave oscillation or amplification generated by the tunnel diode is
our major concern in this section.
 The second load line intersects the 1-V curve at point b only. This point is stable
and shows a dynamic negative conductance that enables the tunnel diode to
function as a microwave amplifier or oscillator. The circuit with a load line
crossing point b in the negative-resistance region is called astable.
 Another load line crossing point a in the positive-resistance region indicates a
monostable circuit.
Fig. 6 1-V characteristic of tunnel diode with load line.
 The negative conductance in Fig. 6 is given by Magnitude of negative resistance
𝜕𝑖 1
−𝑔 = =
𝜕𝑣 𝑉𝑏
𝑅𝑛

 For a small variation of the forward voltage about 𝑉𝑏 , the negative resistance is constant and the diode circuit behavior is
stable. A small-signal equivalent circuit for the tunnel diode operated in the negative-resistance region is shown in Fig. 7.
 Typical values of these parameters for a tunnel diode having a peak current 𝐼𝑝 of 10 mA are
−𝑅𝑛 = −30Ω; 𝑅𝑠 = 1Ω; 𝐿𝑠 = 5𝑛𝐻; 𝐶 = 20 𝑝𝐹

Where 𝐿𝑠 and 𝑅𝑠 inductance and resistance of the packaging circuit of a

tunnel diode.
The junction capacitance C of the diode is usually measured at the valley
point; and 𝑅𝑛 is the negative resistance of the diode
The input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 of the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 7 is given
𝑅𝑛 𝑗 𝜔𝐶
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑠 +
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝑛 𝐶 2
𝑅𝑛 𝜔𝑅𝑛2 𝐶
Fig. 7 Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 − + 𝑗 𝜔𝐿𝑠 −
1 + 𝜔𝑅𝑛 𝐶 2 1 + 𝜔𝑅𝑛 𝐶 2
For the resistive cutoff frequency, the real part of the input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 must be zero. Consequently, from above
Equation; resistive cutoff frequency is given by
1 𝑅𝑛
𝑓𝑐 = −1
2𝜋𝑅𝑛 𝐶 𝑅𝑠
For the self-resonance frequency, the imaginary part of the input impedance must be zero. Thus,
1 𝑅𝑛2 𝐶
𝑓𝑟 = −1
2𝜋𝑅𝑛 𝐶 𝐿𝑠
The tunnel diode can be connected either in parallel or in series with a resistive load as an amplifier; its equivalent circuits
are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Equivalent circuits of tunnel diodes.

 After Shockley and his coworkers invented the transistor in 1948, he proposed in 1952 a new type of field-effect
transistor (FET) in which the conductivity of a layer of a semiconductor is modulated by a transverse electric field.

 In a conventional transistor both the majority and the minority carriers are involved; hence this type of transistor is
customarily referred to as a bipolar transistor.

 In a field-effect transistor the current flow is carried by majority carriers only; this type is referred to as a unipolar
transistor. In addition, the field-effect transistors are controlled by a voltage at the third terminal rather than by a current
as with bipolar transistors.

 Since the microwave field-effect transistor has the capability of amplifying small signals up to the frequency range of X
band with low-noise figures, it has lately replaced the parametric amplifier in airborne radar systems because the latter
is complicated in fabrication and expensive in production.

 The unipolar field-effect transistor has several advantages over the bipolar junction transistor:

 It may have voltage gain in addition to current gain.

 Its efficiency is higher than that of a bipolar transistor.
 Its noise figure is low.
 Its operating frequency is up to X band.
 Its input resistance is very high, up to several megaohms.
Among the unipolar field-effect transistors are the junction field-effect transistors, metal-semiconductor field-effect transistors,
high electron-mobility transistors, and the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors.
HIGH ELECTRON-MOBILITY TRANSISTORS (HEMTs)
 A high electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), is based on a modulation-doped GaAs-AlGaAs single heterojunction
structure.
 HEMTs have exhibited lower noise figure and higher gain at microwave frequencies up to 70 GHz, and it is possible to
construct HEMT amplifiers at even higher frequencies of operation.
 The major improvements over MESFETs include shorter gate lengths, reduced gate and source contact resistances, and
optimized doping profiles.

 The basic structure of a HEMT is a

selectively doped GaAs-AlGaAs
heterojunction structure as shown in Fig.
9.
 An undoped GaAs layer and an Si-doped
n-type AIGaAs layer are successively
grown on a semi-insulating GaAs
substrate. A two-dimensional electron gas
(2-DEG) is created between the undoped
and n-type layers. A buffer layer is
sandwiched between the undoped GaAs
layer and the semi-insulator substrate.
Operational Mechanism
 Since GaAs has higher electron affinity, free electrons in the AlGaAs layer are transferred to the undoped GaAs layer
where they form a two-dimensional high-mobility electron gas within 100𝐴 of the interface. Then-type AlGaAs layer of
the HEMT is depleted completely through two depletion mechanisms:
1. Trapping of free electrons by surface states causes the surface depletion.
2. Transfer of electrons into the undoped GaAs layer brings about the interface depletion.
 The Fermi energy level of the gate metal is matched to the pinning point, which is 1.2 eV below the conduction band.
With the reduced AlGaAs layer thickness, the electrons supplied by donors in the AlGaAs layer are insufficient to pin the
surface Fermi level, and the space-charge region is extended into the undoped GaAs layer.
 As a result, band bending is moving upward and the two-dimensional electron gas (2-DEG) does not appear. When a
positive voltage higher than the threshold voltage is applied to the gate, electrons accumulate at the interface and form a
two dimensional electron gas.
 The electron concentration can control D-(depletion-mode) and E-(enhancement- mode) HEMT operations.
Electronic Applications

 The switching speed of a HEMT is about three times as fast as that of a GaAs MESFET.
 The largest-scale logic integrated circuit (IC) with HEMT technology has achieved the highest speed ever reported
among 8 x 8 bit multipliers.
 The switching delay time of a HEMT is below 10 picosecond with a power dissipation reported at about 100 μ W.
 Therefore, HEMTs are promising devices for very large-scale integration, especially in very high-speed supercomputers,
star wars, and space communications.
 The HEMT SRAMs have demonstrated better performance than the SiMOS, BJT, and GaAs MESFET SRAMs.
Transferred Electron Devices (TEDs)

 The common characteristic of all active two-terminal solid-state devices is their negative resistance.
 The real part of their impedance is negative over a range of frequencies. In a positive resistance the current through the
resistance and the voltage across it are in phase. The voltage drop across a positive resistance is positive and a power of
𝐼 2 𝑅 is dissipated in the resistance.
 In a negative resistance, however, the current and voltage are out of phase by 180°. The voltage drop across a negative
resistance is negative, and a power of −𝐼 2 𝑅 is generated by the power supply associated with the negative resistance.
 In other words, positive resistances absorb power (passive devices), whereas negative resistances generate power (active
devices).
Differences between microwave transistors and transferred electron devices

 Transistors operate with either junctions or gates, but TEDs are bulk devices having no junctions or gates.
 The majority of transistors are fabricated from elemental semiconductors, such as silicon or germanium, whereas TEDs are
fabricated from compound semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or cadmium
telluride (CdTe).
 Transistors operate with "warm" electrons whose energy is not much greater than the thermal energy (0.026 eV at room
temperature) of electrons in the semiconductor, whereas TEDs operate with "hot" electrons whose energy is very much
greater than the thermal energy.
 Because of these fundamental differences, the theory and technology of transistors cannot be applied to TEDs.
GUNN-EFFECT DIODES-GaAs DIODE
 Gunn-effect diodes are named after J. B. Gunn, who in 1963 discovered a periodic fluctuations of current passing
through the n-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) specimen when the applied voltage exceeded a certain critical value.
 Two years later, in 1965, B. C. DeLoach, R. C. Johnston, and B. G. Cohen discovered the impact ionization
avalanche transit-time (IMPATT) mechanism in silicon, which employs the avalanching and transit-time properties
of the diode to generate microwave frequencies.
 In later years the limited space-charge-accumulation diode (LSA diode) and the indium phosphide diode (InP diode)
were also successfully developed.
 These are bulk devices in the sense that microwave amplification and oscillation are derived from the bulk negative-
resistance property of uniform semiconductors rather than from the junction negative-resistance property between
two different semiconductors, as in the tunnel diode.

 It was invented by John Battiscombe Gunn in 1960s; after his experiments on

GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), he observed a noise in his experiments’ results and
owed this to the generation of electrical oscillations at microwave frequencies by a
steady electric field with a magnitude greater than the threshold value. It was
named as Gunn Effect after this had been discovered by John Battiscombe Gunn.
 The Gunn Effect can be defined as generation of microwave power (power with
microwave frequencies of around a few GHz) whenever the voltage applied to a
semiconductor device exceeds the critical voltage value or threshold voltage
value.
RIDLEY-WATKINS-HILSUM (RWH} THEORY

Many explanations have been offered for the Gunn effect but in 1964, Kroemer suggested that Gunn's observations were in
complete agreement with the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory.
Differential Negative Resistance
 The fundamental concept of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) theory is the differential negative resistance developed in a
bulk solid-state III-V compound when either a voltage (or electric field) or a current is applied to the terminals of the
sample.
 There are two modes of negative-resistance devices: voltage-controlled and current controlled modes as shown in Fig.
10(a) and (b), respectively.
 In the voltage-controlled mode the current
density can be multivalued, whereas in the
current-controlled mode the voltage can be
multivalued.
 The major effect of the appearance of a
differential negative-resistance region in the
current density-field curve is to render the
sample electrically unstable.
 As a result, the initially homogeneous sample
becomes electrically heterogeneous in an
attempt to reach stability.
Fig. 10 Diagram of negative resistance.
  In the voltage-controlled negative-resistance mode high-field domains are formed, separating two low-field regions. The
interfaces separating low and high-field domains lie along equipotentials; thus they are in planes perpendicular to the
current direction as shown in Fig. 11(a).
 In the current-controlled negative-resistance mode splitting the sample results in high-current filaments running along the
field direction as shown in Fig. 11(b).

Expressed mathematically, the negative

resistance of the sample at a particular
region is
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐽
= = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐸

Fig. 11 Diagrams of high field domain and high current filament

If an electric field 𝐸0 (or voltage 𝑉0 ) is applied to the sample, for

example, the current density 𝐽0 is generated. As the applied field (or
voltage) is increased to 𝐸2 (or 𝑉2 ), the current density is decreased to
𝐽2 . When the field (or voltage) is decreased to 𝐸1 (or 𝑉1 ), the current
density is increased to 𝐽1 . These phenomena of the voltage controlled
negative resistance are shown in Fig. 12(a). Similarly, for the current
controlled mode, the negative-resistance profile is as shown in Fig.
12(b).
Fig. 12 Multiple values of current density for negative resistance
Two-Valley Model Theory
 It explains the effect of generation of negative resistance in certain types of bulk semiconductor materials.
 In the conduction band of n- type GaAs, a high mobility lower valley is separated from a low mobility upper valley by an
energy difference of 0.36eV.
 The effective mass and mobility of the electrons in lower valley are 0.068 and 8000 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉𝑠 whereas these quantities are
1.2 and 180 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉𝑠 in the upper valley of the n – type GaAs as shown below.

 Under the equilibrium conditions the electron densities in both the valleys
remain same. When the applied electric field is lower than the electric
field of the lower valley, then no transfer of electrons takes place to the
upper valley. The mobility of the carriers is positive.
 When the applied field is higher than the field corresponding to the
energies of the electron in the lower valley and lower than the field
corresponding to the energies in the upper valley then transfer of electrons
takes place from high mobility lower to low mobility upper valley. This
mobility of electrons or carrier becomes negative.
 When the applied field is higher than the field corresponding to the
energies of the electrons in the higher valley, no transfer of electrons takes
place because by that time all the electrons of the lower valley must have
been transferred to the upper valley and the mobility is positive.
Two-valley model of electron energy versus
wave number for n-type GaAs.
Transfer of electron densities
 On the basis of the Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum theory as described earlier, the band structure of a semiconductor must satisfy
three criteria in order to exhibit negative resistance:
1. The separation energy between the bottom of the lower valley and the bottom of the upper valley must be several times
larger than the thermal energy (about 0.026 eV) at room temperature. This means that Δ𝐸 > 𝑘𝑇 𝑜𝑟Δ𝐸 > 0.026 𝑒𝑉.
2. The separation energy between the valleys must be smaller than the gap energy between the conduction and valence
bands. This means that Δ𝐸 < 𝐸𝑔 . Otherwise the semiconductor will break down and become highly conductive before the
electrons begin to transfer to the upper valleys because hole-electron pair formation is created.
3. Electrons in the lower valley must have high mobility, small effective mass, and a low density of state, whereas those in
the upper valley must have low mobility, large effective mass, and a high density of state. In other words, electron
velocities 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐾 must be much larger in the lower valleys than in the upper valleys.

 The two most useful semiconductors-silicon and germanium-

do not meet all these criteria.
 Some compound semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide
(GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), and cadmium telluride
(CdTe) do satisfy these criteria.
 Others such as indium arsenide (InAs), gallium phosphide
(GaP), and indium antimonide (InSb) do not.
 Figure 13 shows a possible current versus field characteristic
of a two-valley semiconductor.
MODES OF OPERATION
 Depending on the material parameters and operating conditions, various modes of operation in Gunn diode have been
explored.
 As noted, the formation of a strong space-charge instability depends on the conditions that enough charge is available in
the crystal and that the specimen is long enough so that the necessary amount of space charge can be built up within the
transit time of the electrons.
 This requirement sets up a criterion for the various modes of operation of bulk negative-differential-resistance devices.
 Copeland proposed four basic modes of operation of uniformly doped bulk diodes with low-resistance contacts as shown
in Fig.
1. Gunn oscillation mode :
Product of frequency multiplied by length≈ 107 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 &
Product of doping multiplied by length > 1012 𝑐𝑚2
2. Stable amplification mode:
Product of frequency multiplied by length≈ 107 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 &
1011 < Product of doping multiplied by length < 1012 𝑐𝑚2
3. LSA oscillation mode:
Product of frequency multiplied by length > 107 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 &
2 × 104 < Product of doping multiplied by length < 2 × 105 𝑐𝑚2
4. Bias-circuit oscillation mode:
This mode occurs only when there is either Gunn or LSA
oscillation, and it is usually at the region where the product of
frequency times length is too small to appear in the figure.

Modes of operation for Gunn diodes

Criterion for Classifying the Modes of Operation
 The Gunn-effect diodes are basically made from an n-type GaAs, with the concentrations of free electrons ranging from
1014 to 1017 per cubic centimeter at room temperature.
magnitude of the negative
 Its typical dimensions are 150 150 μm in cross section and 30 μm long.
dielectric relaxation time
 During the early stages of space-charge accumulation, the time rate of growth
𝑡 𝜖 𝜖 doping concentration
𝑄 𝑋, 𝑡 = 𝑄 𝑋 − 𝑣𝑡, 0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 where 𝜏𝑑 = =
𝜏𝑑 𝜎 𝑒𝑛0 𝜇𝑛
conductivity semiconductor dielectric negative mobility
permittivity electron charge
 Figure given below clarifies the above Equation.
 If Equation remains valid throughout the entire transit time of the space charge
layer, the factor of maximum growth is given by
𝑄 𝐿, 𝐿 𝑣 𝐿 𝐿𝑒𝑛0 𝜇𝑛
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑄(0,0) 𝑣𝜏𝑑 𝑣𝜖
In above Eq. the layer is assumed to start at the cathode at t = 0, X = 0, and arrive
at the anode at t = L/v and X = L. For a large space-charge growth, this factor
must be larger than unity. This means that
𝑣𝜖
𝑛0 𝐿 >
𝑒 𝜇𝑛
 This is the criterion for classifying the modes of operation for the Gunn-effect
diodes.
𝑣𝜖
 For n-type GaAs, the value of 𝑒 𝜇 is about 1012 𝑐𝑚2 , where 𝜇𝑛 is assumed to be 150 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉. 𝑠.
𝑛
Construction of Gunn Diode
 It is made up of three layers of N-type semiconductor and the semiconductors used in Gunn diodes are Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), Indium Phosphide (InP), Indium
Arsenide (InAs), Indium Antimonide (InSb) and Zinc Selenide (ZnSe).
 Among these three layers the top most and the bottom most are heavily doped while the middle layer is lightly doped in
comparison to the extreme layers. The middle layer is an epitaxial layer grown on the N-type substrate and the top most
layer is formed by ion implantation technique.
 The metallic contacts are provided on extreme layers to facilitate biasing. The heat sink is there so that the diode can
withstand excessive heat and can be prevented from damage.
Gunn Diode’s Working
 The Gunn diode is not actually a P-N junction diode because there is
no P-region and no junction. But still, it is called diode because of
involvement of two electrodes. When biasing is applied to Gunn
diode, the entire voltage appears across the active region. The active
region is the middle layer of the device. The active region is 6-
18µm long.
 Due to which the current pulses start traversing the active region.
The potential gradient will fall when current pulse traverses in the
active region which blocks another pulse to form. The next current
pulse will form only when the previous current pulse has traversed
the entire active region or it will be on the end of the active region. In
this way, the thickness of active region modifies the frequency at
which the device is working. https://electronicscoach.com/gunn-diode.html
  This is a transferred electronic device so it deals with the movement of electrons only. In Gunn diode, there is valence
band, conduction band and one more band near conduction band. Thus, on initial DC bias the current through the device
increases because electrons move from valence band to conduction band.
 After moving in conduction band the current through the device starts decreasing because the electrons in conduction band
move to band above the conduction band. Due to this the effective mass of electrons starts increasing and
thus mobility starts decreasing due to which the current starts decreasing, And this creates the negative resistance region in
the diode.
 In this negative resistance region, the current starts increasing with the fall in voltage and will starts decreasing with
increase in voltage. Thus, it generates pulses with phase reversal and thus this device is appropriate for the fabrication of
amplifier and oscillator circuits. It generates frequency ranging from 10 GHz to THz.

Gunn Diode’s Characteristics

 The current-voltage relationship characteristics of a Gunn diode are

shown in the above graph with its negative resistance region. These
characteristics are similar to the characteristics of the tunnel diode.
 As shown in the graph, initially the current starts increasing in this diode,
but after reaching a certain voltage level (at a specified voltage value
called as threshold voltage value), the current decreases before increasing
again. The region where the current falls is termed as a negative
resistance region, and due to this it oscillates.
 In this negative resistance region, this diode acts as both oscillator and
amplifier, as in this region, the diode is enabled to amplify signals.
Advantages of Gunn diode
 Portable and Small Size device.
 The cost of manufacturing of Gunn diode is low.
 It possesses better noise to signal ratio as it is immune from noise disturbance.
 The Gunn diode is reliable and stable at higher frequencies.
 It has a high bandwidth of operation.
Disadvantages of Gunn Diode
 The Gunn diode has poor temperature stability.
 The device operating current is higher and therefore power dissipation is more.
 The efficiency of Gunn Diode is low below 10GHz.
Applications of Gunn Diode
 Used as Gunn oscillators to generate frequencies ranging from 100mW 5GHz to 1W 35GHz outputs. These Gunn
oscillators are used for radio communications, military and commercial radar sources.
 Used as sensors for detecting trespassers, to avoid derailment of trains.
 Used as efficient microwave generators with a frequency range of up to hundreds of GHz.
 Used for remote vibration detectors and rotational speed measuring tachometers.
 Used as a microwave current generator (Pulsed Gunn diode generator).
 Used in microwave transmitters to generate microwave radio waves at very low powers.
 Used as fast controlling components in microelectronics such as for the modulation of semiconductor injection lasers.
 Used as sub-millimeter wave applications by multiplying Gunn oscillator frequency with diode frequency.
 Some other applications include door opening sensors, process control devices, barrier operation, perimeter protection,
pedestrian safety systems, linear distance indicators, level sensors, moisture content measurement and intruder alarms.

https://www.elprocus.com/gunn-diode-working-characteristics-and-its-applications/
Avalanche Transit-Time Devices
• Avalanche transit-time diode oscillators rely on the effect of voltage breakdown across a reverse-biased p-n junction to
produce a supply of holes and electrons.
• The avalanche diode oscillator uses carrier impact ionization and drift in the high-field region of a semiconductor junction
to produce a negative resistance at microwave frequencies.
• The device was originally proposed in a theoretical paper by Read in which he analyzed the negative-resistance properties
of an idealized 𝑛+ − 𝑝 − 𝑖 − 𝑝+ diode.
• Two distinct modes of avalanche oscillator have been observed. One is the IMPATT mode, which stands for impact
ionization avalanche transit-time operation. In this mode the typical dc-to-RF conversion efficiency is 5 to 10%, and
frequencies are as high as 100 GHz with silicon diodes.
• The other mode is the TRAPATT mode, which represents trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit operation. Its typical
conversion efficiency is from 20 to 60%.
READ DIODE or IMPATT DIODE

 A theoretical Read diode made of an 𝑛+ − 𝑝 − 𝑖 − 𝑝+ or 𝑝+ − 𝑝 − 𝑖 − 𝑛+ structure and its basic physical mechanism is the
interaction of the impact ionization avalanche and the transit time of charge carriers. Hence the Read-type diodes are called
IMPATT diodes.
 These diodes exhibit a differential negative resistance by two effects:
1. The impact ionization avalanche effect, which causes the carrier current 𝐼0 (𝑡) and the ac voltage to be out of phase by 90°.
2. The transit-time effect, which further delays the external current 𝐼𝑒 (𝑡) relative to the ac voltage by 90°.
 The Read diode is the basic type in the IMPATT diode family. The others are the one-sided abrupt p-n junction, the linearly
graded p-n junction (or double-drift region), and the p-i-n diode.
Physical Description

 The basic operating principle of IMPATT diodes can be most easily

understood by reference to the first proposed avalanche diode, the Read
diode.
 The theory of this device was presented by Read in 1958, but the first
experimental Read diode was reported by Lee et al. in 1965.
 A mode of the original Read diode with a doping profile and a dc electric
field distribution that exists when a large reverse bias is applied across
the diode is shown in Fig.
 The device consists essentially of two regions. One is the thin p region at
which avalanche multiplication occurs. This region is also called the
high-field region or the avalanche region.
 The other is the i or v region through which the generated holes must drift
in moving to the p+ contact. This region is also called the intrinsic region
or the drift region.
 The device can produce a negative ac resistance that, in turn, delivers
power from the dc bias to the oscillation.

Avalanche Multiplication
When the reverse-biased voltage is well above the punchthrough or breakdown voltage, the space-charge region always
extends from the n+ -p junction through the p and i regions to the i-p+ junction. The fixed charges in the various regions are
shown in Fig.
 A positive charge gives a rising field in moving from left to right. The maximum field, which occurs at the n+ -p
junction, is about several hundred kilovolts per centimeter.
 Carriers (holes) moving in the high field near the n+ -p junction acquire energy to knock valence electrons into the
conduction band, thus producing hole-electron pairs.
 The rate of pair production, or avalanche multiplication, is a sensitive nonlinear function of the field.
 By proper doping, the field can be given a relatively sharp peak so that avalanche multiplication is confined to a
very narrow region at the n+ -p junction.
 The electrons move into the n+ region and the holes drift through the space-charge region to the p+ region with a
constant velocity 𝑣𝑑 of about 107 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 for silicon. The field throughout the space-charge region is above about 5
kV/cm.
 The transit time of a hole across the drift i-region L is given by
Principle of Operation of IMPATT Diode
 To understand the operation of an IMPATT diode, here we consider the 𝑛+ − 𝑝 −
𝑖 − 𝑝+ diode.
 Let 𝑉𝑏 be the reverse bias breakdown voltage that is applied to the IMPATT
device. Assume that a sinusoidal waveform 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 is superimposed on 𝑉𝑑𝑐 ,
resulting in a total device voltage 𝑉 𝑡 = (𝑉𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) as shown in the figure
below.
 Initially, the device contains a few thermally generated free electrons. When
𝑉 𝑡 > 𝑉𝑏 breakdown occurs at the 𝑛+ − 𝑝 junction, these electrons gain energy
from the applied voltage and knock off electrons in the valence band to the
conduction band. As a result, a new electron-hole pair is created. An electron-hole
pair generated because of such impact ionization is called a secondary electron-
hole pair.
  These secondary electrons again pick up sufficient energy and generate more secondary electron-hole pairs. Therefore,
as long as 𝑉 𝑡 > 𝑉𝑏 , the number of carriers increases exponentially, even beyond the voltage maximum irrespective of
the magnitude of 𝑉 𝑡 .This is because of the sufficient number of secondary electron-hole pairs presence.
 This exponential increase continues until the sine wave crosses zero and then drops exponentially until the sine wave
reaches its negative peak. This avalanche current (generated holes) is injected into the i-region and drifts toward the
𝑝+ region with saturated velocity along the depletion region. The electrons move toward the positive terminal.
 In this way, this current will have a one-quarter period (T/4) delay or a 90° phase shift with regard to the applied signal
voltage. To achieve the desired 180° phase shift between input voltage and external current, additional T/4 delay is
essential.
 This is made available by the hole drift along the depletion region. It is the property of semiconductor materials that the
drift velocity tends to be constant at high field strengths. Since the holes move at the constant velocity 𝑣𝑑 , the device
length may be chosen to provide the necessary delay for a 180° phase shift between the device voltage and current,
Characteristics of IMPATT Diode
1. IMPATT diode operates in reverse bias. It exhibits a negative resistance region due to the impact of avalanche and
transit time effects.
1. The phase difference between voltage and current is 180°. Here 90° phase delay is due to the avalanche effect, and the
remaining 90° is due to transit time effect.
2. It is a narrow-band amplifier that provides output power in the millimeter-wave frequency range.
3. At low frequencies, their power output is inversely proportional to frequency. At high frequencies, their power output is
inversely proportional to the square of the frequency.
4. They are often used in the design of oscillators and amplifiers when the high output power is required. They provide
higher output power than Gunn diodes.
Disadvantages of IMPATT diode

 In terms of noise figure an IMPATT diode is not good as in comparison with the TWT amplifier or Gunn diode
oscillator or klystron tube. Because the avalanche is a high noise process, so the IMPATT is very noisy diode, the
value of noise figure is 30 dB.
 In IMPATT diode matching is difficult because of the low value of their negative resistance.
 It is sensitive to operational conditions.
 It has large electronic reactance, which can cause detuning or burn out the device if proper care is not taken.

Applications of IMPATT Diode

 IMPATT diodes are used as microwave oscillators in microwave generators, in modulated output oscillators.
 They are used in microwave links, continuous-wave radars, and electronic countermeasures.
 IMPATT diodes are also used in amplification with negative resistance.
 In police radars, low power transmitters, and intrusion alarm devices use the high-Q IMPATT diodes.
 In frequency modulated telecommunication transmitters and continuous wave Doppler radar transmitters use the low-
Q IMPATT diodes.
TRAPATT DIODES

 The abbreviation TRAPATT stands for trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit mode, a mode first reported by Prager.
 It is a high-efficiency microwave generator capable of operating from several hundred megahertz to several gigahertz.
 The basic operation of the oscillator is a semiconductor p-n junction diode reverse biased to current densities well in
excess of those encountered in normal avalanche operation.
 The doping of the depletion region is generally such that the diodes are well "punched through" at breakdown; that is, the
dc electric field in the depletion region just prior to breakdown is well above the saturated drift-velocity level.

Principles of Operation
 Diode is operated in reverse biased. This reverse bias causes increase in
the electric field between 𝑝+ and n region and the minority carriers
generated attains a very large velocity.
 Working of the diode can be explained with the help of following
diagram.
 At the instant A, the diode current is on. Since current is thermal and
diode is reverse biased, it charges like capacitor due to reverse biased
condition. This charging of 𝑝+ and n region increases the electric field
above the breakdown voltage.
 A heavy current is generated due to breakdown and particle current
inside diode increases above the external current due to this electric
field in the depletion region decreases. This drop in field is shown by
curve from B to C.
  During this period the E-field is so large that the avalanche continuous and a dense plasma of electron and holes is
created. As some of the electrons and holes drift out of the ends of the depletion layer, the field is further depressed and
traps the remaining plasma. The voltage decreases to point D.
 Till the total plasma charge is removed the voltage increase to E and once the residue electrons and holes are removed
the voltage is further improved to F.
 From F to G diode charges up again like a fixed capacitor. Since there is no internally generated charge voltage remains
to G only and current to external circuit is zero. After half the period the cycle repeats. This entire action of generation of
current through avalanche effect produces a pulse in the external circuit.
Advantage of trapatt diode Disadvantages of trapatt diode
 They had large efficiency at DC to RF signals  High noise figure
 The operating range frequency starts from MHz to GHz  Upper frequency is limited to below millimeter band
 High efficiency than impatt diode  They are very sensitive to harmonics
 Very low power dissipation
 Suitable for pulsed operation
Applications of trapatt diode
 At pulsed radar as local oscillator
 At radio altimeters
 Airborne
 Microwave oscillator
 Used in microwave beacons
 Instrument landing system
 LO in radar
PARAMETRIC DEVICES

 A parametric device is one that uses a nonlinear reactance (capacitance or inductance) or a time-varying reactance.
 The word parametric is derived from the term parametric excitation, since the capacitance or inductance, which is a
reactive parameter, can be used to produce capacitive or inductive excitation.
 Parametric excitation can be subdivided into parametric amplification and oscillation.
 At present the solid-state varactor diode is the most widely used parametric amplifier.
 Unlike microwave tubes, transistors, and lasers, the parametric diode is of a reactive nature and thus generates a very small
amount of Johnson noise (thermal noise).
 One of the distinguishing features of a parametric amplifier is that it utilizes an ac rather than a dc power supply as
microwave tubes do.
 In this respect, the parametric amplifier is analogous to the quantum amplifier laser or maser in which an ac power supply
is used.

Nonlinear Reactance and Manley-Rowe Power Relations

A reactance is defined as a circuit element that stores and releases electromagnetic energy as opposed to a resistance, which
dissipates energy. If the stored energy is predominantly in the electric field, the reactance is said to be capacitive; if the
stored energy is predominantly in the magnetic field, the reactance is said to be inductive.
A capacitive reactance may then be a circuit element for which capacitance is the ratio of charge on the capacitor over
voltage across the capacitor. Then
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
If the ratio is not linear, the capacitive reactance is said to be nonlinear. In this case, it is convenient to define a nonlinear
capacitance as the partial derivative of charge with respect to voltage.
That is,
𝜕𝑄
𝐶 𝑣 =
𝜕𝑣
The analogous definition of a nonlinear inductance is
𝜕Φ
𝐿 𝑖 =
𝜕𝑖
In the operation of parametric devices, the mixing effects occur when voltages at two or more different frequencies are
impressed on a nonlinear reactance.
Manley-Rowe power relations
 Manley and Rowe derived a set of general energy relations regarding power flowing into and out of an ideal nonlinear
reactance.
 These relations are useful in predicting whether power gain is possible in a parametric amplifier. Figure shows an
equivalent circuit for Manley-Rowe derivation.
 In given Fig., one signal generator and one pump generator
at their respective frequencies 𝑓𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑝 ,together with
associated series resistances and bandpass filters, are applied
to a nonlinear capacitance C(t).
 These resonating circuits of filters are designed to reject
power at all frequencies other than their respective signal
frequencies.
 In the presence of two applied frequencies 𝑓𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑝 , an
infinite number of resonant frequencies of 𝑚𝑓𝑝 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑠 are Fig. Equivalent circuit for Manley-Rowe derivation.
generated, where m and n are any integers from zero to
infinity.
 Each of the resonating circuits is assumed to be ideal. The power loss by the nonlinear susceptances is negligible. That is,
the power entering the nonlinear capacitor at the pump frequency is equal to the power leaving the capacitor at the other
frequencies through the nonlinear interaction.
 Manley and Rowe established the power relations between the input power at the frequencies 𝑓𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑝 and the output
power at the other frequencies 𝑚𝑓𝑝 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑠 .
 From Eq. (8-5-4) the voltage across the nonlinear capacitor C(t) can be expressed in exponential form as
Parametric Amplifiers
 In a superheterodyne receiver a radio frequency signal may be mixed with a signal from the local oscillator in a nonlinear
circuit (the mixer) to generate the sum and difference frequencies.
 In a parametric amplifier the local oscillator is replaced by a pumping generator such as a reflex klystron and the
nonlinear element by a time varying capacitor such as a varactor diode (or inductor) as shown figure.
1. In given Fig., the signal frequency 𝑓𝑠 , and the pump frequency 𝑓𝑝 , are mixed in the nonlinear capacitor C.
2. Accordingly, a voltage of the fundamental frequencies 𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑝 , as well as the sum and the difference frequencies
𝑚𝑓𝑝 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑠 , appears across C.
3. If a resistive load is connected across the terminals of the idler circuit, an output voltage can be generated across the load
at the output frequency 𝑓𝑜 . The output circuit, which does not require external excitation, is called the idler circuit.

4. The output (or idler) frequency 𝑓𝑜 in the idler circuit is

expressed as the sum and the difference frequencies of the
signal frequency 𝑓𝑠 , and the pump frequency 𝑓𝑝 . That is,
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑚𝑓𝑝 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑠
where m and n are positive integers from zero to infinity.

 If 𝑓𝑜 > 𝑓𝑠 , the device is called a parametric up-converter.

Conversely, if 𝑓𝑜 < 𝑓𝑠 , the device is known as a parametric
down-converter.
Parametric up-converter
A parametric up-converter has the following properties:
1. The output frequency is equal to the sum of the signal frequency and the pump frequency.
2. There is no power flow in the parametric device at frequencies other than the signal, pump, and output frequencies.

Power Gain, Noise Figure and Bandwidth:

Parametric down-converter

If a mode of down conversion for a parametric amplifier is desirable, the signal frequency 𝑓𝑠 must be equal to the sum of
the pump frequency 𝑓𝑝 , and the output frequency 𝑓0 . This means that the input power must feed into the idler circuit and
the output power must move out from the signal circuit. The down-conversion gain (actually a loss) is given by
𝑓𝑠 𝑥
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑓0 1 + 1 + 𝑥 2

Negative-resistance parametric amplifier

 If a significant portion of power flows only at the signal frequency 𝑓𝑠 , the pump frequency 𝑓𝑝 , and the idler frequency 𝑓𝑖 ,
a regenerative condition with the possibility of oscillation at both the signal frequency and the idler frequency will occur.
 The idler frequency is defined as the difference between the pump frequency and the signal frequency, 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑝 − 𝑓𝑠 .
 When the mode operates below the oscillation threshold, the device behaves as a bilateral negative-resistance parametric
amplifier.

Power Gain, Noise Figure and Bandwidth:

Degenerate parametric amplifier
The degenerate parametric amplifier or oscillator is defined as a negative-resistance amplifier with the signal frequency equal
to the idler frequency. Since the idler frequency 𝑓𝑖 is the difference between the pump frequency 𝑓𝑝 and the signal frequency 𝑓𝑠
the signal frequency is just one-half the pump frequency.
Power Gain, Noise Figure and Bandwidth:

 The power gain and bandwidth characteristics of a degenerate parametric amplifier are exactly the same as for the
parametric upconverter.
 With 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑠 and 𝑓𝑝 = 2𝑓𝑠 , the power transferred from pump to signal frequency is equal to the power transferred from
pump to idler frequency.
 At high gain the total power at the signal frequency is almost equal to the total power at the idler frequency. Hence the
total power in the passband will have 3 dB more gain.
Applications
 The choice of which type of parametric amplifier to use depends on the microwave system requirements.
 The up-converter is a unilateral stable device with a wide bandwidth and low gain.
 The negative-resistance amplifier is inherently a bilateral and unstable device with narrow bandwidth and high gain.
 The degenerate parametric amplifier does not require a separate signal and idler circuit coupled by the diode and is the
least complex type of parametric amplifier.
In general, the up-converter has the following advantages over the negative resistance parametric amplifier:
1. A positive input impedance.
2. Unconditionally stable and unilateral.
3. Power gain independent of changes in its source impedance.
4. No circulator required.
5. A typical bandwidth on the order of 5%.
 At higher frequencies where the up-converter is no longer practical, the negative resistance parametric amplifier operated
with a circulator becomes the proper choice.
 When a low noise figure is required by a system, the degenerate parametric amplifier may be the logical choice, since its
double-sideband noise figure is less than the optimum noise figure of the up-converter or the nondegenerate negative-
resistance parametric amplifier.
 Furthermore, the degenerate amplifier is a much simpler device to build and uses a relatively low pump frequency. In radar
systems the negative- resistance parametric amplifier may be the better choice, since the frequency required by the system
may be higher than the X band.
 However, since the parametric amplifier is complicated in fabrication and expensive in production, there is a tendency in
microwave engineering to replace it with the GaAs metal-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET) amplifier in
airborne radar systems.