Control System

Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines
Volume 4: Best Practices for Power Plant Control Engineering

1022044
9839457
9839457
Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines
Volume 4: Best Practices for Power Plant Control Engineering
1022044
Technical Update, December 2011
EPRI Project Manager

A. Hussey
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

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9839457800.313.3774 ▪ 650.855.2121 ▪ askepri@epri.com ▪ www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
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THE FOLLOWING ORGANIZATION, UNDER CONTRACT TO EPRI. PREPARED THIS REPORT:
OptiControls Inc.
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continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.
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Copyright © 2011 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following organization, under contract to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
prepared this report:
OptiControls Inc.
514 Green Cedar Drive
League City, TX
Principal Investigator
J. Smuts
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
EPRI recognizes D. Evely of Southern Company for his contribution to this report.
This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines: Volume 4: Best Practices for Power Plant
Control Engineering. EPRI. Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1022044.
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ABSTRACT
Best practices are generally accepted work practices that cost-effectively facilitate
accomplishment of various tasks. Often based upon common sense and on-the-job training, best
practices are usually employed where no industry standards are in place. Until now, a concise set
of guidelines for best practices in control engineering has not been available to the power
industry, although standards, guidelines, design principles, operating instructions, and training
manuals have been published by authoritative bodies, research companies, control system and
instrumentation manufacturers, and independent authors. The objective of this document is to
provide a comprehensive set of best practices in control engineering drawn from a wide variety
of sources and summarized in a concise way.
These best practices guidelines for power plant control engineering cover the control system life
cycle, instrumentation, final control elements, controller tuning methods, control strategies,
advanced control, sequential automation, boiler control system design and optimization, burner
management systems, control loop performance monitoring, alarm management, and human-
machine interface design. This document is the fourth in a series of fossil plant control and
instrumentation guidelines produced by EPRI. The other three best practices guidelines address
instrument calibration (1015715, 2008), control loop tuning (1717525, 2009), and control loop
performance monitoring and improvement (1019684, 2010).
Keywords
Best Practices
Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control
Control Engineering
Boiler Controls
Control System Life Cycle
Controller Tuning
Control Loop Monitoring
Alarm Management
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ABBREVIATIONS
AMS Asset Management Software
APC Advanced Process Control
ARC Advanced Regulatory Control
CO Controller Output or Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
DCS Distributed Control System
DP Differential pressure
FD Forced Draft
H2O Water
HART Highway-Addressable Remote Transducer
HMI Human-Machine Interface
ID Induced Draft
IT Information Technology
MPC Model-Predictive Control(ler)
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
O2 Oxygen
OPC Object linking and embedding for process control
OPC DA OPC using real-time data access
OPC HDA OPC using historical data access
PA Primary Air
PI Proportional + Integral
PID Proportional + Integral + Derivative
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PV Process Variable
SP Set Point
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CONTENTS
SECTION I: GENERAL PRACTICES
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1-1
Categorization of Standards and Best Practices.................................................................. 1-1
Code Standards ............................................................................................................. 1-1
Industry Standards ......................................................................................................... 1-1
Best Practices ................................................................................................................ 1-2
Sources of Documented Best Practices............................................................................... 1-2
Electric Power Research Institute Publications .................................................................... 1-2
EPRI Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines ............................................ 1-2
EPRI Control System Retrofit Guidelines ....................................................................... 1-3
Other Relevant EPRI Reports & Updates ...................................................................... 1-3
ISA Standards ...................................................................................................................... 1-4
Technical Conference Papers .............................................................................................. 1-4
Trade Magazines and Topical Websites .............................................................................. 1-4
National Fire Protection Association .................................................................................... 1-5
Technical Books ................................................................................................................... 1-5
2 CONTROL SYSTEM LIFECYCLE ......................................................................................... 2-1
Standards and Guidelines .................................................................................................... 2-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 2-1
Specification ......................................................................................................................... 2-1
Control System Hardware .............................................................................................. 2-2
Redundancy and Robustness ........................................................................................ 2-3
Control System Configuration ........................................................................................ 2-3
I/O and Instrumentation .................................................................................................. 2-3
Data Access ................................................................................................................... 2-4
Peripheral Systems (Optional) ....................................................................................... 2-4
Operator Interfaces ........................................................................................................ 2-4
Compliance to Standards and Codes ............................................................................ 2-4
Documentation ............................................................................................................... 2-5
Project Execution ........................................................................................................... 2-5
Design .................................................................................................................................. 2-5
Design Standards ........................................................................................................... 2-5
Conventions ................................................................................................................... 2-5
Design Aspects .............................................................................................................. 2-6
Factory Acceptance Tests.................................................................................................... 2-6
Installation ............................................................................................................................ 2-6
Commissioning..................................................................................................................... 2-7
Training ................................................................................................................................ 2-7
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Operation & Maintenance .................................................................................................... 2-7
Computer Software and Hardware Upgrades ...................................................................... 2-7
Performance Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 2-8
Tube Leaks .................................................................................................................... 2-8
Rotating Equipment ........................................................................................................ 2-8
Thermal Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 2-8
Boiler and Turbine Stress Analysis ................................................................................ 2-8
Tube Temperature Monitoring ........................................................................................ 2-9
Coal Fineness ................................................................................................................ 2-9
Water Chemistry ............................................................................................................ 2-9
Control Loop Performance ............................................................................................. 2-9
Alarm System Performance ........................................................................................... 2-9
Abnormal Situations ....................................................................................................... 2-9
Change Management......................................................................................................... 2-10
Expansions......................................................................................................................... 2-10
Control System Retrofits .................................................................................................... 2-10
Business Case ............................................................................................................. 2-11
Scope of an Upgrade ................................................................................................... 2-13
Project Plan .................................................................................................................. 2-14
Cyber Security.................................................................................................................... 2-14
Defense in Depth ......................................................................................................... 2-15
Best Practices .............................................................................................................. 2-15
Steps for Implementing Best Practices ........................................................................ 2-16
3 INSTRUMENTATION, SENSORS, AND ANALYZERS ......................................................... 3-1
Guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 3-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3-1
Best-Practice Accuracies ..................................................................................................... 3-1
Instrument Range................................................................................................................. 3-2
Physical Location ................................................................................................................. 3-2
Installation of Impulse Lines ................................................................................................. 3-2
Level Measurement with Differential Pressure..................................................................... 3-3
Sensor-DCS Interfacing ....................................................................................................... 3-3
HART ............................................................................................................................. 3-4
Fieldbus .......................................................................................................................... 3-4
Best Practices ................................................................................................................ 3-4
Simulating Values ................................................................................................................ 3-5
Redundancy, Voting and Selection ...................................................................................... 3-5
Dual Redundancy ........................................................................................................... 3-5
Triple Redundancy ......................................................................................................... 3-5
Noise Suppression/Filtering ................................................................................................. 3-6
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4 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS .............................................................................................. 4-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4-1
Actuators .............................................................................................................................. 4-1
Positioners ........................................................................................................................... 4-2
Control Valves ...................................................................................................................... 4-2
Dampers............................................................................................................................... 4-2
Fan Vanes ............................................................................................................................ 4-3
Variable-Pitch Blades ........................................................................................................... 4-3
Variable-Speed Pumps and Fans ........................................................................................ 4-4
Controlling Multiple Pumps or Fans in Parallel .................................................................... 4-4
Linearization ......................................................................................................................... 4-4
Feedback Matching ........................................................................................................ 4-5
Calibration ............................................................................................................................ 4-6
Stiction ................................................................................................................................. 4-6
Dead Band ........................................................................................................................... 4-7
5 CONTROLLER TUNING METHODS ..................................................................................... 5-1
Guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 5-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5-1
Trial-and-Error Tuning .......................................................................................................... 5-2
Final Control Element Performance Checks ........................................................................ 5-2
Step Testing ......................................................................................................................... 5-2
Manual Tuning Methods....................................................................................................... 5-3
Tuning Rules ........................................................................................................................ 5-4
Caution with Quarter-Amplitude Damping Response..................................................... 5-5
Selecting a Tuning Rule ....................................................................................................... 5-5
Stability Margin ............................................................................................................... 5-6
Tuning for Set Point Changes or Disturbance Rejection ................................................ 5-7
Cohen-Coon ................................................................................................................... 5-7
Ziegler-Nichols ............................................................................................................... 5-8
Lambda Tuning .............................................................................................................. 5-8
Tuning Rule Selection .................................................................................................... 5-9
Assumptions Made by Tuning Rules .............................................................................. 5-9
Parameter Conversion for Parallel Algorithms ............................................................... 5-9
Tuning Software ................................................................................................................. 5-10
Varying Process Characteristics ........................................................................................ 5-11
Tuning Settings Lockdown ................................................................................................. 5-12
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6 ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL ............................................................................... 6-1
Guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 6-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6-1
Single-Loop Feedback Control............................................................................................. 6-1
Cascade Control .................................................................................................................. 6-2
Feedforward Control ............................................................................................................ 6-3
Ratio Control ........................................................................................................................ 6-5
Split-Range Control .............................................................................................................. 6-6
Combining Dampers and Fan Speed Control ...................................................................... 6-7
Gain Scheduling ................................................................................................................... 6-7
A Note on Parallel Controller Algorithms ........................................................................ 6-8
Linearization ......................................................................................................................... 6-9
Biases ................................................................................................................................ 6-10
Multiple Parallel Equipment................................................................................................ 6-10
7 ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL ...................................................................................... 7-1
Guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 7-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 7-1
Design .................................................................................................................................. 7-1
APC Technologies ......................................................................................................... 7-1
Expertise ........................................................................................................................ 7-2
Scope ............................................................................................................................. 7-2
Changing Dynamics ....................................................................................................... 7-2
Platform .......................................................................................................................... 7-2
DCS Integration .............................................................................................................. 7-3
Implementation..................................................................................................................... 7-3
Preparatory Work ........................................................................................................... 7-3
Step Testing and Model Building ................................................................................... 7-3
DCS Integration .............................................................................................................. 7-4
Commissioning and Tuning ............................................................................................ 7-4
Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................................. 7-4
Self-Learning Systems ................................................................................................... 7-4
Training .......................................................................................................................... 7-4
Maintenance ................................................................................................................... 7-5
On-Site Champion .......................................................................................................... 7-5
8 SEQUENTIAL AUTOMATION ............................................................................................... 8-1
Applicable and Guidelines.................................................................................................... 8-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 8-1
Design Philosophy ............................................................................................................... 8-2
Hierarchical Levels ......................................................................................................... 8-2
Scope of Automation ...................................................................................................... 8-2
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Plant Modes/States ........................................................................................................ 8-2
Operator Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... 8-2
Human Machine Interface .............................................................................................. 8-3
Design Principles ................................................................................................................. 8-3
Design Basis .................................................................................................................. 8-3
Code Requirements ....................................................................................................... 8-3
Fail Safe and Fault Tolerant Design ............................................................................... 8-4
Standby (Lead/Lag) Operation ....................................................................................... 8-4
Implementation ............................................................................................................... 8-4
Testing ........................................................................................................................... 8-4
Design Team ........................................................................................................................ 8-4
Implementation..................................................................................................................... 8-5
Implementation Team .................................................................................................... 8-5
Pre-Work ........................................................................................................................ 8-5
Commissioning ............................................................................................................... 8-5
Maintenance and Training.................................................................................................... 8-5
Maintaining Field Instruments ........................................................................................ 8-5
Modifying Sequential Logic ............................................................................................ 8-6
Operating Procedures .................................................................................................... 8-6
Operator Training ........................................................................................................... 8-6
SECTION II: BOILER CONTROLS
9 DRUM LEVEL CONTROL ...................................................................................................... 9-1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 9-1
Drum Level Measurement .................................................................................................... 9-1
Reference Leg ................................................................................................................ 9-1
Pressure Compensation ................................................................................................. 9-2
Multiple Instruments ....................................................................................................... 9-2
Filtering .......................................................................................................................... 9-2
Temperature Equalizing Columns .................................................................................. 9-2
Drum Level Control .............................................................................................................. 9-3
Single-Element Drum Level Control ............................................................................... 9-3
Inverse Response .......................................................................................................... 9-3
Shrink and Swell ............................................................................................................ 9-4
Drum Level Controller Tuning ........................................................................................ 9-4
Three-Element Drum Level Control ............................................................................... 9-4
Steam Flow Measurement ............................................................................................. 9-5
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10 FEEDWATER FLOW CONTROL ....................................................................................... 10-1
Standards and Guidelines .................................................................................................. 10-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10-1
Feedwater Flow Measurement........................................................................................... 10-1
Feedwater Flow Control Elements ..................................................................................... 10-1
Control Valves .............................................................................................................. 10-1
Variable-Speed Pumps ................................................................................................ 10-1
Minimum Flow Protection ............................................................................................. 10-3
Feedwater Flow Control on Once-through Boilers ....................................................... 10-3
11 CONDENSER AND DEAERATOR CONTROL .................................................................. 11-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 11-1
Level Control ...................................................................................................................... 11-1
Level Measurement............................................................................................................ 11-1
Condenser Level Measurement ................................................................................... 11-1
Deaerator Level Measurement ..................................................................................... 11-2
Level Controller Tuning ...................................................................................................... 11-2
Deaerator Pressure Control ............................................................................................... 11-2
12 FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL ................................................................................... 12-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 12-1
Furnace Pressure Measurement........................................................................................ 12-1
Furnace Pressure Control .................................................................................................. 12-2
Furnace Pressure Controller Tuning .................................................................................. 12-3
Furnace Pressure Oscillations ........................................................................................... 12-4
13 FUEL AND AIR CONTROL ................................................................................................ 13-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 13-1
Fuel Flow Control ............................................................................................................... 13-1
Fuel Flow Measurement ............................................................................................... 13-2
Pressure-Flow Interactions .......................................................................................... 13-2
Fuel Flow Scaling ......................................................................................................... 13-2
Fuel Flow Controller Tuning ......................................................................................... 13-2
Air-Fuel Cross-Limiting....................................................................................................... 13-3
Air Flow Control.................................................................................................................. 13-4
Air Flow Measurement ................................................................................................. 13-4
Air/Fuel Ratio Trim ....................................................................................................... 13-5
Air Flow Curve .............................................................................................................. 13-6
Final Control Elements for Air Flow .............................................................................. 13-6
Air-Duct and Windbox Pressure Control ...................................................................... 13-6
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14 EXCESS AIR/O2 CONTROL .............................................................................................. 14-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 14-1
O2 Control ........................................................................................................................... 14-1
O2 Measurement ................................................................................................................ 14-2
O2 Optimization ................................................................................................................... 14-3
O2 Controller Tuning ........................................................................................................... 14-4
Combustion Control ........................................................................................................... 14-4
Supplementary Measurements .................................................................................... 14-4
Constraint Control ........................................................................................................ 14-5
Fuel and Air Flow to Individual Burners ....................................................................... 14-6
Combustion Optimization Software .............................................................................. 14-7
15 PULVERIZER CONTROL .................................................................................................. 15-1
Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 15-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 15-1
Measuring Coal Flow ......................................................................................................... 15-1
Varying Heating Value ....................................................................................................... 15-2
Mill Dynamics ..................................................................................................................... 15-2
Bumpless Manual to Auto Transfer .................................................................................... 15-3
Fuel-Flow Control at the Mill Level ..................................................................................... 15-3
Mill Control ......................................................................................................................... 15-3
Vertical Spindle Mills .................................................................................................... 15-3
Ball Mills ....................................................................................................................... 15-5
Feeders .............................................................................................................................. 15-6
Primary Air Temperature .................................................................................................... 15-6
16 STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL ................................................................................ 16-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 16-1
Steam Temperature Measurement .................................................................................... 16-1
Steam Temperature Control–Drum Boiler.......................................................................... 16-1
Single-Loop Control ..................................................................................................... 16-2
Cascade Control .......................................................................................................... 16-2
Feedforward Control .................................................................................................... 16-3
Multistage Desuperheating .......................................................................................... 16-4
Steam Temperature Controller Tuning ......................................................................... 16-5
Steam Temperature Control – Once-Through Boilers ....................................................... 16-5
Steam Temperature Controller Tuning ......................................................................... 16-6
Reheat Temperature Control ............................................................................................. 16-6
Strategies for Improving Steam Temperature Control ....................................................... 16-6
Using Derivative Control .............................................................................................. 16-7
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Linearization of Spray Valves ....................................................................................... 16-8
Gain Scheduling ........................................................................................................... 16-8
Burner Tilts ................................................................................................................. 16-10
Saturation Protection .................................................................................................. 16-11
Controller Windup Protection ..................................................................................... 16-12
Spray Block-Valves .................................................................................................... 16-12
Model-Predictive Control ............................................................................................ 16-12
Intelligent Sootblowing ............................................................................................... 16-13
17 UNIT LOAD AND STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL........................................................... 17-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 17-1
Front-End Controls ............................................................................................................. 17-1
Constraint Control ........................................................................................................ 17-2
Unit Capability and Load Runback ............................................................................... 17-2
Boiler-Follow Mode ............................................................................................................ 17-2
Turbine-Follow Mode ......................................................................................................... 17-3
Coordinated Unit Control.................................................................................................... 17-4
Direct-Energy-Balance Unit Control ............................................................................. 17-5
Tuning ................................................................................................................................ 17-6
Load Controller Tuning ................................................................................................. 17-6
Throttle Pressure Controller Tuning ............................................................................. 17-6
Coordinated Mode Controller Tuning ........................................................................... 17-6
18 OPTIMIZING BOILER CONTROLS ................................................................................... 18-1
Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 18-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 18-1
Linearization ....................................................................................................................... 18-1
Calibration .......................................................................................................................... 18-1
Tuning Sequence ............................................................................................................... 18-2
Dynamic Compensation ..................................................................................................... 18-2
SECTION III: PERIPERAL SYSTEMS
19 BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM .................................................................................. 19-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 19-1
NFPA 85............................................................................................................................. 19-1
Burner Management Overview .......................................................................................... 19-1
Sequential Automation ....................................................................................................... 19-2
Instrumentation and Control ............................................................................................... 19-2
Flame Detectors ................................................................................................................. 19-2
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Interlocks and Trips ............................................................................................................ 19-3
Process Interlocks ........................................................................................................ 19-3
Auto-Manual Interlocks ................................................................................................ 19-4
Master Fuel Trip ........................................................................................................... 19-4
20 CONTROL LOOP PERFORMANCE MONITORING ......................................................... 20-1
Guidelines .......................................................................................................................... 20-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 20-1
Loop Performance Assessment ......................................................................................... 20-1
Index of Overall Loop Performance ............................................................................. 20-2
Loop Performance KPIs ............................................................................................... 20-2
Implementing Loop Monitoring Software............................................................................ 20-3
Pre-Installation ............................................................................................................. 20-3
Installation .................................................................................................................... 20-3
Configuration ................................................................................................................ 20-3
Calibration .................................................................................................................... 20-4
Training ........................................................................................................................ 20-4
Results ............................................................................................................................... 20-4
Benefits .............................................................................................................................. 20-4
21 ALARM MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................... 21-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 21-1
Types of Alarm Problems ................................................................................................... 21-2
Indicators of Poor Alarm System Performance .................................................................. 21-2
Steps for Addressing Alarm Problems ............................................................................... 21-3
Alarm Philosophy ......................................................................................................... 21-3
Identification ................................................................................................................. 21-3
Rationalization .............................................................................................................. 21-3
Detailed Design ............................................................................................................ 21-4
Implementation ............................................................................................................. 21-4
Operation ..................................................................................................................... 21-4
Maintenance ................................................................................................................. 21-4
Monitoring and Assessment ......................................................................................... 21-4
Audit ............................................................................................................................. 21-5
Management of Change ............................................................................................... 21-5
Alarm Reduction Practices ................................................................................................. 21-5
Alarm Management Software............................................................................................. 21-6
22 HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE (HMI) ............................................................................. 22-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 22-1
Steps in an HMI Design Project ......................................................................................... 22-2
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HMI Design Guideline ........................................................................................................ 22-2
Features of Effective HMI Design ...................................................................................... 22-3
Design Team ...................................................................................................................... 22-4
Control Room and Operating Console ............................................................................... 22-5
Training Requirements ....................................................................................................... 22-5
Complexity ......................................................................................................................... 22-5
Duplicate Equipment .......................................................................................................... 22-5
Code Requirements ........................................................................................................... 22-6
Alarm System Requirements ............................................................................................. 22-6
23 DATA HISTORIAN ............................................................................................................. 23-1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 23-1
Specification/Selection ....................................................................................................... 23-1
System Deployment ........................................................................................................... 23-1
Configuration Guidelines .................................................................................................... 23-2
24 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................. 24-1
References ......................................................................................................................... 24-1
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 24-3
Power Plant Retrofits ................................................................................................... 24-3
Control Valves and Instrumentation ............................................................................. 24-4
Boiler Control Design and Tuning ................................................................................ 24-4
Control Loop Performance Monitoring ......................................................................... 24-6
Alarm Management ...................................................................................................... 24-6
HMI Design .................................................................................................................. 24-7
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4-1 Typical Damper Flow Characteristic ......................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-2 Linearizing the Spraywater Control Valve ................................................................ 4-5
Figure 4-3 Aligning A/M Station Output with Actual Position and Feedback ............................. 4-6
Figure 4-4 Stick-Slip Cycle Caused by Control Valve Stiction ................................................... 4-7
Figure 4-5 Stiction Test Indicating a Sticky Control Valve ......................................................... 4-7
Figure 4-6 Dead-Band Test Indicating a Control Valve with Dead Band ................................... 4-8
Figure 5-1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio of 5:1 ......................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-2 Process Characteristics of a Self-Regulating Process ............................................. 5-4
Figure 5-3 Process Characteristics of an Integrating Process ................................................... 5-4
Figure 5-4 Quarter-Amplitude Damping after a Set Point Change............................................. 5-5
Figure 5-5 Stability Margins on a Set Point Change .................................................................. 5-6
Figure 5-6 Stability Margins and Disturbance Response ........................................................... 5-7
®
Figure 5-7 PAS PSS Loop Optimizer Controller Tuning Software .......................................... 5-11
Figure 6-1 Single-Loop Control .................................................................................................. 6-2
Figure 6-2 Cascade Control ....................................................................................................... 6-3
Figure 6-3 Feedforward Control ................................................................................................. 6-4
Figure 6-4 Lead-Lag Compensator with a Dominant Lead ........................................................ 6-4
Figure 6-5 Divisional vs. Multiplicative Ratio Control ................................................................. 6-5
Figure 6-6 Self-Adjusting Ratio Control ..................................................................................... 6-6
Figure 6-7 Split-Range Control .................................................................................................. 6-7
Figure 6-8 Gain Scheduling ....................................................................................................... 6-8
Figure 6-9 Final Control Element Linearization .......................................................................... 6-9
Figure 6-10 Linearizer Design .................................................................................................. 6-10
Figure 9-1 Drum Level Measurement ........................................................................................ 9-2
Figure 9-2 Single-Element Drum Level Control ......................................................................... 9-3
Figure 9-3 Three-Element Drum Level Control .......................................................................... 9-5
Figure 12-1 Furnace Pressure Control .................................................................................... 12-3
Figure 13-1 Fuel and Air Cross-Limiting .................................................................................. 13-4
Figure 14-1 Automatic Air/Fuel Ratio Adjustment .................................................................... 14-2
Figure 14-2 Typical O2 Set Point Curve ................................................................................... 14-4
Figure 14-3 Constraint Control ................................................................................................. 14-6
Figure 15-1 Control Structure to Keep Mill on its Load Line .................................................... 15-4
Figure 15-2 Parallel Control of PA Flow and Feeder Speed .................................................... 15-4
Figure 15-3 Control of Mill with Exhauster ............................................................................... 15-5
Figure 15-4 Ball Mill Control ..................................................................................................... 15-6
Figure 16-1 Single-Loop Steam Temperature Control ............................................................. 16-2
Figure 16-2 Cascade Steam Temperature Control .................................................................. 16-3
Figure 16-3 Feedforward for Improving Steam Temperature Control ...................................... 16-4
Figure 16-4 Simulation Indicating the Benefits of Using Derivative Control ............................. 16-7
Figure 16-5 Spray Control Valve Linearization ........................................................................ 16-8
Figure 16-6 Use of Gain Scheduling on Superheater Temperature Control .......................... 16-10
Figure 16-7 Saturation Protection Logic ................................................................................ 16-11
Figure 16-8 Spraywater Block Valve in Series with Control Valve ......................................... 16-12
Figure 17-1 Boiler-Follow Mode ............................................................................................... 17-3
Figure 17-2 Turbine-Follow Mode ............................................................................................ 17-4
Figure 17-3 Coordinated Control, Derived from [30] ................................................................ 17-5
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 5-1 Cohen-Coon Tuning Rules for Self-Regulating Processes ........................................ 5-7
Table 5-2 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Rules for Integrating Processes ............................................ 5-8
Table 5-3 Lambda Tuning Rules for Slow Response on Self-Regulating Processes ................ 5-8
Table 5-4 Lambda Tuning Rules for Slow Response on Integrating Processes ........................ 5-8
Table 5-5 Tuning Rule Selection ................................................................................................ 5-9
Table 6-1 Commonly Used Feedforward Compensation ........................................................... 6-5
Table 15-1 Pulverizer Classification ......................................................................................... 15-1
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SECTION I: GENERAL PRACTICES
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1
INTRODUCTION
Best practices are generally-accepted work practices that have proven themselves over time to
accomplish given tasks more effectively and with fewer problems and unforeseen complications.
Often based upon common sense and on-the-job training, best practices are commonly used
where no industry standards are in place.
There is a wealth of information available on topics related to power plant control engineering.
Standards, guidelines, design principles, operating instructions and training manuals have been
published by authoritative bodies, research companies, control system and instrumentation
manufacturers and independent authors. However, the objective of this document is to provide
a comprehensive set of best practices in control engineering drawn from all the sources and
summarized in a concise way.
The challenge in compiling this document was deciding how much information to include in it.
It seemed appropriate to include a general overview of the state of the art, interlaced with
documented best practices. In this way the document can serve as a general guideline while also
exposing the reader to the best practices being followed.
This document is the fourth in a series of fossil plant control and instrumentation guidelines
produced by EPRI.
Categorization of Standards and Best Practices

Not all standards are equally binding [1]. Standards can broadly be divided into three classes:
code standards, industry standards, and best practices.
Code Standards
Code standards are always binding. These are required by law, e.g. NFPA 85 Boiler and
Combustion Systems Hazards Code1.
Although this document includes highlights from code standards, these are presented to illustrate
the applicability of the standards to the topics being discussed. In all cases, the reader is directed
to the relevant code standards to ensure compliance.
Industry Standards
Industry standards are often followed as general practices. They are binding when specified in a
contract. Adherence to industry standards may be required by utilities and if so, they should be
specified in the contract, e.g. ANSI/ISA-77.44.01-2007 - Fossil Fuel Power Plant Steam
2
Temperature Controls .
1
NFPA – National Fire Protection Agency.
2
ANSI – American National Standards Institute; ISA – International Society of Automation.
9839457 1-1
Best Practices
Best practices are not necessarily intended to be binding, although nothing prevents them from
being specified in a contract. Best practices are often used when no approved standards are in
place. They could be based on published documents e.g. the EPRI3 Guidelines for Control
System Retrofits, or they could be generated by a company for internal use.
Sources of Documented Best Practices

A summary of the sources of information, guidelines, and best practices are listed below, but
more detail is provided in the list of references and bibliography at the end of this document.
Standards, guidelines, and books relevant to the contents of each chapter are listed at the
beginning of the chapter, and the reader is encouraged to refer to them for more in-depth
discussions on the topics.
Electric Power Research Institute Publications

Specific to the power industry, EPRI has played a pivotal role in compiling and publishing
guidelines and best practices. The field of controls, EPRI has reports on instrument calibration,
control loop tuning, control performance monitoring, control system retrofits, upgrades, and
troubleshooting. EPRI’s website, www.epri.com, provides a searchable index of publications.
EPRI Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines
Instrument Calibration (1015715, 2008) - This report summarizes an earlier study performed on
instrument calibration analysis and serves as a guideline for performing statistical analysis of
instrument calibration data for plants that desire to monitor and improve instrument performance.
Control Loop Tuning (1017525, 2009) – Similar to Volumes 1 to 4 of TR-102052, 1993, this
report has been developed to provide a comprehensive, user-focused reference source specific
to the utility industry. Although considerable literature exists on tuning, much of it is more
applicable to other industries. The EPRI tuning report contains discussion and examples specific
to utility plant boiler control. The guidelines are presented in four core chapters, each with a
different user target.
• Management’s Guide to Tuning addresses management’s needs: purpose, personnel, training,
procedures, impact, etc.
• The Technician’s Guide to Tuning, focuses on the trial, test, and evaluate approach to tuning
without presenting complete coverage of the underlying advanced mathematics.
• The Engineer’s Configuration Guide to Tuning discusses the physical processes and
associated control strategies.
• Appendix A, Glossary of Control Terms, presents common control terms.
Control Loop Performance Monitoring and Improvement (1019684, 2010) - This report
describes metrics and key performance indicators for monitoring control loop performance. It
also provides a set of job instruction cards that describe commonly occurring control problems
with their symptoms, and provide guidance on diagnosing and solving these problems.
3
EPRI – Electric Power Research Institute.
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EPRI Control System Retrofit Guidelines
EPRI published three volumes of guidelines for control system retrofits (TR-100343, 1992).
In 2005, recommendations for improvements to this document were documented in 1010263.
Volume 1 covers the methodology and cost justification of retrofit projects. Although the
document was published almost 20 years ago, most of the guidelines covered by it still apply.
• Section 1 covers defining the project needs, goals, scope, costs, and benefits.
• Section 2 describes a methodology for project approval and planning.
• Section 3 covers project implementation, from defining the scope of work to verifying the
benefits.
• The guidelines document also contains several handy appendices with questionnaires,
worksheets, analyses, calculations, and examples related to planning and executing retrofit
projects.
Volume 2 covers software and hardware for digital control systems as available in 1992. Since
digital systems have changed significantly over the last 20 years, some of this report is outdated.
• Section 1 lists the minimum requirements for digital control systems, and most of it still
applies. Newer technologies like fieldbus, OPC, and LCD monitors are obviously not
discussed.
• Section 2 provides a description of hardware offerings provided in 1992 by six DCS vendors.
These vendors or their successors now offer newer technology, so this section is not useful
for control system retrofit projects.
• Section 3 describes the capabilities of a 1992 DCS, but surprisingly much of this information
is still valid today.
• The appendixes are outdated.
Volume 3 covers several case studies of control system retrofits done according to the three-
phased approach described in the three sections of Volume 1. Volume 3 provides real-world
examples of the material discussed in Volume 1.
Other Relevant EPRI Reports & Updates
Power Plant Control System Tuning Short Course Notes (1003740, 2004). The course notes
include information on process response concepts, control system fundamentals, PID tuning, and
boiler control system applications examples. It was designed for plant engineers and technicians
involved with control system tuning and plant responsiveness.
Power Plant Control System Troubleshooting Short Course Notes (1010262, 2006). The course
objective is to provide guidance to power plant I&C engineers and technicians on a systematic
approach to troubleshooting control system problems. It was designed to help technicians
identify the root cause of a problem more accurately and faster, resulting in quicker repairs.
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Power Plant Control System Tuning (TE-113653, 1999). This short report discusses the state of
control system tuning in the power industry, provides some guidance on how to improve it, and
discusses what EPRI is doing to develop improved tools to assist plant personnel with control
system tuning.
Practical Maintenance of Digital Systems (1008124, 2004). This report provides guidance for
plant operators and designers for achieving cost-effective maintainability and testability of
digital systems and HMIs. Although the intent is nuclear-power focused the report is largely
relevant to all power generation control systems.
Requirements Engineering for Digital Upgrades - Specification, Analysis, and Tracking (TR-
108831, 1997). This guideline is to help utilities design and implement digital upgrades. It
suggests an iterative approach for requirements specification that combines the use of early
conceptual designs and the consideration of risk as it pertains to the success of the upgrade
project.
ISA Standards
The International Society of Automation (ISA) has several standards in the ISA 77 series for
boiler controls. The standards themselves contain information on best practices, but they each
have a section with application notes that provides a wealth of additional information on best
practices and implementation of the standards. ISA’s website, www.isa.org, provides a
searchable index of standards and technical papers.
Technical Conference Papers

Technical papers provide a good source of new developments and proven best practices. Many
technical papers on control system design, retrofits, tuning and control loop optimization have
been published by ISA, ASME, IEEE, and IFAC. The ISA’s power industry division (POWID)
has an annual symposium of which the papers are specific to both process control and the power
industry, making them an excellent source of documented best practices. A few excellent
examples follow, but many others are listed under References and Bibliography at the end of this
document.
• Aspects of Tuning a Boiler Control System – a strategy for Optimization, by Richard Morse
and others, ISA POWID, 1976
• A Guide to Boiler Control System Startup and Checkout, by Cyrus Taft and Gordon
McFarland, ISA POWID/EPRI. 1991
• A Control System Retrofit for an 80MW Steam Turbine Generator Unit – A DCS Solution,
by Nigel S. Baptiste, ISA POWID/EPRI. 2005
• Primary Air Control for Pulverized Coal Firing Systems, by Allan J. Zadiraka, ISA POWID,
2011
Trade Magazines and Topical Websites

Similar to technical papers, certain trade magazines and websites feature monthly articles on new
developments in the power industry, including process control, retrofits, cyber security, etc. The
websites are particularly useful for research purposes because they provide search features.
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• Power Magazine and their associated websites www.powermag.com and
www.coalpowermag.com
• Power Engineering magazine and their associated website www.powergenworldwide.com
• Control magazine and their associated website www.controlglobal.com (not power-
industry specific)
• Control Engineering and their associated website www.controleng.com (not power-
industry specific)
National Fire Protection Association

No guide on boiler controls will be complete without at least referencing the NFPA’s Boiler
and Combustion Systems Hazards Code: NFPA 85. This code standard is particularly important
when designing and maintaining burner management systems, but its requirements spill over into
several boiler control system designs, for example furnace pressure control.
Technical Books
There are many books on the general topics of control systems design, tuning, and
troubleshooting. There are also several books that focus on, or at minimum have sections on
boiler controls. One of the best examples is The Control of Boilers by Sam Dukelow. The
References and Bibliography chapter at the end of this document provides several others, as well
as selected books on general control systems design, tuning, and troubleshooting. The latter
specifically excludes academic textbooks and focuses on books with a practical viewpoint that
are more suitable for practicing control engineers/technicians.
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2
CONTROL SYSTEM LIFECYCLE
Standards and Guidelines
• ANSI/ISA-99.00.01-2007 - Security for Industrial Automation and Control Systems Part 1:
Terminology, Concepts, and Models.
• ANSI/ISA-99.02.01-2009 - Security for Industrial Automation and Control Systems:
Establishing an Industrial Automation and Control Systems Security Program.
• Control System Retrofit Guidelines Volume 1: Methodology and Cost Justification. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: 1992. TR-100343-V1.
• Control System Retrofit Guidelines Volume2: Technical Assessment. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
1992. TR-100343-V2.
• Control System Retrofit Guidelines Volume 3: Case Studies. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1992.
TR-100343-V3.
• Requirements Engineering for Digital Upgrades - Specification, Analysis, and Tracking.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1997. 108831.
• Control System Retrofit Guidelines Update: Review of Original Report and
Recommendations for Updating. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005. 1010263.
• NERC-CIP 001 to 009 Cyber Security Standards, NERC4, 2006.
Introduction
The life of a control system begins long before its installation. It begins with identifying
the needs and writing the specifications for a control system. It then enters the design and
procurement phases, after which the control system is installed and commissioned. For the
next decade or two, the control system is in operation, but needs to be maintained, modified,
and expanded where necessary. When its usable life draws to an end, a replacement control
system must be cost-justified and specified, thus beginning a new lifecycle.
Specification
It would be virtually impossible to purchase the correct control system without meticulously
specifying every aspect of it. The specifications must convey the basic function of the control
system and the needs of the main stakeholders: engineering, operations, maintenance, and
management. Just having the vendor submit a proposal based on the number of Input/Output
(I/O) and consoles without a specification to match it will likely result in multiple change orders
and their associated inflation in cost.
Decisions on the scope of the system must be made upfront and the scope then needs to be
adhered to throughout the project. A ‘moving target’ will destroy the schedule and the budget.
Once the high-level scope has been established, the underlying detail can be filled in. The
4
North American Electric Reliability Corporation.
9839457 2-1
specification should be written such that it is realistic and exact, but not vendor specific,
assuming that it will form the basis of a formal inquiry/bidding process. It is imperative that
the criteria for vendor conformance to specification be clearly defined.
Unless there is a corporate standard for distributed control system (DCS) vendor selection,
multiple vendors should be invited to submit tenders. Vendors should be required to demonstrate
power plant expertise such as successful completion of similar projects. As far as possible, one
vendor should be selected for all control equipment to reduce spares holding requirements and
eliminate compatibility issues that would occur when different vendors’ products are integrated
in a project.
The items below should be considered for inclusion into a specification document. Obviously,
the specification has to elaborate greatly on each of the items.
Control System Hardware
• Latest generation, open architecture DCS, with fully integrated data acquisition, analog and
binary control, sequential automation, alarming, operator interface, and engineering systems
• Safety shutdown could be part of DCS for a single-source system, but run in different
processors as required by NFPA code
• Geographical distribution of the hardware
- Cabinets should be used for the housing of control processors, switches, engineering
workstation, file server, etc.
- Sensitive control equipment should be located away from the console and in a secure
cabinet
- Minimize local control panels in the field
- Include emergency panels hardwired to gas and steam turbine control/shutdown systems
• Surge protected, redundant power supplies with UPS backup where necessary
• Diagnostic tools to assist the technician/engineer in troubleshooting
• Robust design: Rugged, fault tolerant hardware that is hot-swappable, resistant to adverse
5
conditions such as RFI/EFI transmissions, power surges and fluctuations, extreme
temperatures, vibration
• Uniform & modular hardware design: Repeated use of similar hardware such that the cost of
inventory is minimized
• Interfaces required for connecting gas turbine, heat recovery steam generator, and balance of
plant “package” control systems to each other
• Central file server: To provide operating system and applications for other nodes on the
network and perform user management, access control, and system security functions
• Clear upgrade or expansion path for future development
• Support period for system hardware and technical support
5
RFI – Radio Frequency Interference; EMI – Electromagnetic Interference.
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Redundancy and Robustness
• Redundancy and fail-over and fault tolerance requirements should be clearly specified.
- A single, or even multiple program faults (variable out of range, divide by zero, memory
overflow, etc.) should not cause any processor to go down.
- Hot standby redundant process controllers. The system should be redundant down to,
and possibly including, the I/O cards so that no single failure will cause a total system
shutdown.
• Burner-management systems should be triple redundant with 2 out of 3 voting for shutdown
functions.
• Redundancy checking should be done internal to the processors and not require any
programming or high-level code.
• It should not be possible to program processors separately once they are coupled in a fault-
tolerant set.
• Networks should be dual redundant.
• Power supplies should be dual redundant.
• The operator interface should be redundant so that a failure of any sub-system does not cause
a complete loss-of-view, or loss-of-control situation.
• Loss of redundancy to be alarmed to the operator console and/or maintenance staff.
• Links to databases and external applications must not cause control system disruptions if the
database system fails.
Control System Configuration

• Programming language standards, e.g. IEC6 61131-3 [2]
• Should support on-line configuration
• Easy to program and maintain control designs, troubleshoot control problems
• Easy to configure, test and maintain operator graphics
• System should be self-documenting
I/O and Instrumentation

• I/O types, quantities, and locations.
• Types of field instrumentation and field device replacements if this is an upgrade.
• Instrument communication requirements (Fieldbus, HART, 4-20 mA).
6
International Electrotechnical Commission.
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Data Access
• Data access requirements, such as OPC DA, HDA, A&E, XML, UA, etc., for serving process
rd
data to 3 -party systems7
• Bandwidth (ensure copious spare capacity for future expansions)
Peripheral Systems (Optional)

• Advanced process control systems for combustion and steam temperature control
• Asset management system
• Equipment condition monitoring and diagnostics system
• Alarm management system
• Control performance monitoring system
• Process historian
• Interfacing of the above systems to a Computerized Maintenance Management System
(CMMS) to initiate preventive or reliability-based maintenance activities
Operator Interfaces
• Building, upgrading, or consolidation of control rooms
• Number and size of operator consoles
• A single operator interface to DCS, burner management, and other systems
• Thin-client technology (web browser or other method of deployment requiring no
installation)
• Real-time and historical trending
• Integrated alarm management interface
• Tools for monitoring and troubleshooting interlocks and automation sequences
• Remote access for engineering, centralized monitoring services, etc.
• Access levels to prevent changing controller parameters, alarm settings, and protected set
points
Compliance to Standards and Codes

• Safety and environmental regulatory standards
• Security standards
• Industry design and installation standards
• Documented best practices
• Control diagrams (SAMA8 and/or ISA), e.g. ISA-5.1/2/3/4/5
7
A&E – Alarms & Events; XML – Extensible Markup Language; UA – Unified Architecture.
8
SAMA – Scientific Apparatus Makers Association.
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Documentation
• Single master document/database
• Electronic format
• Searchable
• Support Structured Query Language (SQL) queries
• Remotely accessible
• Revision/change management
• Electronic control diagrams
Project Execution
• Project management responsibilities
• Procurement, packaging and delivery preferences
• Plant access, permits and certifications required
• Installation and commissioning responsibilities
• Reliability testing period
Design
The design of individual control loops for drum level, steam temperature, etc. will be covered
later in this document. This section deals with high-level design concepts from a plant lifecycle
perspective.
Design Standards
Base the design on proven, standard designs, do not reinvent the wheel. Refer to the ISA-77
standards, and books such as Gerry Gilman’s Boiler Control Systems Engineering.
Obtain strong involvement from engineers, technicians, and operators with experience running
similar units (not just designing them).
Conventions
Modern, open-architecture DCSs provide the ultimate flexibility in design, naming, and
numbering of signals, blocks and components. Inconsistent designs and naming conventions
make a system difficult to maintain, interface with, and expand.
Establish design, naming, and numbering conventions up front, before any work is started. If
needed, get the advice of someone who has been through a DCS configuration project on the
same type of DCS.
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Several DCSs provide options for which controller algorithm to use. Ensure that the same
controller algorithm is selected for all controllers. Although the parallel controller algorithm is
popular in the power industry, it is difficult and non-intuitive to tune. Use the parallel algorithm
only as a last choice. Use the non-interactive algorithm if it is available, and the interactive
algorithm as a second choice.
It is very important to set standards for consistency before the design begins, as it will almost
always be too expensive to correct a poorly designed, but functioning, system later.
Design Aspects
• Ensure the design includes safety interlocking and facilities to maintain operation within safe
limits
• Include auto-manual interlocking, e.g. boiler master can only be in auto if at least one of the
mills/fuel control valves is in auto
• Strive for a high level of automation to enable startup and shutdown with the minimum
number of operators. This includes individual pieces of equipment (such as mills) and
boiler/turbine run-up and run-down sequences
• Be sure the designs accommodate low load operation and operational flexibility such as
non-standard equipment selections (e.g. left-hand induced draft fan with right-hand
forced-draft fan)
• Any control loop should be able to be placed in manual control mode at the discretion of
the operator. Operation with parts of the control system in automatic and parts in manual
must be supported
• Provide facility for automated runbacks on emissions and loss of equipment
• Provide a state-of-the-art, ergonomic human machine interface
Factory Acceptance Tests

Sufficient time must be given for the Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) development, execution,
and discrepancy resolution. It is much more efficient resolving problems during the FAT than
during commissioning.
It is impractical to have all the instrumentation available for DCS factory testing. A process that
has worked well on a number of projects, however, is to test one representative device for each
type of device in the plant. This provides the designer with proof of concept; allows the control
system supplier to confirm operation with the control logic; and reassures the owner that the
connectivity is viable throughout the chain from the HMI through to representative devices.
More recently, it has become commonly accepted practice to inject software simulated signals at
the I/O bus level instead of at the field signal side.
Installation
It is important to make certain that instrumentation and control equipment are properly installed
and calibrated. These activities should be performed by qualified and experienced personnel.
The plant personnel who will be responsible for maintaining the system should observe and
assist the manufacturer’s representatives during installation and calibration.
9839457 2-6
Commissioning
Asset management software can be used in conjunction with smart/fieldbus instrumentation to
provide a single location for device configuration, calibration management, diagnostics and
in-plant smart/fieldbus device documentation. Field personnel are needed only to verify that the
correct process device is being read or manipulated and that the valve stroke and feedback
mechanism is correctly adjusted on actuators. Calibration documentation and an audit trail,
including user name and time stamp should be recorded for future reference.
It is important to have the personnel who configured the control system logic involved in
the commissioning process. All I/O needs to be checked from the field to the control system,
including verifying it shows up on the graphics as anticipated. Sufficient time needs to be built
into the schedule to allow this to occur prior to putting fire in the unit.
Operations personnel should participate in the loop tests. Loop tests are done from the device
all the way back to the operator graphical interfaces. With operators assisting, two goals are
achieved at the same time: complete system checks of all hardware and software; and operator
familiarity with the system.
Controller tuning needs to be done in parallel with starting up different pieces of plant, which
requires the tuners to be scheduled for these activities. Sufficient tuning time also needs to be
scheduled into the project for optimizing all the controls following the synchronization of the
unit.
Training
Most control manufacturers offer training programs to familiarize customer personnel with the
control equipment. Ensure that everyone working on the system has been properly trained to
do so. Refresher training is often required for complex tasks not done frequently, like control
performance troubleshooting and loop tuning.
Operation & Maintenance

Normal day-to-day maintenance can be performed by trained plant personnel, while large
refurbishment projects are often outsourced to specialist companies. Large stations should
have at least one onsite control engineer for tuning and optimization, smaller plants can
appoint corporate resources or an external company to troubleshoot and correct poor control
performance.
A planed program of preventive maintenance should be developed for the control system
and field instrumentation. Manufacturers’ guidelines and plant experience should dictate the
frequency and scope of planned maintenance. Periodic maintenance activities should be
scheduled using a computer system. Ideally such a system will assess stock levels of spare
parts and order needed parts prior to the scheduled maintenance if necessary.
Computer Software and Hardware Upgrades

One downside to modern digital control systems is their relatively short life cycles. Digital
technology, such as microprocessors, memory chips, and most semiconductor chips, is
continually evolving at such a rapid pace that systems built with these components become
unsupportable in about 10 years. This does not mean that the entire DCS must be upgraded
9839457 2-7
every 10 years. It does mean that some components of the system need to be upgraded that often.
Usually the newer device is backward compatible to some extent and the impact on the system is
not severe. But every so often, the upgrading of a single component triggers a cascade effect on
other hardware and software in the system. The full impact of an upgrade should be established
prior to any work done so that the appropriate planning can be done to cover all the side effects.
Vendors typically issue software upgrades every year or two. Sometimes the software upgrades
also require hardware upgrades. Sometimes new bugs are introduced in new software releases.
Users have to review the new features and bug fixes in a new release and decide whether to
upgrade or just continue to use the older version. Obviously some critical patches, security
updates, and bug fixes should be applied as soon as possible.
Performance Monitoring
The size and complexity of modern power plant units, as well as the quest for improving
efficiency while reducing costs, have brought great importance to the continuous monitoring of
their performance. Monitoring solutions have been developed for almost every area where the
probability and/or cost of a failure or deviation from normal is significant.
Tube Leaks
Early detection of tube leaks can minimize the damage that can occur when high-pressure steam
escaping from a tube leak washes away material from nearby tubes. Accurately locating a tube
leak will also reduce repair time.
Rotating Equipment
Early detection of impending problems with rotating equipment can save a plant millions of
dollars. Condition monitoring of rotating equipment includes vibration analysis, thermography,
spectrographic oil analysis, and detecting wear debris in oil. Vibration sensing is normally done
online, but technologies exist to do all of the other fault detection methods automatically too.
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of a unit should be checked periodically through extensive heat rate tests.
Techniques and procedures for performing such tests are covered under the ASME9 Performance
Test Codes. Online performance calculations should be conducted at least hourly for cycling
units and daily for base-loaded units. This information should be compared with expected
performance data and deviations should be reported to engineering for investigation and
correction.
Boiler and Turbine Stress Analysis
During plant startup, shutdown, or cycling operation, temperature transients are imposed on
the headers, tees, drums, and steam lines. The resulting thermal loadings can cause significant
stresses, increasing creep damage and cycling fatigue. A boiler and turbine stress management
system monitors the unit operation in real time, alerts operators of damaging transients as they
occur, and calculates accumulated damage to critical components.
9
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
9839457 2-8
Tube Temperature Monitoring
A tube-temperature monitoring system monitors the metal temperatures of representative
superheater and reheater tubing, and assists engineering and operations staff with minimizing
temperature excursions that reduce tube life.
Coal Fineness
Coal particle size has a direct effect on the percentage of unburned carbon exiting the boiler.
Online monitoring of coal particle size can proactively identify problems with coal grindability
and mill or classifier effectiveness.
Water Chemistry
Online water chemistry management systems assist operators by providing alarms and
recommending corrective actions as soon as a water or steam chemistry excursion is detected.
Control Loop Performance
Control loops need to perform optimally to ensure fast rejection of disturbances while
maintaining stability of the total system. Some loops perform well; some perform poorly all the
time; and others perform poorly under certain operating conditions. Loop monitoring software
can identify the poorly performing loops and the conditions under which this happens.
The performance of some control loops deteriorates over time because of the degradation of field
equipment. Online control loop monitoring can identify the poorly performing control loops and
report them to engineering or maintenance. Control loop performance monitoring is discussed in
Chapter 20.
Alarm System Performance
The performance of the alarm system should be continuously monitored and checked for
excessive alarms, alarm floods, chattering alarms, etc. Analysis of alarm performance data will
likely trigger maintenance activities, readjustment of alarm parameters, or changes to operating
procedures. Without monitoring, the performance of an alarm system is likely to degrade. Alarm
management is discussed in Chapter 21.
Abnormal Situations
Abnormal situation detection often relies on pattern recognition and expert-system logic to detect
and diagnose abnormal patterns in boiler operation. It can warn the plant of problems long before
alarms are triggered.
EPRI’s FW-PHM10 Suite is the industry’s first comprehensive diagnostic and prognostic
software solution designed for compatibility with existing power plant troubleshooting and
asset management processes, leveraging tools already used for anomaly detection, reliability
assessment and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) [3].
10
Fleet-Wide Prognostics and Health Management.
9839457 2-9
Change Management
When a unit has been commissioned and is in normal service, the control systems normally
don’t remain stagnant until the control system is replaced. New operating modes, unforeseen
circumstances, and efficiency and reliability improvements frequently result in the need to
change the control system. To make sure that a process of reviews and approvals are followed
and that all documentation is updated and operators trained, a change management process
should be implemented and followed.
The change needs to be described in written format with supporting documents and new designs
where appropriate. Enough detail must be provided that a control system technician can
implement the change directly from the documentation. The effects on other systems
(thermodynamic, mechanical, and controls) must be described in detail and undesired side-
effects must have a mitigation plan. The degree of risk and impact also needs to be established
and fall-back strategy needs to be devised in case the change causes problems.
An approval process is required in which the proposed design is reviewed and approved by all
affected departments, including operations, maintenance, engineering, management, safety, and
environmental.
After approval all documentation must be updated and rolled out at the same time the change is
implemented. Original documentation should be updated to show what was changed, when, and
why. Training needs to be done before commissioning of the change, or directly afterward.
After implementing the change, its performance must be monitored to ensure expected outcome.
Expansions
Unless the plant has already decided to go to new technology, expansions should be extensions
of the existing DCS, instrumentation, HMI, designs and control standards. If migrating to new
technology is imminent, the expansion should be using the new technology if possible, to prevent
unnecessary future upgrades, and to gain experience with the new technology. Expansions can
often be done under the existing change management process.
Control System Retrofits

Given time, control systems become outdated. It often seems that as soon as a new system is
installed, it becomes obsolete. A newer system quickly becomes available which is better, faster,
and less expensive. Within a few years it becomes difficult to find personnel to work on the
“dated” system as everyone wants to work on the latest technology. Soon it becomes difficult
and expensive to find spare parts to keep the old system running. Then, finally, it gets replaced
with the latest technology, only to restart the cycle.
Although it is impossible to stop the cycle, with some care it can be slowed down. When a new
system is purchased every precaution should be taken to ensure that it provides satisfactory
service over a long period of time. This includes proper up-front design and specification,
followed by a quick bid evaluation and purchase cycle. It also requires written assurances from
the manufacturer of long-term support for the equipment.
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Most aspects of a retrofit require the same best practice guidelines as described earlier for new
systems, including the specification, factory acceptance tests, installation, commissioning, and
training. Areas where a control system retrofit differs from a green-field project are mostly the
business case and design.
Business Case
Since a control system upgrade is an expensive endeavor, it begins with preparing a solid
business case. Obsolescence of spares is the obvious motivation, but it is not the final answer [4].
It is common for 3rd-party companies to refurbish and trade in spare parts no longer supported by
control systems vendor. It is therefore technically possible to continue maintaining a control
system long after official support for it has ended. Another strategy might be doing a partial
upgrade and using spares for remaining equipment.
The business case should consider several aspects: the cost of not upgrading, the cost of
upgrading, and incremental benefits expected from an upgrade. Then it should be determined
if the projected cost exceed the cost of replacement over period of interest (1 – 2 years) minus
the value of additional benefits. There may be other benefits too to consider (see below).
Statistical and financial data collected over several years should be used to back up the costs and
benefits.
Cost of Not Upgrading

• As a result of components aging, their reliability decreases. The cost of outages and loss of
production due to control system failures should be determined. Logs should be kept of
failure rates and analyzed to determine if these are increasing. Calculate the probability and
cost of outages over one, two, and five-year periods as a result of failures.
• Cost of additional maintenance to repair and replace failing cards.
• Incremental cost of old technology. Spare parts become more expensive when the
manufacturer does not support them anymore.
• There is an increased risk of an extended outage caused by unavailability of spare parts. Keep
log of turnaround time on spare parts and identify trends that this is increasing. Should a
critical spare part fail, and the standby one on hand does not work, the purchasing delay will
directly affect the duration of the outage.
Cost of Upgrade
Make sure all the explicit and implicit costs are taken into account. These include the following
costs:
• Equipment (DCS, PLC, computers, displays, networks, instrumentation, cabling, power
supplies, racks, etc.)
- Include spare capacity
- Include spare parts
• Incremental maintenance of additional equipment
• Software licenses and maintenance fees
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• Buildings and remodeling of control rooms
• Manpower: internal, vendor, contractors
• Training costs and time of maintenance personnel and operators
• Documentation, including management of change during installation, commissioning, and
optimization.
• Loss of production
• Contingency (typically five to ten percent)
Additional Value Derived from Upgrade

In addition to meeting the primary project objectives, an upgrade can provide value in several
other ways:
• Incremental credits for reduced NOX and other emissions
• Improved unit flexibility and response to grid and market dispatch requirements (lower loads,
faster ramp rates, unusual mill combinations)
• Increased life of plant if the system is expected to increase the life of the plant by reducing
thermal and mechanical stress on equipment
• Enhanced plant and worker safety
• Incremental increase in unit output
• Reduced heat rate (improved plant efficiency)
• Avoidance of trips and improved commercial availability and plant reliability through
previously impossible control strategies
• Simplified faultfinding requiring less time, further improving availability
• Reduced plant staff
Other Business Drivers

There may be business drivers not directly related to plant profitability:
• Inability to comply with safety, environmental, or other standards
• Control systems hardware obsolescence. Sometimes even the discrete components, like
integrated circuits, become obsolete
• Low inventory and availability of control system spare parts from OEMs
• Terminated OEM support for installed control systems equipment
• Low availability of maintenance skills for existing control systems within the business and
externally
• Limited spare capacity (unused I/O, CPU loading, communications bus loading, software
capacity, memory capacity, parts availability, rack space, physical space, etc.) are making
expansions impossible
• Logic programmability and hardware configurability is limited
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• Upgrade is forced by software requirements
• Disparate control systems - interfacing introduces maintenance complexity and operability
issues, compounds inflexibility, and lowers the integrity of the control system
Other Components of a Business Case

A business case comprises several other components not related to cost justification, including:
• Description and scope of project
• Sensitivity analysis on all variables and assumptions
• Risks and proposed mitigations
- Technical risk associated with the quality of the specification, design, equipment supply,
installation and commissioning of the upgraded control system
- Contractual risk associated with the contract type and structure
- Contractor unable to meet outage dates due to insufficient design lead time (late
contract award)
- Replacement of proven process protection systems
- Personnel safety during implementation outages
• Project plan
Scope of an Upgrade
Although the purpose of a control system upgrade is to mainly address the issue of control
system obsolescence, the upgrade provides an excellent opportunity to address other nagging
operational issues. The scope of an upgrade can include several items meeting either of the
objectives.
• Replace obsolete control equipment with the latest generation DCS and peripheral systems
• Provide for future requirements and demands, for example spare capacity in I/O racks
• Deploy best-principles, high-performance, operator graphics with central overview screens
• Integrate separate, “islanded” control systems for boiler, turbine, burner management, coal
handling, etc. into one system
• Incorporate into the plant controls, new capital equipment such as scrubbers, selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) systems, low-NOX firing systems
• Replace hard-wired auxiliary controls (mimic panels)
• Replace outdated, aging, and inferior quality field instruments and equipment
• Integrate planned projects into DCS upgrade
• Obtain a unit-replica simulator
• Migrate data from legacy systems or provide backward compatibility
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• Modernize the control rooms using ergonomic designs and integrate several control rooms
into one
• Improve process control through implementation of advanced control strategies in the DCS
and interfacing advanced process control systems (like combustion optimization) to it
Project Plan
The project plan for an upgrade will be very similar to that of a green-field project, except for
three activities:
1. Update all control diagrams to the current (pre-upgrade) as-built status, including all
scaling constants, adjustable parameters, control block options, alarm settings, and tuning
settings. These should be used as the design basis for the new system
2. Removal of the old control system hardware
3. Less field work and cabling requirements in an upgrade than for a new installation
Cyber Security
Industrial control and automation systems have traditionally been seen as immune to cyber
attacks, as these systems were based on proprietary technologies and isolated from other IT
systems. However, the interconnectedness of plant networks and the widespread adoption of
the Windows operating system for process control-related systems now expose process control
systems in the same way as traditional IT systems. In addition, cyber attacks launched directly
against automation systems are real and have been reported since 2000 [5]. A recent and well-
published occurrence is that of the Stuxnet worm that targets Siemens SCADA systems and
directly infects PLCs.
Over the past decade, numerous best practices have been developed by IT departments, control
system personnel and industry organizations when deploying technical security measures or
implementing procedural controls.
In June of 2006, the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) adopted standards for
Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) – Cyber Security [6]. The intent of the Cyber Security
Standards is to ensure that all entities responsible for the reliability of the Bulk Electric Systems
in North America identify and protect Critical Cyber Assets that control or could impact the
reliability of the Bulk Electric Systems [7]. The ISA has also published standards on cyber
security [8, 9]. The reader is referred to the NERC-CIP and ISA standards for more details,
compliance requirements, and comprehensive implementation guidelines.
To make a security policy effective, it must be practical and enforceable and it must be possible
to comply with the policy. The policy must not significantly affect productivity, be cost
prohibitive, or lack support. This is best accomplished by providing clear organizational
responsibility and by including both management and system administrator personnel in the
policy development process.
A comprehensive information security program should combine the proper mix of people,
technology, and processes [5]. For power and energy companies, such a program ideally focuses
on these seven priorities:
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1. Security risk awareness
2. Regulatory readiness
3. Perimeter security
4. Network and host security
5. Incident response
6. Secure systems management and recovery
7. Security strategy and planning
Defense in Depth
A fundamental principle that should be part of any network protection strategy is defense-in-
depth, also known as a layered approach. This uses a security zone concept to secure both the
network interior and exterior. The highest value target (typically the control system) sits in the
innermost zone where the greatest level of isolation and security measures are applied.
The outer zones contain less valuable targets and are protected by security mechanisms such as
firewalls, gateways, and proxies–preferably different types for each zone–designed to detect and
delay an attacker’s movement inside and around each zone. These devices should be configured
to pass only data that is absolutely essential for day-to-day operations.
When implemented as part of a defense-in-depth strategy, these best practices can provide a solid
foundation for an effective security program. Best practices for securing the network boundary
and outer network zones include:
• Securing remote connections with virtual private networks (VPNs)
• Installing firewalls and intrusion detection systems (IDS), and regularly reviewing their logs
• Configuring firewalls and routers to block all inbound network traffic except that which is
explicitly required to maintain day-to-day operations. Outbound traffic from secured
networks housing critical infrastructure should similarly be blocked
• Regularly updating anti-virus software and scanning all systems for viruses
• Adhering to defined security policies and procedures including password protection
• Deploying physical security measures to protect access by outsiders or local unauthorized
access
Best Practices
High security zones, such as the control system network, should be small and independent, form
their own domain and follow the principle of least privilege [10]. In addition, they should adhere
to best practices such as, but not limited to:
• Prohibiting the use of Internet applications such as web-browsing, email and messenger
• Hardening of all nodes in the system by disabling removable media, removing or disabling
all unnecessary network connections, services, and file shares. Ensure that all remaining
functions have appropriate security settings
• Installation of unauthorized software should be prohibited
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• Connection of portable computers should be restricted. If they must be connected, they
should be carefully scanned for malicious software before connection
• The system should be isolated from other zones through properly configured, hardened
firewalls
• All computers should be regularly scanned for viruses and kept up to date with relevant,
vendor recommended security updates
• Physical access to all computers, network equipment, controllers, I/O systems and power
supplies, should be restricted
• Security policies, procedures and practices should be continuously reviewed and strictly
enforced
Steps for Implementing Best Practices

Much has been written about the implementation of cyber security. The guidelines include these
steps:
• Ensure control system security practices align with business and operational needs
• Define, document and manage formal policy and standards for process control system
security
• Establish training and awareness programs for control systems, IT and third-party personnel
• Implement and enforce password policies for all personnel having control system access
• These policies should be based on the principle of “least privilege.” Every application, user
or subsystem should be restricted to the minimum number of rights necessary to fulfill its
purpose
• Include procedures for assessing and responding to security incidents and alerts, including
how to respond to potential disasters
• Include plans for regular audits of control system network security
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3
INSTRUMENTATION, SENSORS, AND ANALYZERS
Guidelines
• Power Plant Control System Troubleshooting Short Course Notes. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1010262.
• Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines – Volume 1: Instrument Calibration.
• G.F. Gilman, Boiler Control Systems Engineering, ISA, 2005.
• B.G. Lipták, Instrument Engineers’ Handbook, Vol. 1: Process Measurement and Analysis,
Fourth Edition, CRC Press, 2003.
Introduction
Boiler instrumentation has a challenging task. The devices have to sense extremely high process
temperatures and pressures while located in hostile environments with dust, steam, vibration and
high temperatures. However, they are expected to provide accurate readings through many years
of uninterrupted service, and many of them do.
Volumes have been written on instrumentation, and it would be virtually impossible to
summarize that in a representative way. Nor would it be necessary to do so for this document
that focuses on best practices. Instead, this chapter provides general guidance on the installation
and application of sensors relevant to power plants, while best practices specific to sensors used
for different types of boiler control loops will be covered later as part of the discussion on each
boiler control loop.
Best-Practice Accuracies
The measurement accuracies required from different instruments depend on the desired control
accuracy for the control loop. Documented normal control requirements for steam boilers [11]
are:
• Steam pressure within ±1% of set point
• Steam temperature within ±10°F (5.6°C) of set point11
• Air-fuel ratio within ±2% of excess air (±0.4% of excess O2) based on a desired excess O2
versus load curve
• Drum level within ±1 inches (25 mm12) of set point
11
°F – degrees Fahrenheit;°C – degrees Celsius.
12
mm – millimeter (1 meter = 1000 millimeters).
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• Furnace pressure within ±0.1 inches H2O (25 Pascal [Pa]) of set point
• Although not a controlled variable, boiler efficiency should be calculable with an error of
less than ±1%
From these values one can estimate the maximum measurement error, considering that
measurement error should be less than one tenth of the control error.
Instrument Range
The calibrated measurement range of an instrument should span the operating range of the
variable it is measuring, plus an optional small margin (20% or less) to cater for extreme process
conditions. Because measurement devices have discrete increments in their calibration range
limits, the device should be selected such that its calibration range limits are equal to, or the next
increment higher than the intended calibration range.
A transmitter with a calibration range so broad that just a fraction of it is used results in loss of
accuracy.
A transmitter with a calibration range smaller than the extents of the process variable range can
result in the process going outside the measurement range. This causes loss of vision of the
actual process condition, and also a loss of additional control action.
Physical Location
All field instrumentation should be located and installed in a way that simplifies operation,
calibration, and maintenance, and yet comply with the manufacturer’s guidelines. Sufficient
space should be allowed around instruments for easy access. Unless rated and required to do
so, instruments should not be installed on vibrating equipment or structures.
When feasible, instrumentation tubing should be run together to simplify freeze protection of
lines where required. Instruments and manifolds should be grouped on racks for central location
of the devices. Instrument enclosures should be furnished for those instruments requiring
protection from the environment (temperature, dust, water, etc.).
Installation of Impulse Lines

Pressure sensors and differential pressure transmitters used for flow or level measurement are
connected to the process with impulse piping/impulse lines. There are specific installation
requirements for impulse piping:
• For liquid and condensing vapors (steam), the sensor should be located below the process
tap. Impulse lines should slope continuously downward from tap to sensor and must have no
loops. This allows any entrained air in the lines to bubble back to the process such that the
line is full of liquid during normal operation.
• For non-condensable gases (air and flue gas), the sensor should be located above the process
tap. Impulse lines should slope continuously downward from the sensor to the tap and must
have no loops. This allows moisture which condenses in lines to drain back to the process
such that the line has no water during normal operation.
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Impulse lines for differential pressure sensors have additional requirements:
• For a hot liquid, the top impulse line should be kept at pipe temperature until it reaches the
level of the bottom tap. Both impulse lines should then slope continuously downward to the
sensor. This keeps the liquid in the upper sensing line the same density as the liquid in the
pipe and prevents a static head offset error.
• For a hot vapor (steam), the bottom impulse line should be kept at pipe temperature until it
reaches the level of the top tap. Both impulse lines should then slope continuously downward
to the sensor.
Level Measurement with Differential Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure has been used for many years to measure liquid level. Although there are
several other technologies available for measuring liquid level nowadays, hydrostatic level
measurement is still very common.
Hydrostatic level measurement works on the principle that a column of liquid produces a
pressure that increases to the bottom of the column. Pressure depends on height of column above
the tapping point and density of liquid. In this way, pressure can be used to infer the level of the
liquid. If the temperature of the liquid varies, density compensation is needed for accurate level
measurement.
For tanks at atmospheric pressure, differential pressure measurement is not needed. The static
gage pressure will indicate level in the tank. For pressurized vessels (e.g., boiler drum)
differential pressure measurement is needed to compensate for vessel pressure not being at
atmospheric pressure.
For vessels containing liquid and vapor above atmospheric temperature (e.g. deaerator, and
drum), a reference leg with a condensing pot at the top is needed on the upper connection. Vapor
condenses in the condensing pot and liquid fills the reference leg to create a constant-head
reference.
Sensor-DCS Interfacing
Until the 1990s each field device had its own dedicated connection to the DCS. Electronic
sensors provided only single process values and were connected to the control system through a
single set of wires. The signal was then conditioned by the control system where necessary, e.g.
extracting the square root and rescaling a differential pressure measurement to obtain a linear
flow-rate signal, and compensating for temperature to obtain an accurate mass-flow value.
Today’s smart/fieldbus devices can provide much more information than just a single process
value, can condition the signal locally, perform self-diagnostics, and can provide remote access
to the device for configuration, calibration, and diagnostics from the control room. Multivariable
transmitters can do local temperature and pressure compensation, and a single flow transmitter,
for example, can provide measurements of volumetric flow, mass flow, temperature, pressure,
and density.
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HART
The highway addressable remote transducer (HART) protocol superimposes a digital signal on a
standard 4-20 milliamp (mA) signal [12]. From the current-signal perspective, HART and other
devices are interchangeable. However, if both the I/O card and the device support HART
communications, much more information can be transferred between the devices. For example, a
HART-enabled analog output card connected to HART-enabled valve positioner would use the
4-20 mA signal to drive the valve position, while receiving the valve position feedback via
HART over the same two wires.
Many utilities adopted HART devices because they are cost-competitive with conventional
devices and can directly replace existing devices with no required rewiring. In addition to
providing primary sensed values, smart instrumentation and actuators are rich sources of other
data, both on themselves and the process.
Fieldbus
Fieldbus-type devices communicate only digitally. No 4-20 mA or other analog signal is used.
Several fieldbus standards exist, e.g. Foundation fieldbus High Speed Ethernet (HSE), Profibus
Decentralized Peripherals (DP), and DeviceNet.
Digital-only devices using digital bus standards can improve accuracy because the signals are not
converted to 4-20mA for transmission to the DCS input/output (I/O) module, and then converted
back into a digital value for use in the control scheme [12]. Fieldbus devices connect to a bus
supporting communication with multiple devices and do not require a dedicated set of wires
between each device and the DCS.
Fieldbus technology has broader implications than just as a replacement for the 4-20 mA
standard. Fieldbus technology enables a change in the structure of the digital control system, if
required. With digital field devices, it is possible to put the PID controllers in the field instrument
instead of in the main DCS control processor. The debate about whether this is the right thing to
do on power plants has not been settled yet, but the option is there for those who choose to use it.
While smart devices and HART communications are in widespread use, Fieldbus technology is
still not widely used in power plants but usage will increase as the technology matures and users
become more familiar with it.
Best Practices
Transmitters, analyzers, and actuators should be smart devices using at least the HART protocol
to reduce installation and checkout time, simplify configuration and calibration, and provide
additional information where necessary and available.
Centralized asset management software (AMS) should be used to monitor and configure the
smart devices, and capture operating data. Problems with field devices (such as a pressure sensor
that has been over-pressurized) should be logged by the AMS and made available to maintenance
personnel.
DCS I/O should have options for supporting conventional analog I/O, discrete I/O and HART. In
addition, it should have options for supporting multiple fieldbus types. These include Foundation
fieldbus, used primarily for analog control, and DeviceNet or Profibus DP, used more for
discrete control applications.
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Simulating Values
In general, simulating/forcing a measured variable (or any variable in the control system for
this matter) to a specific value to compensate for any maintenance issue, plant defect, or logic
problem, is not good practice unless this situation is strictly managed.
Simulating any value should require approval of the operations shift supervisor or higher level.
The control system should be able to produce a list of forced variables with their current and
forced values. If the control system cannot produce a list of forced variables, an electronic list of
simulated values must be maintained and absolutely adhered to. The list of simulated variables
should be reviewed by operations personnel during shift handover. For each simulated value, the
question should be asked if it is absolutely necessary to be simulated. When a safety hazard can
be created or masked, values must never be simulated.
Redundancy, Voting and Selection

A risk analysis should be done on each control loop to determine if a redundant transmitter is
required to achieve the desired system reliability. Drum level and furnace pressure measurements
are required by the ASME [13] and NFPA [14] codes (respectively) to be triple redundant.
The control system should be able to detect measurement problems. When the process condition
goes out of range, or the wiring breaks or short circuits, the signal quality should be reported as
“bad,” and an alarm should be generated. Where no redundancy exists, the associated control
loop should jump to manual.
Dual Redundancy
When two redundant transmitters are used to measure the same process condition, the average
value should be used. If the signal quality of one transmitter goes bad, the control system should
automatically switch to use only the healthy transmitter. An alarm of the appropriate priority
should be raised. If the two measurements deviate beyond a certain percentage, an alarm should
be raised.
Triple Redundancy
When three redundant transmitters are used to measure the same process condition, the median
value should be used. If the signal quality of one transmitter goes bad, the control system should
automatically switch to use the average value of the two healthy transmitters. If the signal quality
of one more transmitter goes bad, the control system should automatically switch to use only the
healthy transmitter. An alarm of the appropriate priority should be raised in both cases.
If one measurement deviates from the other two by more than a certain percentage, it should be
excluded from the median selection logic and an alarm should be raised. The system should then
use the average value of the two transmitters in close proximity to each other.
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Noise Suppression/Filtering
A transmitter should perform low-pass filtering to provide a high level of attenuation to
frequencies above 10°Hertz (Hz13). This will virtually eliminate “hum” from electrical cables
and motors.
Additional filtering may be required on noisy process variable signals if a high controller gain or
derivative control is to be used. If additional filtering is required, it should be programmed in the
DCS so that when the transmitter is replaced, the filtering adjustment is not lost with the old one.
In any event, the filter time constant should be as short as possible.
Generally, it does not make sense to filter a signal just so that the derivative control mode can be
used because the potential speed of response gained with using derivative is negated by the filter.
However, filtering and derivative can be used if the filter time constant is 1/5th of the derivative
time or shorter.
13
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.
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4
FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS
• ANSI/ISA-75.25.01-2000 (R2010)-Test Procedure for Control Valve Response Measurement
from Step Inputs.
• ANSI/ISA-TR75.25.02-2000 (R2010)-Control Valve Response Measurement from Step
Inputs.
• Control Valve Handbook, Emerson, 2005.
• Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines – Volume 3: Monitoring and Improving
Control Loop Performance. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2010. 1019684.
• B.G. Liptak, Instrument Engineers’ Handbook: Vol. 2: Process Control and Optimization,
• J.F. Smuts, Process Control for Practitioners, OptiControls, 2011.
Introduction
Under command of the controller, the final control element manipulates a flowing fluid, such
as air, steam, or water to follow set point changes and compensate for disturbances. The most
common final control element in process industries is the control valve, but power plant boilers
have a large percentage of vanes and dampers, and even a few variable speed drives. These are
all considered final control elements.
The operation of the final control element is critical to the performance of a control loop. They
need to provide a quick and accurate response to changes in controller output, and manipulate the
flow in a linear way throughout their operational span.
Final control elements are frequently not sized correctly, have nonlinear flow characteristics, and
are not maintained properly, all factors affecting the performance of the control loop.
Actuators
Most final control elements are driven by pneumatic actuators. They are cost-effective, reliable,
capable of fast response, and can be accurate if fitted with positioners. However, they require a
reliable source of clean and dry compressed air.
Electric actuators can potentially position final control elements more accurately than pneumatic
actuators, but they have limited duty cycles and normally require a dead band. They typically
have a slower slew rate than pneumatic actuators. Control loop performance deteriorates with
dead band and slow slew rates, making electric actuators a less favorable choice of actuator on
fast-responding processes.
Hydraulic actuators are expensive but powerful and accurate. However, their high cost makes it
difficult to justify using hydraulic positioners over pneumatic actuators in most applications.
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Positioners
A positioner is a device mounted on an actuator that receives feedback of the valve position and
controls the actuator pressure to bring the valve position to the value desired by the controller.
Positioners should be used on all mechanical final control elements (i.e. control valves, dampers,
and vanes) to improve positioning accuracy and help overcome mechanical deficiencies such as
dead band and stiction.
Digital positioners are capable of diagnosing certain problems with final control elements and
HART-capable positioners can be configured from the control room using a HART
communicator. Digital positioners can store a calibration curve for linearizing the final control
element’s flow characteristic. Nevertheless, it is recommended doing the linearization in the
DCS to allow a failed positioner to be replaced without concern about calibration curves.
Although older pneumatic positioners were not recommended for use on valves in fast flow
control loops because of their relatively slow response, modern positioners respond very fast
and are recommended for all control loops.
Control Valves
Control valves are the most commonly used type of final control elements in process industries,
including power plants.
Control valves should be sized appropriately for the control task. Many control valves are
oversized, which increases their gain, thus amplifying positioning errors. Valve sizing software
should be used for calculating the appropriate valve size for an application. Most valve vendors
have valve-sizing software available and many offer the control valve selection service at no
charge.
Oversized control valves should be identified and replaced with appropriately sized valves when
an opportunity arrives.
The use of positioners is recommended on all valves where quality of control is important.
Control valves come with different flow characteristics. Linear and equal-percentage
characteristics are the most common, but quick-opening and special characteristics are also
available. If the pressure differential across a control valve remains mostly constant regardless of
flow rate, a linear characteristic should be used. If the pressure differential across a control valve
decreases appreciably between minimum and maximum flow rates, an equal-percentage valve
characteristic should be used.
Even if the correct characteristic curve is chosen for a control valve its flow characteristic may
be nonlinear and linearization may be required.
Dampers
Dampers are often used for controlling air flow. The simplest form of a damper consists of a
hinged plate pivoted at the center to open or close across the air duct. This arrangement provides
a nonlinear (S-shaped curve) flow characteristic that becomes quite flat at large angles of damper
position, providing little control above about 60% of its control range (Figure 4–1).
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100
80
Percentage of Maximum Flow

60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of Maximum Rotation
Figure 4-1
Typical Damper Flow Characteristic
Used more commonly, a louver damper comprises a set of linked blades across the duct, like a
set of Venetian blinds in a window. Such multi-bladed dampers are more expensive and more
complex to maintain, but they have a wider usable control range.
Dampers are problematic as final control elements because of their dead band, stiction,
nonlinearity, non-repeatability, and leakage. It is essential to use a positioner to improve
repeatability and minimize positioning errors.
Dampers have nonlinear flow characteristics and should be linearized to obtain flow rates
changing linearly with controller output.
Fan Vanes
Air flow can also be controlled by adjusting a set of vanes at the fan inlet. The vanes are
essentially a set of dampers arranged radially around the inlet of a centrifugal fan. Such vanes
are operated through a complex set of linkages to rotate all of them through the same angle in
response to the command signal from the DCS.
Variable-Pitch Blades
The use of dampers or vanes to control air flow wastes energy, because the fan has to pump air
across a high differential pressure. Varying the pitch of the fan blades is more efficient, since it
directly controls the volume of air being pumped without throttling. Although radial-flow fans
can be designed with a variable blade pitch, it is more common to do so for axial-flow fans.
Similar to the way a propeller-driven airplane can vary the pitch of its propeller blades, the axial-
flow fan can vary the air flow being pumped by the fan.
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Variable-Speed Pumps and Fans
Variable-speed pumps and fans work very well as final control elements, but their drives are
often more costly than valves and dampers.
Advantages of variable-speed pumps and fans are reduced operating costs from higher
efficiency, no dead band or stiction due to the elimination of mechanical dampers, and better
linearity. No mechanical modification is required to convert a fixed-speed pump or fan to a
variable-speed unit.
Speeds are often limited to a minimum of 30%, requiring the use of valves or dampers below that
level. Split-range controls should be used with sufficient overlap to ensure a continuous gradient
in the flow characteristic curve.
Controlling Multiple Pumps or Fans in Parallel

The throughput of two or more pumps/fans can be regulated with individual flow controllers for
each of the devices, or with one common controller for all devices. Although a single controller
cannot ensure that all pumps/fans deliver the same amount of air flow, this configuration is much
simpler to tune than an arrangement of individual controllers that interact on each other and
make optimization extremely difficult.
A common flow controller with a single set point and one controller output should drive all
the pumps/fans from its single output, instead of individual flow controllers with individually
proportioned set points driving devices individually. Pumps/fans should be started up with closed
discharge valves/dampers. Once operating speed has been reached, the valves/dampers should be
ramped open slowly to give the flow controller time to respond to changes in air flow. Once the
incoming device has been equalized with running ones, it should be modulated with the others as
one common control element. The gain of the controller driving the pumps/fans should be
scheduled to accommodate the number of devices available for control.
Linearization
It is essential that final control elements have a linear installed characteristic so that the loop gain
remains constant, regardless of the controller output. The relationship between controller output
and flow rate should be determined using historical data or by performing process tests. This can
be represented as an X-Y curve. If the gradient of the curve varies by more than a factor of two,
control loop performance will be noticeably affected and the flow characteristic of the final
control element has to be linearized.
If the final control element is nonlinear, and no linearization is done, the controller has to be
detuned to accommodate the changing process gain. This leads to sluggish control loop response
over much of the final control element’s operating range.
Linearization is done with an X-Y curve or function generator configured to represent the
reciprocal of the control element’s flow curve. The linearizer (also called a characterizer) should
be placed between the controller and the valve (Figure 4–2). Although the linearization can be
done in a digital positioner, the DCS is the best location for it. This allows replacement of the
positioner without having to reprogram the linearization curve in the new positioner.
9839457 4-4
Figure 4-2
Linearizing the Spraywater Control Valve
Feedback Matching
If the operator can see feedback of the damper/valve position there will be a discrepancy if the
linearizer is implemented between the auto/manual (A/M) station and the final control element
as shown in Figure 4–2. The A/M station’s output might be at 25%, while the feedback from the
final control element might be 50%. This can create confusion for the operator.
An inverse of the characterizer can be placed on the position feedback to compensate for the
characterizer. However, a field inspection will still show the device at 50% while the A/M
station is at 25%. A better way of doing it would be placing the characterizer between the
controller output and the A/M station. An inverse of the characterizer should then be placed
on the tracking signal (Figure 4–3).
9839457 4-5
Figure 4-3
Aligning A/M Station Output with Actual Position and Feedback
Calibration
A final control element should be calibrated so that its actual position tracks its reference signal
within a small tolerance. The error between actual position and the reference signal should be
checked at a minimum of five equally spaced values of the reference signal (e.g. 0%, 25%, 50%,
75%, and 100%).
The resolution of a final control element should also be tested. Since most controller output
changes are small in magnitude, the final control element should be able to track small changes
in reference. 0.25% is normally a sufficiently small resolution for testing purposes, although
many units are incapable of this fine a resolution. 0.5% resolution is more typically achievable,
and in most cases sufficient for control.
The resolution of final control elements are often affected by stiction and dead band.
Stiction
Final control element performance is often affected by stiction in the valve or damper. This is
short for static friction, and means that the valve internals are sticky. If the stem of a valve with
stiction comes to rest, it tends to stick in that position. Additional force is then required to
overcome the stiction and get the valve to move.
Stiction can cause a stick-slip cycle (Figure 4–4) in a control loop. This may affect many other
control loops.
9839457 4-6
Process Variable Set Point
Controller Output Actual Valve Position
Figure 4-4
Stick-Slip Cycle Caused by Control Valve Stiction
Stiction can be detected by putting the controller in manual mode and making small changes
(0.5% or less) in controller output while monitoring the process variable for a resulting change.
If the control valve seems to accumulate a few of the controller output changes before the
process variable shows movement, it has stiction (Figure 4–5).
Process Variable Controller Output
Figure 4-5
Stiction Test Indicating a Sticky Control Valve
In most cases, stiction below 1% of the normal operating position of the final control element is
acceptable. For example, if a spraywater control valve typically opens to 60%, acceptable levels
of stiction will be anything less than 0.6%.
Dead Band
A valve with dead band (also called hysteresis) acts as if there is slack between the controller
output and the valve itself. Every time the controller output changes its travel direction, the dead
band has to be taken up before the valve physically begins moving. Dead band in a final control
element can cause a control loop to appear sluggish.
9839457 4-7
Dead band can be detected by doing a simple process test consisting of two controller-output
steps in one direction and one step in the opposite direction with the controller in manual mode.
Figure 4–6 shows trends of a dead-band test. At time instances A and B, the controller output is
at the same level, but the process variable is not. The difference is caused by dead band in the
control valve.
Dead band
A B
Process Variable Controller Output
Figure 4-6
Dead-Band Test Indicating a Control Valve with Dead Band
For most loops, dead band of less than 2% of the normal operating position of the final control
element is acceptable. For example, if a feedwater control valve typically opens to 75%,
acceptable levels of stiction will be anything less than 1.5%.
Note that variable speed drives have a dead-band setting that should be set as small as possible
and preferably to zero.
9839457 4-8
5
CONTROLLER TUNING METHODS
Guidelines
• Tuning Guidelines for Utility Fossil Plant Process Control. Volume 2, The Technician’s
Guide to Tuning. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1994. TR-102052.
• Power Plant Control System Tuning. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. 113653.
• Power Plant Control System Tuning Short Course Notes. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004.
1003740.
• Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines – Volume 2: Control Loop Tuning.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009, 1017525.
• Automated Boiler Control System Tuning Demonstration. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA and Southern
Company, Birmingham, AL: 2009. 1020370.
• C.L. Smith, Practical Process Control – Tuning and Troubleshooting, Wiley, 2009.
• H.L. Wade, Basic and Advanced Regulatory Control: System Design and Application, ISA,
2004.
Introduction
Controllers have to be properly tuned to provide stable control and meet their control objectives.
If the controller reacts too much to a disturbance or set-point change, the process will overshoot
its set point, and the control loop may even become unstable. If the controller reacts too little, it
will take too long to get the process variable to set point, and the control loop may be unable to
effectively handle process upsets.
A poorly tuned control loop can cause lower boiler efficiency, excessive consumption of usable
boiler and turbine life, unnecessary plant shutdowns, longer startup times, and higher operating
and maintenance costs. It is essential that controllers perform well and meet the objectives set for
the control loop.
A controller has to be tuned in accordance with the dynamic response of the process it is
controlling. Dynamic response means the way the process responds to a change in the output of
the controller. Due to differences in their dynamic responses, the tuning settings for a flow
controller will be vastly different from those for a temperature controller.
Controllers are typically tuned using one or more of the following tuning methods:
• Trial and error
• Step testing and manual calculations
• Step testing and computer software
9839457 5-1
Trial-and-Error Tuning
Trial-and-error tuning methods work on the principle of making a change to one of the controller
settings to see what effect it has on the loop’s performance. If the change made the loop perform
better, further changes are made in the same direction. If it made the loop perform worse,
changes are made in the opposite direction.
Trial-and-error tuning is the most popular tuning method used, but unfortunately it is the least
effective of all tuning methods. It has several disadvantages.
• It can take a long time to tune a controller using trial-and-error methods, especially when
using all three control modes
• There is no way to tell if the optimum settings have been reached
• Sometimes the settings are so far from optimum that changing them seems to make no
difference to the loop’s performance. This makes it difficult to know what direction to take
for further adjustments
• Trial-and-error tuning does not reveal control loop issues such as stiction and dead band, and
opportunities for performance improvement not related to tuning often remain hidden
• Since trial-and-error tuning gives no indication of the stability margin, the loop can
unknowingly be left dangerously close to being unstable
Final Control Element Performance Checks

Prior to step testing, performance checks should be done to determine if the final control element
displays signs of dead band or stiction. If dead band of stiction is detected, the final control
element should ideally be repaired. Step testing can still be done and the controller can be tuned
if small amounts of stiction (< 1%) and/or dead band (< 2%) are present, but the loop
performance will remain suboptimal until the final control element has been repaired.
If a final control element has a dead band, the effect of the dead band should be removed by
making a preliminary change in controller output before doing the actual step test in the same
direction. Every time the test direction changes (increasing vs. decreasing controller output) the
dead band should be removed again.
If a final control element has stiction, step tests for tuning should be made significantly
(minimum of five times) larger than the stiction so that the effect of stiction is minimized.
Step Testing
Whether manual methods or tuning software is used, step tests are required to model the process
response. Process characteristics comprising process gain, dead time, and time constant (for self-
regulating processes) or process integration rate and dead time (for integrating processes) are
calculated from step-test data. Controller tuning settings are then calculated from the process
characteristics.
Steps in controller output should be done in both upward and downward directions. Process
characteristics should be calculated using data from each step test. Process characteristics from
different step tests should be compared with each other. Outliers should be rejected, and the
average value of the remainder should be used.
9839457 5-2
Generally, the process variable should change at least five times more than the peak-to-peak
(actually valley-to-peak) deviations in process variable due to noise and/or disturbances (Figure
5–1). This is called a signal-to-noise ratio of 5:1 and should provide a response curve from which
one can take reasonable measurements of dead time and time constant.
5 × peak-to-peak noise
Peak-to-peak noise
Controller Output Process Variable
Figure 5-1
Signal-to-Noise Ratio of 5:1
Manual Tuning Methods

Manual tuning methods require doing step-tests on a process, calculating the process
characteristics, and then calculating controller settings using appropriate tuning rules.
Figure 5–2 shows how to measure the process characteristics of process gain (gp), dead time (td),
and time constant (τ) on step-test data from a self-regulating process. Figure 5–3 shows how to
measure the process characteristics of process integration rate (ri) and dead time (td) on step-test
data from an integrating process.
9839457 5-3
Controller Output Process Variable
Figure 5-2
Process Characteristics of a Self-Regulating Process
For both self-regulating and integrating processes the ΔPV and ΔCO measurements must be
expressed as a percentage of the span of the variable.
Once the process characteristics have been determined, they can be used in tuning rules to
calculate appropriate tuning settings for the controller.
Dead time ∆PV

ri =
∆CO×∆t
∆ PV
td
∆ CO ∆t
ta tb
Controller
Controller Output
Output Process
Process Variable
Variable
Figure 5-3
Process Characteristics of an Integrating Process
Tuning Rules
There is not a one-size-fits-all tuning rule that can be used on all types of processes for all tuning
objectives. A variety of tuning rules are required to cover all process types and performance
objectives. The tuning rule to use should be selected based on the process characteristics and the
control loop objectives.
9839457 5-4
Caution with Quarter-Amplitude Damping Response
The two most popular tuning methods, Ziegler-Nichols [15] and Cohen-Coon [16], as well as
several other tuning rules aim a for quarter-amplitude damping response (Figure 5–4). The
quarter-amplitude damping objective is supposed to provide a balance between stability and fast
response.
A
A
4
Set Point Process Variable
Figure 5-4
Quarter-Amplitude Damping after a Set Point Change
Many texts advocate using quarter-amplitude damping tuning rules without informing the reader
about the consequences:
1. Tuning for a quarter-amplitude-damping response makes the control loop very
oscillatory. In a highly interactive system like a boiler plant, oscillatory loops frequently
interact with each other in a cyclical fashion, causing the entire plant to oscillate.
2. Quarter-amplitude damping-based tuning rules also leave the loop with only a very
narrow stability margin. Should the operating conditions (like unit load, mill
combination, fuel quality, boiler soot level) change, loops can quickly become unstable.
If quarter-amplitude damping-based tuning rules such as Ziegler-Nichols or Cohen-Coon tuning

methods are used, the controller gains should be reduced by at least half of the calculated values.
This adjustment virtually eliminates oscillations and provides a much more robust control loop.
For integrating processes, when the controller gain is halved, the integral time has to be doubled.
Selecting a Tuning Rule

There are many tuning rules, each with its own tuning objective and suitable for use on a certain
process type. If all tuning rules have an adjustable parameter to change the speed of response for
the tuned control loop, we could possibly get by with a minimum of two tuning rules: one for
self-regulating processes and one for integrating processes. Then we only have to pick a tuning
rule for each process type, and adjust its speed according to the process needs.
9839457 5-5
Although most tuning rules do not have such a speed-adjustment parameter, it is easy to
incorporate one into the rules. The Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules would seem to be a good
candidate because of their simplicity, but they work well only on processes with a time constant
at least two times longer than the dead time (typically temperature and gas pressure loops).
The Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules do not work well at all on flow loops or liquid pressure loops.
For self-regulating processes, the Cohen-Coon tuning rules work well on a much broader range
of process characteristics, and can be used to tune temperature, pressure, and flow loops. The
Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules do work well on integrating processes such as levels.
However, both of these rules need to be modified (detuned) to improve loop stability and reduce
oscillations. They also have to be provided with a tuning factor that can be used to adjust their
speed of response. Fortunately, both of these modifications can be met with a single parameter
called the stability margin (SM).
Stability Margin
The stability margin describes a loop’s stability relative to that of a quarter-amplitude damping
response. A stability margin of 1 means the loop is just as close to instability as if it were tuned
for a quarter-amplitude-damping response. A stability margin of 2 means the loop is two times
as stable as the same loop tuned for quarter-amplitude-damping response, etc.
The stability margin can be incorporated into tuning rules to change the loop’s speed of response,
thus making it a convenient tuning factor (Figure 5–5).
SM = 1
SM = 2
SM = 4
1
2
Set Point Process Variable Controller Output
Figure 5-5
Stability Margins on a Set Point Change
Increasing the stability margin slows down a loop’s response, makes it more robust and less
oscillatory. It also leads to smaller and slower changes in controller output, which in turn causes
less upset to the remainder of the process. These desirable features in loop response come at the
expense of larger deviations and slower recovery after process disturbances (Figure 5–6).
9839457 5-6
SM = 4
SM = 2
SM = 1
4
2
1
Set Point Process Variable Controller Output
Figure 5-6
Stability Margins and Disturbance Response
Tuning for Set Point Changes or Disturbance Rejection

To obtain a similar response on set point changes and disturbance rejection, different tuning rules
are technically required. The differences are much more apparent on super-fast tuning, i.e.
quarter-amplitude damping. The differences become much less obvious when controllers are
slightly detuned to obtain more acceptable stability margins. The modified Cohen-Coon and
Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules described below work well for both set point changes and
disturbance rejection.
Cohen-Coon
The Cohen-Coon tuning rules are more complex than the Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules for self-
regulating processes, but they can be used on a much broader range of processes.
Table 5-1
Cohen-Coon Tuning Rules for Self-Regulating Processes
KC TI TD
PI 0.9 τ ⎛ t ⎞ ⎛ τ + 0.1 t d ⎞ 0
⎜1 + d ⎟ 3.33 t d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
g p t dSM ⎜⎝ 11 τ ⎟⎠
⎝ τ + 2.22 t d ⎠
PID 1.33 τ ⎛ 3 t d ⎞ ⎛ τ + 0.2 t d ⎞ ⎛ τ ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ 2.5 t d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 0.37 t d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
g p t dSM ⎜⎝ 16 τ ⎟⎠
⎝ τ + 0.6 t d ⎠ ⎝ τ + 0.2 t d ⎠
Note: SM is the stability margin. It should be set to 2 or greater. A larger value will slow down the loop response and make it more stable. The
SM was not part of the original Cohen-Coon tuning rules, but it was added here as an adjustable tuning constant to improve loop stability and
reduce oscillations.
9839457 5-7
Ziegler-Nichols
Since the Cohen-Coon tuning rules are superior to the Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules for self-
regulating processes, the latter will not be provided here.
Table 5-2
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Rules for Integrating Processes
KC TI TD
PI 0.9/(ri × td ×SM) 3.33 td × SM 0
PID 1.2/(ri × td ×SM) 2 td × SM 0.5 td
Note: SM is the stability margin. It should be set to 2 or greater. A larger value will slow down the loop response and make it more stable. The
SM was not part of the original Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules, but it was added here as an adjustable tuning constant to improve loop stability and
reduce oscillations.
Lambda Tuning
The Lambda tuning method provides very stable and robust control loops. It is very well suited
to obtaining a stable system comprising multiple interactive loops. The paper and pulp industry
has virtually standardized on the Lambda tuning method to stabilize their highly interactive
processes. Lambda tuning therefore has potential of stabilizing cyclical boiler controls too.
Lambda tuning can be used to get several loops to respond with a predefined closed-loop time
constant (τcl). This could be useful for loops such as fuel and air that need to respond equally fast.
When used on self-regulating processes, the Lambda tuning rules guarantee no overshoot after
set point changes.
Since the Lambda tuning rule sets the integral time equal to the process time constant on self
regulating processes (TI = τ) it does not provide very fast recovery from disturbances on
processes with long time constants. Although Lambda tuning theory recommends using a closed
loop time constant 3 times slower than the process time constant (τcl = 3τ), this ratio can be
shortened down to the process time constant (τcl = τ) to achieve faster response. If this response
is too slow for the loop being tuned, the Cohen-Coon or Ziegler-Nichols rules should be used.
Table 5-3
Lambda Tuning Rules for Slow Response on Self-Regulating Processes
KC TI TD
PI τ τ 0
g p ( τ cl + t d )
Table 5-4
Lambda Tuning Rules for Slow Response on Integrating Processes
KC TI TD
PI 2τ cl + t d 2τ cl + t d 0
ri ( τ cl + t d ) 2
9839457 5-8
Tuning Rule Selection
Although dozens of tuning rules exist, the four rules described above with their tuning factors
SM and τcl should be adequate to cover all tuning requirements.
Table 5-5
Tuning Rule Selection
Tuning Objective Self-Regulating Process Integrating Process

Fast Response Cohen-Coon Ziegler-Nichols
Stable Loop, Slower Response Lambda Lambda
Assumptions Made by Tuning Rules

Most tuning rules (and certainly the ones discussed above) are designed for use on controllers
with interactive or noninteractive algorithms. For PI controllers it makes no difference, but when
using PID control there is a slight difference in response of the interactive or noninteractive
controller types when using the same tuning settings. The difference is more apparent when
tuning controllers for a super-fast response (such as quarter-amplitude damping), or when using
copious amounts of derivative action – neither of which are recommended practices.
Most tuning rules (including the ones above) are not suitable for controllers using the parallel
algorithm. The Westinghouse/Ovation PID controllers and some of the ABB controllers have
parallel algorithms. Parameter conversions are required for calculated controller settings to work
on parallel algorithms. See the next section for conversion equations.
Tuning rules assume the controller uses controller gain (KC), and not proportional band (PB).
The Invensys Foxboro I/A controllers use proportional band, so conversion is required:
PB = 100/KC
Tuning rules assume that the controller’s integral setting is in units of time (TI in minutes or
seconds) and not gain (KI in repeats per minute or repeats per second). Many of the ABB PID
controllers use repeats per minute and require the following conversion:
KI = 1/TI
Tuning rules also assume that measurements of process dead time and time constant are made
in the same time units as the controller uses (minutes versus seconds). If this is not the case,
conversion will be necessary to change the process measurements to the time unit of the
controller.
Parameter Conversion for Parallel Algorithms
To convert tuning parameters calculated for noninteractive controller types for use on parallel
controller algorithms, the equations below should be used. Note that KC, TI, and TD refer to
noninteractive controller parameters, while KP, KI, and KD refer to parallel controller parameters.
9839457 5-9
TI, TD, and KD are expressed in units of time as in minutes or seconds, while KI is expressed in
1/time as in repeats per minute or repeats per second. Obviously the base unit of time (minutes or
seconds) you obtain on the left side of the equation will be the same as the base unit of time you
used on the right side.
=
=
=
If the target parallel controller also uses integral time, it should be calculated as follows:
TI (for parallel controllers) = TI (from noninteractive rules)/KC
Tuning Software
It should be apparent by now that there are many subtle aspects of controller tuning, such as the
algorithm type and units of measure that could completely invalidate the best tuning efforts if
they are not applied correctly. Furthermore, determining the process characteristics and
calculating tuning settings can be tedious and error prone.
Tuning software addresses these problems and provides additional insights into process
problems, and expected loop response. There are several software programs available for tuning
controllers. Software programs from different suppliers vary greatly in their features and come at
prices from less than $1,000 to more than $10,000.
The benefits of using software for tuning controllers are:
• Simplified process model identification from step-test data
• Automatic calculation of controller settings based on the step-response model
• Conversion of tuning settings for the appropriate algorithm in the units of measure used by
the type of controller being tuned
• Simulation of predicted control loop response with the new tuning settings
• Indication of control loop robustness
• Identifying control valve dead band, stiction, and nonlinearity from test data
• The implicit training on the tuning process and loop response a user receives from using the
software
9839457 5-10
Figure 5-7
PAS® PSS Loop Optimizer Controller Tuning Software14
Varying Process Characteristics

Several boiler processes have characteristics that vary depending on the operating conditions or
equipment in service. For example, the process gain, dead time, and time constant between
spraywater and the final steam temperature, all change based on unit load.
To compensate for changes in process characteristics, tuning settings need to be changed
accordingly. First, multiple step tests should be done at three or more points in the operating
range of the loop. Each set of step tests should be used to calculate average process
characteristics and tuning settings for each operating point. Then gain scheduling should be
implemented to change tuning settings and obtain optimum loop performance throughout the
operating range. Gain scheduling is discussed in the next chapter.
14
PSS Control Loop Optimization Software product screenshot(s) reprinted with permission from Plant Automation
Services, Inc. (PAS).
9839457 5-11
Tuning Settings Lockdown
Tuning parameters should be locked down and operators should not have the ability to change
them. This seems to be a foreign concept at many power plants, but only personnel who have
been trained in control loop tuning should have access to change tuning settings. If the operators
need to change tuning settings it is a clear indication that the controllers are not tuned well, final
control elements have become defective, or the control strategies fall short of meeting the
process requirements.
A master list of tuning values should be maintained, and any temporary deviations from this list
must be documented with old value, new value, date and time of change, reason for change, and
when to revert back to the master values.
If the change is permanent, for example changing the gain on the FD duct pressure controller
after larger fans were installed, the master list should be updated. The master list should not be
changed with temporary tuning changes (for example compensating for a sticky damper until the
next outage).
Controller settings should be periodically audited against the master list. Undocumented
deviations must be investigated and actions taken to prevent future breaches.
9839457 5-12
6
ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL
Guidelines
1003740.
• B.G. Liptak, Instrument Engineers’ Handbook: Vol. 2: Process Control and Optimization,
• H.L. Wade, Basic and Advanced Regulatory Control: System Design and Application,
ISA, 2004.
Introduction
Coal-fired power plants must be highly flexible and responsive to changes in power
consumption. The major objective of the boiler control system is to coordinate the energy flow to
the boiler with the power output demands placed on the unit, while keeping in check all the
variables in between. The control system must satisfy these four broad performance objectives:
1. Stable steady-state operation with no oscillations
2. Precise load changes at the desired ramp rate with minimal deviation from set points
3. Safe and stable operation during and after emergency load runbacks and equipment trips
4. Maintain all critical process and environmental conditions within the safe and regulatory-
compliant limits
Because of the highly interactive nature of boilers, regular feedback control alone falls short of
maintaining boiler stability during rapid swings in power demand. Through many years of
development and refinement, the controllability of large power boilers has been improved
through the use of advanced regulatory control (ARC) strategies in addition to simple feedback
control. Modern control systems support the building blocks of ARC strategies as standard
functions making them straightforward to implement and optimize.
This chapter describes the building blocks used in best-practice ARC designs. It uses steam
temperature control and a few other boiler control loops as examples for describing many of the
building blocks of control strategies.
Single-Loop Feedback Control

The simplest method for controlling steam temperature is with a single, feedback control loop
measuring the steam temperature at the point it exits the boiler, and changing the spray water
valve position to correct deviations from the steam temperature set point (Figure 6–1). This
control loop should be tuned for a fast response and minimal overshoot, but even then the loop
will respond relatively slowly due to the long dead time and time lag of the superheater.
9839457 6-1
Figure 6-1
Single-Loop Control
The control loop will be susceptible to disturbances such as spraywater pressure changes, and
nonlinearity, dead band and stiction in the spraywater control valve. These issues will all affect
the final steam temperature, and because of the slow dynamics in the temperature control loop, it
will take a long time to compensate for them.
Cascade Control
Improved control can be achieved by implementing a secondary (inner) control loop to control
the temperature directly downstream of the desuperheater. This loop receives its set point from
the main steam temperature controller and manipulates the spraywater control valve position to
keep the desuperheater outlet temperature at this set point (Figure 6–2).
9839457 6-2
Main steam temperature
measurement Steam to high-
pressure turbine
TT
Main steam
temperature A ∆
Final
controller P I D
superheater
Desuperheater
outlet temperature
measurement
Desuperheater
∆ TT
outlet temperature
P I D
controller
A T
Desuperheater
FCV
Spraywater Spraywater Steam from
control valve primary
superheater
Figure 6-2
Cascade Control
The inner loop will be able to react much faster to spraywater pressure changes and spraywater
control valve problems. It will also be help to improve the final steam temperature control by
detecting and correcting high temperatures coming from the primary superheater.
Cascade control should be used with all slow loops (typically temperature, gas pressure and level
control loops) that manipulate a final control element to achieve control. An inner loop around
the final control element will go a long way to eliminate disturbances and compensate for
problems like nonlinearity, stiction and dead band.
Cascade control is beneficial only if the dynamics of the inner loop are fast compared to the
dynamics of the outer loop. Cascade control should not be used if the inner loop is not at least
three times faster than the outer loop.
Feedforward Control
When measurable disturbances affect a controlled variable, feedforward control should be
implemented to counteract the effects of the disturbances. For example, steam temperature might
be affected by load changes. Then some index of load, or rate of change of load can be used to
compensate for the effects of load changes before the final steam temperature is affected
(Figure 6–3).
9839457 6-3
Main steam
Load index temperature
calculation measurement Steam to high-
pressure turbine
Load TT
Main steam
A ∆
temperature
P I D
controller Final
superheater
f(x)
Desuperheater
outlet temperature
measurement
Desuperheater
∆ TT
outlet temperature
P I D
controller
A T
Desuperheater
FCV
superheater
Figure 6-3
Feedforward Control
Feedforward control should be applied on critical loops that are affected by large and measurable
disturbances. It should be applied in conjunction with cascade control, although this is not an
absolute requirement. Feedforward control is often done implicitly through ratio control, e.g.
air/fuel ratio.
Feedforward control should be implemented with lead-lag and dead-time compensation where
necessary. Lead compensation can be used very effectively to provide a “derivative kick”
(Figure 6–4) where needed, for example on the feedforward between unit load demand and fuel
demand.
TLD = 2 × TLG
Input Output
Figure 6-4
Lead-Lag Compensator with a Dominant Lead
9839457 6-4
Even with precise feedforward control, disturbances can still cause process variables to
temporarily deviate from their set points because process dead time may delay the feedforward
control’s compensation. When this is the case, the feedback controller will add additional control
action based on the error. If the feedback controller is tuned for fast response the sum of the
feedforward and feedback control actions may cause the process variable to substantially
overshoot its set point. In this case the feedback and/or feedforward controller has to be detuned
to prevent excessive control action.
Table 6-1
Commonly Used Feedforward Compensation
Controlled Large, Measured

Control Element to Receive Feedforward
Variable Disturbance
Drum Level Steam Flow Feedwater Flow Controller
Furnace Pressure FD Flow ID Dampers or ID Flow Controller if Available
Steam Pressure Unit Load Fuel Flow Controller
Fuel/Air Ratio Fuel Flow Air Flow Controller
Ratio Control
Ratio control is used where two (sometimes more) process variables must be changed in unison
to prevent a third process variable of being affected. A good example of ratio control on a boiler
is the fuel-air ratio.
For the moment ignoring the cross-limiting between fuel and air, fuel flow is the leading or wild
variable driven by the unit load controller or the throttle pressure controller. Air flow is the
controlled variable that must be kept in step with the fuel flow. The fuel flow is measured,
multiplied by the desired ratio, and used as a set point for the air flow controller.
Ratio control should always be designed to be multiplicative and not divisional (Figure 6–5).
Figure 6-5
Divisional vs. Multiplicative Ratio Control
9839457 6-5
The ratioo should be trrimmed autoomatically too keep the exxcess O2 at itts set point (Figure
( 6–6).
Figure 6-6
usting Ratio Control
Self-Adju C
Split-Ra
ange Contrrol
Split-range control has a single controller
c output driving two final coontrol elemennts. The rangge of
the contrroller output is split so thhat part of itss range contrrols the one final controll element, annd
the remaiinder of its range
r controls the other final
f controll element. Onne example would be whhen a
variable-speed fan an nd dampers are a used to control
c air floow. The variiable speed fan
f normallyy has
a minimuum speed, saay 30%, beloow which daampers shoulld be used. The T air-flow controller’s
output is split so thatt the bottom end controlss the damperrs with the faan at minimuum speed, annd
once the dampers aree wide open, the fan speeed is used foor control.
Care should be takenn to have a liinear gain thrroughout thee range of thhe controller output,
regardlesss of which final
f control element is being
b modullated. For example, smalll and large
control valves
v may be
b installed inn parallel floow paths, wiith the flow controller’s
c output split to
open the small valve first, and thhen the large valve. If thee split point is
i at 50%, thhe process gaain
will be loow when thee small valvee is being moodulated andd high when the large vaalve is being
modulateed. A varying g process gaain is not goood for controol loop perfoormance.
The splitt point shouldd be chosen such that thhe controller sees a consttant process gain throughhout
its outputt range. Thiss is done by picking the split point as follows:
ℎ ℎ
% = × 100%
%
ℎ ℎ ℎ
Althoughh split-ranginng can be doone in the callibration of valves,
v best practice is too use two
characterrizers to get the right trannsition pointt and to lineaarize the flow
w (Figure 6––7).
9839457 6-6
Large valve
Small valve
Figure 6-7
Split-Range Control
Combining Dampers and Fan Speed Control

Dampers can normally respond faster than variable-speed fans. If this fast response is needed, the
fan speed can be modulated to keep the damper position around an optimum control point, such
as 30% (or 50% if the damper characteristic has been properly linearized).
A position controller will have as its set point the desired damper position, and its output will
drive the variable speed fan. This position controller must be tuned to respond at least three times
slower than the dampers to minimize interactive oscillations.
Gain Scheduling
Changes in process characteristics often require changes in tuning settings to obtain optimal
control under all operating conditions. The control system can be programmed to automatically
change a controller’s tuning settings through a technique called gain scheduling. Gain
scheduling, sometimes called adaptive tuning, uses a function generator to set the controller gain
based on the current operating condition (e.g. steam flow rate). Additional function generators
can be used to adjust integral time and derivative time if needed.
For example, the dynamic response of a superheater slows down with a decrease in unit load.
The controller gain, integral time, and derivative time (if used) of the steam temperature
controller should be adjusted in relation to the changing dynamics of the superheater to achieve
optimal control performance at all loads. Similarly the process gain of the desuperheater outlet
temperature control loop might change with steam flow, requiring its controller gain to be
scheduled (Figure 6–8).
To design the gain schedulers, step tests should be done at low, mid-range, and high unit loads.
Steam flow rate should be noted at each test condition and optimal controller settings should be
calculated at each load point. A gain scheduler consisting of two (for PI control) or three (for
9839457 6-7
PID control) function generators should then be designed and implemented to provide the
appropriate main steam temperature controller settings based on steam flow rate. Similarly, a
single gain scheduler should be designed for the desuperheater outlet temperature. Practically,
the gain for the desuperheater outlet temperature controller should be designed and implemented
first, before doing step tests on the final steam temperature controller.
Steam flow
Steam to high-
measurement
FT pressure turbine
Main steam
temperature
TT
Steam
f(x) ∆ A temperature
f(x) P I D controller
f(x) Final
superheater
∆
f(x) P I D
A T Desuperheater
outlet temp.
TT
Linearizer f(x)
Desuperheater
FCV
Spraywater
Control Valve
From primary
superheater
Figure 6-8
Gain Scheduling
A Note on Parallel Controller Algorithms

Controllers with interacting (series) and noninteracting (ideal) algorithms have a controller gain
that affects the proportional, integral, and derivative actions simultaneously. A gain scheduler
compensating only for nonlinear process gains needs only adjust the controller gain setting of
these controller types.
A controller with the parallel algorithm does not have a controller gain, but has a proportional
gain instead. The proportional gain does not affect the integral and derivative control modes. A
gain scheduler compensating for nonlinear process gains have to adjust the proportional, integral,
and derivative gain settings of controllers with parallel algorithms.
9839457 6-8
Linearization
Valves and dampers have flow characteristics that are mostly not linear, meaning the flow does
not change linearly with their opening. It is essential that final control elements have a linear
installed characteristic so that the loop gain is constant, regardless of the controller output. If a
final control element is nonlinear, and no linearization is done, the controller has to be detuned to
accommodate the changing process gain. This leads to sluggish control loop response over much
of the final control element’s operating range.
Linearization is done with an X-Y curve or function generator configured to represent the
reciprocal of the control element’s flow curve. The linearizer (also called a characterizer) should
be placed between the controller and the valve (Figure 6–9). Although the linearization can be
done in a digital positioner, the DCS is the best location for it. This allows replacement of the
positioner without having to reprogram the linearization curve in the new positioner.
Figure 6-9
Final Control Element Linearization
To design a characterizer, the characteristic curve of the actual process has to be determined
first. For this readings of the process variable and controller output are taken under steady-state
conditions at various controller output levels. A minimum of three PV-CO data pairs are needed
for this, but four or five would be better for characterizing a nonlinear relationship.
The entire operating range of the controller output should be spanned, unless the process goes
out of range. Process tests can be done to obtain these data pairs or data from the process
historian can be used. The process variable data must be converted from engineering units to
a percentage of full scale of the measurement.
9839457 6-9
The data pairs are then sorted in ascending order, and entered into a function generator. The
process-variable readings become the X values (input side) and the controller-output readings
become the Y values (output side). A (0, 0) point must be included if one does not already
exist in the dataset (Figure 6–10).
X Y
0 0
8 20
20 40
45 60
100 80
Figure 6-10
Linearizer Design
After implementing the linearizer, its accuracy should be tested by checking whether the
controller output and flow measurement are roughly at the same percentage of full scale. For
example 50% controller output should result in roughly 50% flow rate. The controller should
be retuned after implementing the characterizer because it likely changed the process gain.
Biases
Set points derived from curves, feedforwards, and ratio controllers should have biases for
operators to manipulate up and down. For example, the operator may want to bias his O2 set
point during load ramps. However, on a properly calibrated control system, the need for a bias
should be minimal.
Operators should be asked for the reason when they have changed a bias away from its midpoint.
It may be a temporary problem, but if it is considered “normal” operation it requires further
investigation and a long-term solution should be implemented. This would normally be
recalibration of a curve or feedforward controller.
Multiple Parallel Equipment

Multiple fans or pumps are often installed in parallel to improve the turn-down ratio (e.g.
removing mills from service at low loads), or to have a spare piece of equipment available as
a standby. If a variable number of devices can be running during normal operation, the total flow
rate should be controlled. If the total flow rate is not measured (e.g. fuel flow rate provided by
multiple mills), individual flow rates should be added up and compared to a total demand signal.
A controller then changes the demand to each of the parallel devices simultaneously to match the
desired total demand.
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7
ADVANCED PROCESS CONTROL
Guidelines
• Model Predictive Control Demonstration: Model Identification and Simulation Results.
• Requirements for Successfully Implementing and Sustaining Advanced Control Applications.
Introduction
While advanced regulatory control (ARC) runs inside the DCS and is based on standard function
blocks, advanced process control (APC) typically runs in a dedicated Windows-based server
external to a DCS and is based on highly specialized algorithms such as model-predictive control
or neural networks.
APC is intended for applications in complex interactive processes with multiple control
objectives and many constraints. Its use has become almost standard in refineries and
petrochemical plants, and it is in use at a few power plants. APC provides several advantages
over ARC:
• Taking multivariable process interactions into account and calculating optimal control moves
accordingly
• Determining an optimal set of outputs for multiple manipulated variables for minimizing a
cost function and maximizing profit
• Predicting future constraint violations and taking preventive action
• Giving up on controlling less important variables, if required, for controlling the important
variables as well as possible
• Making use of all available control elements for meeting the control objectives as closely as
possible
However, APC systems are expensive to implement and require specialized skills to maintain,
and its adoption has been slow in the power industry.
Design
APC Technologies
When APC is utilized, specific APC technologies are preferred for certain applications on
boilers:
• Steam temperature and front-end control is done with model predictive control (MPC) for
fast control handling and long process lags. The MPC controller should use multiple models
to remain valid through the extents of the unit load range.
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• Combustion control and optimization is done with neural network-based controllers due to
the highly nonlinear behavior of the process. Neural networks are well suited to processes
like NOx control where the influence of one damper is dependent on the positions of other
dampers. The air dampers form an interactive parallel network, lending itself well to a
neural-network approach.
• Smart soot blowing is done with expert or rule-based systems to help with balancing heat
distribution between the evaporator, superheater, and reheater.
Expertise
Since the power industry does not have a wealth of experience with some APC technologies
(MPC in particular), it is important to get the vendor involved from the beginning. APC
technology suppliers have experience with the application of the technology and with installing
and configuring their software. They also have access to in-house or third-party consultants for
implementing their technology in power plants. APC software is so far away from the load-and-
go concept that it is imperative that the software vendor or experienced consultant be intimately
involved with the design and installation of APC systems.
Scope
APC solutions are often applied to a specific control problem, such as NOX reduction or steam
temperature control. However, a boiler is a collection of highly interactive, multivariable sub-
systems and further improvements of overall performance can be achieved by using boiler-wide
models. This strategy can add significant benefits for a relatively small incremental cost.
Changing Dynamics
Since the process dynamics of a boiler change based on the unit’s loading, the APC system must
be able to accommodate this. Neural networks can easily model nonlinear systems, but localized
models can still provide superior performance. MPC requires individual models for different
load ranges. The MPC technology can seamlessly swap out models to keep the predictions
accurate and the control actions valid.
Platform
Most APC vendors provide their APC systems as software running on a Windows system outside
the DCS. At least one DCS vendor (Emerson, on their Ovation DCS) provides a DCS-embedded
version of their controller as an option. DCS-embedded controllers require no external hardware,
have lower maintenance needs, and pose no network security risk.
APC maintenance is normally done by process control engineers, while instrumentation and
control technicians have domain over the DCS. A control engineer may find it inconvenient not
having direct access to a DCS-embedded APC controller for configuration and tuning purposes.
On the flip side, external APC systems require additional hardware, software, network
connection, and periodic upgrades.
Depending on the type of DCS used, and the features it offers, many companies will not have the
option of running APC in the DCS. The few who have the option should carefully consider the
pros and cons of each platform before making a decision.
9839457 7-2
DCS Integration
The design should include all the interface variables required in the DCS, and all the operator
graphics for interfacing with the system and monitoring its operation.
Implementation
Preparatory Work
Many APC systems generate set points or change biases for PID control loops. It is therefore
important that the regulatory control level, including tuning and final control elements, work
very well before implementing APC. APC vendors normally include a “pre-test” phase in an
APC project for tuning controllers and fixing control problems before the step testing for model
building is done.
Issues like stiction and dead band in final control elements, control valves leaking through in the
closed position, and defective transmitters all need to be addressed before implementing APC. In
addition to hardware issues, control elements should be properly characterized to obtain a linear
response.
Depending on the level of automation of the plant and the scope of the APC system, several
DCS, instrumentation, and control element changes may be required, for example:
• Modifying the DCS to allow control of mass flow of air to each overfire air port
• Modifying the DCS to allow control of air to fuel ratio control of each burner
• Installing and utilizing adjustable riffle boxes and diverter dampers to control the coal to each
burner
• Adding air flow measurements on all primary air flow ducts and overfire air ports
• Installing coal diverter dampers on the raw coal inlets to mills to balance the coal feed to
each end of the duplex mills
Step Testing and Model Building

Model-predictive control (MPC) uses a time-domain model of the process to predict the future
behavior of the process over a defined time horizon. Control actions are calculated to minimize a
cost function over this time horizon, and are bound by constraints. The process model is obtained
through step-testing individual manipulated variables and capturing the effects on each
controlled variable in a matrix of dynamic process responses. For MPC technology, multiple
linear models are required to deal with the changes in process response between high and low
loads. Three models are generally sufficient for good performance throughout the load range.
A single model has been shown to be insufficient.
Neural Network models for combustion control require steady-state models with as many
permutations as possible of mills in service, burner tilt angle, excess air levels, overfire air flows,
etc. Often, the position of a single damper is changed and the boiler is left to stabilize to see the
effect of this change on the combustion and heat transfer.
Time duration for model building depends greatly on the scope of the APC project, but two to six
weeks of calendar time is typical.
9839457 7-3
DCS Integration
In addition to building models and getting the controller configured, many new points for data
transfer must be built in the DCS. Several new operator graphics are also required. While APC
systems are inherently complex, the operator interface to the system must be both simple and
powerful to ensure operator acceptance.
The implementation in the DCS is relatively straight-forward and can be done by site personnel.
However, considering that site staff may be drawn into other more critical activities (e.g.
attending to problems during a unit start-up), this work should preferably be outsourced to the
DCS vendor or third party to lower the risk of project delays due to site staff required elsewhere.
Since the APC system can change biases and set points, the DCS should slowly back out the
biases after the APC has been turned off.
Commissioning and Tuning
When the APC system has been commissioned and is running online for the first time, it should
be placed in a predict-only mode in which predictions are made for the controlled variables and
new moves are calculated for the manipulated variables, but these are not actually implemented.
Some tuning will likely be required to tweak the sizes of the moves. The system can then
be placed in control mode after which further tuning might be necessary to optimize its
performance. Commissioning and tuning can typically last two to six weeks, depending on the
complexity of the system and problems experienced.
Operation and Maintenance

Self-Learning Systems
Care must be taken with the self-learning feature of neural network-based combustion
optimization systems. Weekly checks may be required to see if the neural network has been
training itself on invalid plant conditions (stuck dampers, controls in manual, etc.) The other
down side is that the system can behave differently under the same process conditions from one
day to the next, based on what the neural network has learned in the mean time. Self-learning
should normally be turned off and used only during specific periods of time and then only to
accommodate plant changes or new operating modes.
Training
It goes without saying that the operators need to be trained on the new APC functionality.
Training is of utmost importance for operator acceptance and for them to be able to operate the
new system and navigate through the new operator graphics pages. They also need to understand
what the APC system is controlling, the inputs it uses and how its outputs are connected to the
regulatory controls.
Depending on the technical expertise of the engineering and maintenance staff on site, they could
be trained to perform various levels of maintenance activities. At minimum they should be able
9839457 7-4
to debug communications problems and get the system back on line after a communications
failure or computer reboot. Engineers should be trained on basic system tuning to be able to
tweak the system response and dampen out oscillations if these occur.
If the site or company has full-time engineering staff capable of APC model maintenance, this
training should be covered in a separate, more detailed training session.
Maintenance
APC systems require a significant amount of troubleshooting. Operators generally do not trust a
system they do not understand, and if the APC acts in a non-intuitive way, they tend to turn it
off, or restrict its moves. It is important to have a champion who takes care of the system in the
long run by resolving issues as they come up, and calling in the supplier to resolve larger issues
when required.
Major changes to plant equipment, like installing low-NOX burners or changing superheater heat
transfer surface area, will require a recalibration of some or all of the APC models. Capable
engineering staff might also identify additional feedforward inputs that can improve the
operation of the APC system. Additional process modeling will be required for this too.
It is recommended to consider a maintenance contract with the APC supplier for resolving issues
that lie beyond the capabilities of plant staff.
On-Site Champion
Because the plant can run without the APC system, it can easily be turned off by operators when
problems arise. Then the system could remain off indefinitely unless someone troubleshoots and
corrects the problem. As mentioned, it is important to have a champion who takes care of the
system in the long run by resolving issues as they come up, and calling in the supplier to resolve
larger issues when required.
The champion should also be an advocate for the system and make sure plant personnel
understand its operation and capabilities. For example: management might expect the APC
application to solve process problems that are really maintenance-related. Also, if operations or
management do not understand the technology and how it works, they might blame APC for
process problems, for example tube leaks or air-heater blockages.
9839457 7-5
9839457
8
SEQUENTIAL AUTOMATION
Applicable and Guidelines
• Demonstration of Automation on a Combined-Cycle Plant. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2007.
1013344.
• Automation of Fossil Plant Startup/Shutdown: Instrumentation & Controls Technology
Assessment. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009. 1015710.
• D. Lee, Plant Automation Design Methods, Presented at 53rd ISA POWID Symposium,
6–11 June 2010.
Introduction
Power plants are complex to operate and require detailed written procedures for startup and
shutdown. Even starting or stopping major pieces of equipment like mills, boiler feed pumps, or
a draft group involves following a procedure. These procedures consist of a series of operational
steps that need to be followed in an exact sequence. After each step has been completed, a
number of operating statuses such as the position of a valve or outlet temperature of a heater
must be checked to meet specified criteria before the next step may be executed. A complete
startup may consist of dozens of these steps.
The function of the sequential automation system is to execute a predefined sequence of steps,
to do the checks necessary between steps, and to provide operator guidance during execution of
these steps. By viewing the sequence and its status, the operator is better able to evaluate the
current situation and determine the proper course of action when needed. As such, the plant
automation system becomes a tool for the operator.
The benefits of automated startup and shutdown sequences are:
• To execute procedures faster because the system will immediately go to the next step the
moment all permissives are met
• To provide consistency in the execution of procedures, allowing every startups to be as good
as the best operator can do it
• To reduce the possibility of operator error
• To reduce thermal stresses while maximizing the gradient at large components are heated up
DCS manufacturers provide sequential automation capabilities as a standard function in the

DCS, designed specifically for automatic execution of operating procedures. The architecture
comprises individual steps that can be arranged in hierarchical sequences. Sequences can be
9839457 8-1
started, paused, or stopped. Permissives based on feedback signals of plant conditions must be
met before execution of the next step can begin. Permissives may be overridden in case of
instrument failure. Steps can have a maximum time in which to complete, and if this time is
exceeded the sequence halts.
Effectively accomplishing the objectives of sequential controls requires a design philosophy
and the use of design principles that are consistent throughout the various plant subsystems [17].
It also requires a team with specific skill sets that work from the right design basis.
Design Philosophy
Hierarchical Levels
The basic sequential automation design is based on a hierarchical approach with three or four
hierarchical levels, e.g. drive, function group, group, and unit. The common practice is to
provide the individual control and interlocks for individual devices at the drive level. The
function group level is then a collection of steps and devices associated with a state change for a
major piece of equipment or process mode of operation (e.g. boiler feed pump). The group level
is a collection of major pieces of equipment or operating modes associated with a given area of
the plant (i.e., boiler, turbine, etc.). And lastly, if implemented, the unit level is integration of
groups and function group for the plant scope.
Scope of Automation
The scope of automation depends on the objective of the automation, but it may be impacted by
current or anticipated levels of instrumentation. The more devices the DCS can control and the
more process conditions the DCS can monitor, the higher the level of automation that can be
supported. Sequential automation can include existing subsystem automation (e.g., burner
sequencing or automatic turbine startup) but engineering design methods and HMIs may not
be consistent. These will require either a compromise on consistency, or total rework.
The sequential automation system should not do any feedback control.
As a starting point, the scope of automation could comprise just a single subsystem. For
example, an operator might have dozens of auto/manual stations, such as an overfire air system
with many dampers, each with its own operator interface. A single pushbutton can be provided to
get them all into auto or manual.
Plant Modes/States
Operating procedures often include different operating procedures for hot, warm or cold startups.
The sequence design must incorporate these different procedures. Also, procedures cannot be
reversed, requiring different sequences for startup and shutdown.
Operator Acknowledgements
The required degree of operator intervention needs to be established. Three types of operator
intervention need to be addressed:
1. Items that the operator absolutely needs to know the state of the plant for safety or other
reasons, like starting the first burner, or synchronizing the generator.
2. Changing modes of discrete devices and Hand/Auto stations to automatic mode may
require operator intervention, depending on the plant philosophy.
9839457 8-2
3. Cases where subsystems are not integrated with the plant automation system, where
manually actuated processes exist, or where lack of feedback signal(s) for a given step
exists.
Human Machine Interface
Operator graphic displays enable designers to ergonomically present plant procedures and
process data to the operators.
Feedback in the form of limit switch status, breaker status, process measurements, or similar data
is used to confirm the completion of a step. The HMI must also keep the operator informed of
what the automatic system is doing throughout the procedure. Custom graphics should be used to
show the status of each step in the startup, whether it has been completed, is currently active, or
is waiting for prior steps to be completed. Any permissive that is inhibiting the sequence should
be highlighted for the operator.
In the event of failure (instrumentation failure or otherwise), the system should provide guidance
to the operator as to the cause of the failure. The automation system should also be flexible
enough to allow the operator to override the logic in the event that a field device fails to send the
proper feedback signal—for instance, a limit switch fails to show that a valve is open, but visual
inspections confirm it is open.
Design Principles
Design Basis
Existing operating procedures should be used as the basis for the design. If the design of the
automation system deviates from the written procedure in any way, the written procedure must
be updated to reflect the exact operation of the new automation system.
If the operating procedure is incomplete, it should be updated to reflect all actions taken by an
experienced operator while executing the actual task on the real plant. Event logs of operator
actions and process time trends can be used to update and validate the written procedure. Video
recording of all keyboard and on-screen actions during the execution of the operating task can be
handy for verifying that all actions have been captured.
The entire startup procedure can be divided into small sequences of activities to make the logic
development more manageable [18]. Each sequence is initiated by the operator or by the
successful completion of a prerequisite procedure.
Code Requirements
NFPA 85 stipulates that Burner Management and Combustion Control systems shall have a
higher level of automation, safety interlocks and reliability in the system designs beyond those
specifically requested by the Code.
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Fail Safe and Fault Tolerant Design
Good engineering practices include fail safe and fault tolerant design of the drive level
automation to assure the safety of equipment and plant personnel. Proper fail safe control
design stipulates that on loss of the logic system output power the outputs would fail to their
de-energized state. Major drive devices should be partitioned on separate I/O cards. Typically,
one digital input card should receive the feedback from a major device and its associated devices,
and one digital output card should handle all the outputs to a device.
Standby (Lead/Lag) Operation
Industry practices on implementing standby operation varies between totally hardwired, a
combination of hardwired and soft, and totally soft. When implemented in soft control, some
designs have specific standby function blocks while other designs include the standby design
within the logic of the drive level devices. Run-up logic can be triggered upon the loss of the
lead device, or it could also include process conditions.
Implementation
Older plant automation systems utilized function codes, batch programs, or software programs
as the method of implementation. Modern design methods use sequence flow charts.
Certain field instrumentation need to be upgraded, new instrumentation required for feedback
needs to be installed and commissioned, and certain hand valves may have to be automated.
Testing
It is useful to test the sequential logic in a simulator for catching bugs and design errors. This
could also be done on a DCS test bed with simulated inputs and outputs. Any changes made to
the design should also be made to the standard operating procedures.
Design Team
Designing sequential automation requires knowledge of the process, available level of
automation, equipment operating procedures, plant specific operating practices, DCS
capabilities, and alarm management philosophy. Since this knowledge scope is beyond one
discipline, designing sequential automation requires a team with multiple subject matter experts.
The design team should consist at minimum of an engineer intimately familiar with the process
being automated, an experienced plant operator, and a consultant or DCS engineer with detailed
knowledge of the sequential automation capabilities of the DCS. If possible, the team should be
led by a multi-disciplinary engineer familiar with the process and the DCS’s capabilities, and
have prior experience in sequential automation. It is imperative to have a very experienced and
capable operator assist with the design. Experienced operators would know of undocumented
deviations from the procedure and might know of several ways in which the procedure can be
improved.
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If the automation system has to interface with other processes and control systems, subject
matter experts of those systems should be part of the initial planning and brought in to consult
to the design team at relevant times throughout the design. For example, the automation of an
HRSG in a combined-cycle plant has to interface with the control systems of the gas turbine and
the steam turbine. Process and controls experts from both turbines should be involved with the
design.
Implementation
Implementation Team
Depending on site staffing skills and availability, consideration should be given to contract the
DCS vendor or an experienced third-party to do the actual implementation.
Pre-Work
The degree to which the existing instrumentation can be used for automation without requiring
maintenance or replacement depends on the type and condition of the installed instrumentation,
but some field instrumentation will likely have to be replaced or at least repaired. In some cases
hand-valves have to be automated for the full implementation of sequential automation.
Replacing some limit/temperature/pressure/level switches with analog feedback will improve
reliability (instrumentation problems can be detected more accurately during normal operating
periods.)
Automated startup is not possible without stable regulatory controls. Control loop problems
have to be addressed before commissioning the sequential automation.
Commissioning
Plant management might be pushing hard to get the plant back on line after an automation
project, and this may prevent project personnel from fixing bugs in the automation sequences.
If the project team normally resides on site, this can be done when the next opportunity arises,
but if the project team goes off site, these issues may never be resolved. It is therefore important
to get all the problems fixed during the initial commissioning so that a fault-free and useful
automation system can be handed over to operations.
Maintenance and Training

Proper maintenance is a fundamental requirement for ensuring that the sequential automation
system remains operational over time.
Maintaining Field Instruments
Similar to feedback controls, sequential automation relies heavily on feedback from field
instrumentation. Some of this instrumentation might not have been part of a scheduled
maintenance plan because it might not have played an important role in the past. However,
instruments used to provide equipment status feedback to sequential logic programs should be
placed on a scheduled maintenance plan to ensure they work when required.
9839457 8-5
Modifying Sequential Logic
Existing logic should be analyzed and understood first, before simply ripping it out and
redesigning it.
Complex control logic should not be patched to address an immediate need, because it may have
undesirable side-effects. The impact on the entire logic circuit should be reviewed to see if
perhaps a better design exists.
New logic should not be built unless the requirements are thoroughly understood and all the
impacts have been identified.
Logic should never be used to hide maintenance issues or to compensate for control valve or
damper dead band or stiction.
Changes to the logic should be applied to the operating procedure as well.
Operating Procedures
When operating procedures change, these changes need to be implemented in the sequential
logic too.
Operator Training
The operators have to be trained on using the sequential automation system, where interventions
are required, and how to troubleshoot timeouts and missing permissives.
One of the undesired side-effects of automating operator procedures is that the operators may
forget how to do the task manually. New operators may never learn how a plant startup sequence
is really done. It may be prudent to have operators periodically do plant startups manually, using
written procedures as a guide, to ensure they understand all the steps involved and will be able to
do it manually if it ever becomes necessary.
9839457 8-6
SECTION II: BOILER CONTROLS
9839457 8-1
9839457
9
DRUM LEVEL CONTROL
• ANSI/ISA-77.42.01-1999 (R2011) Fossil Fuel Power Plant Feedwater Control System -
Drum Type.
• ISA-TR77.42.02-2009, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Compensated Differential Pressure Based
Drum Level Measurement.
• S.G. Dukelow, The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, ISA, 1991.
Introduction
The purpose of the boiler drum is twofold: it is primarily a vessel where steam and water is
separated; and it also provides some buffering capacity for short-term mismatches between
feedwater supply and steam production. The size of the drum is primarily determined by the
space required to accommodate steam-separating and drying equipment. Consequently, the
buffering capacity is relatively small compared to the total steam output.
Proper drum level control is crucial for the safe operation of a boiler. A low drum level risks heat
stress and damage to boiler tubes. High drum level risks water carryover into the steam header
where cool water impinging on hot pipework will cause extreme localized stress. It also causes
the risk of exposing the turbine to corrosion and damage.
Drum Level Measurement

The boiler drum level has a typical span of 30 inches (762 mm). The drum level is kept roughly
in the middle of the vessel. The boiler will be pressurized so the transmitter must be able to
operate with a static pressure up to 3,200 psi (22 MPa). In addition, chemicals injected into the
feedwater must be considered when specifying the transmitter’s materials of construction.
Instrumentation must comply with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. It is important to install and calibrate drum level measurement
instrumentation with care.
Reference Leg
Drum level measurement is typically done with a differential pressure (DP) transmitter of which
one leg is connected to the bottom of the drum and the other leg is connected to a constant-head
reservoir connected to the top of the drum. Steam condenses in the unlagged reservoir
(condensing pot), thereby providing a constant head (Figure 9–1) while excess water runs back
into the drum. The pressure differential measured by the level transmitter is in the negative
related to the level of water in the steam drum (a higher DP indicates a lower drum level).
9839457 9-1
Figure 9-1
Drum Level Measurement
The drum level senses the differential pressure between the lower drum measurement tap and the
water level in the reservoir. This means that the transmitter is really comparing the head created
by the height of water plus the height of steam in the drum at saturation temperature and pressure
with the head created by water in the reference leg at drum pressure but at a temperature much
lower than saturation.
The differential pressure is a function of several variables: the water level in the drum, the
densities of the water and steam in the drum, and the densities of the water in the pipes to the
transmitter.
Pressure Compensation
Since the density of steam and water at the saturation temperature change with pressure, the
drum level calibration will only be accurate at a single boiler drum pressure. Therefore, the drum
level measurement must be compensated by using a drum pressure transmitter. Compensation is
discussed extensively in ISA-TR77.42.02-2009 – Fossil Fuel Power Plant Compensated
Differential Pressure Based Drum Level Measurement [19].
Multiple Instruments
The minimum drum level instrumentation required for utility-sized boilers is one water gauge
glass and two indirect water level indicators. However, three level transmitters with median-
select logic should be used for control, interlocking, alarming and tripping functions.
Filtering
Since the boiling causes substantial noise on level measurements, noise suppression may be
required. The drum level’s feedback control will be a slow-responding loop, and a filter with a
time constant of five to ten seconds can be applied without much negative impact on control loop
performance.
Temperature Equalizing Columns
Temperature equalizing columns can be problematic because, during boiler operation they keep
the reference leg at a high temperature and a portion of the water in the reference leg can flash to
steam on a pressure decrease (load increase). This will result temporarily in a false higher-than-
actual level measurement, adding to the swell effect [20].
9839457 9-2
When temperature equalizing columns are encountered on existing steam drums they should be
removed, due to the flashing concern, and replaced with a more modern reference-leg
installation.
Drum Level Control

The drum level is controlled by manipulating the flow of feedwater to the drum.
Single-Element Drum Level Control
The most basic form of drum level control is done by measuring the drum level as described
above, comparing that to it set point, and used a single controller to manipulate the feedwater
control valve to correct for any level deviations from set point (Figure 9–2). This is called single-
element drum level control, since it relies on a single measurement for control.
Figure 9-2
Single-Element Drum Level Control
Single-element control is suitable only for boilers with large drums compared to the steam flow.
Residence times of several minutes are required because the control performance will be quite
poor due to the reasons described in the next sections. However, it is used on large utility boilers
under startup conditions, since the feedwater and steam flow measurements are inaccurate at low
flow rates
Inverse Response
Drum level control is complicated by the inverse response in level to a change in the feed rate.
An increased rate of cooler feedwater causes steam bubbles in the waterwalls to partially and
temporarily collapse, causing the drum level to decrease instead of increase. Inverse response
can cause the level controller to add an excessive amount of water to the boiler.
9839457 9-3
Shrink and Swell
Drum level control is further complicated by a phenomenon known as shrink and swell. When
the unit load demand is increased, the turbine throttle valves open and/or the firing rate increases.
Opening the throttle valves admits more steam to the turbine but causes a decrease in steam
pressure, due to the decrease in steam pressure, the water bubbles in the water walls increase in
size (or swell), causing the drum level to increase. When the firing rate increases, vapor bubbles
form at a faster rate and this also causes the drum level to increase. Similarly, when the unit load
demand is decreased the steam bubbles shrink and the drum level decreases. The shrink and
swell phenomena causes the drum level to move in the wrong direction during load changes.
Drum Level Controller Tuning
Drum level is an integrating process. Integrating loops are difficult to tune using trial-and-error
methods, which often result in a slow oscillation with a period of fifteen minutes to an hour. The
tuner is much better off doing step testing and calculating appropriate tuning settings using
software or the tuning rules given in an earlier chapter.
Inverse response and shrink/swell effects force the use of a very low controller gain, and no
derivative control. These factors result in a sluggishly tuned controller – one that is virtually
incapable of maintaining drum level during rapid load changes.
Three-Element Drum Level Control
Because of the slow response of the drum level controller, drum level control should rely mostly
on a feedforward from steam flow. The combination of drum level feedback and steam flow
feedforward for drum level control is called two-element drum level control, but it is rarely used
(without a third element) in utility power plants.
Three-element drum level control also adds feedwater flow measurement to the design. Thus, in
three-element control the three elements being used are the measurements of drum level, feed
flow, and steam flow. The sum of the steam flow rate and the drum level controller’s output
forms the set point for a feedwater controller that uses feedwater flow rate as its feedback. Steam
flow and feedwater flow should be measured in the same units.
9839457 9-4
Figure 9-3
Three-Element Drum Level Control
During low load operation (0 to 20%), steam and feedwater flow measurements are inaccurate
and single element control should be used. Transfer between single-element and three-element
control based on steam flow rate should be automated.
Steam Flow Measurement
Two-element and three-element drum level control require an accurate measurement of steam
flow rate. Steam flow can be measured using a differential pressure transmitter across an orifice
plate, venturi meter, nozzle, annubar, or the first stage of the high-pressure turbine.
Steam flow rate can also be measured with vortex-shedding flow meters. The claimed 30:1
turndown ratio of vortex flow meters is superior to the 5:1 typically possible with orifice
measurement.
To calculate mass flow, steam density compensation is required. This requires measuring the
upstream pressure and temperature and applying the appropriate compensation.
9839457 9-5
9839457
10
FEEDWATER FLOW CONTROL
• ANSI/ISA-77.42.01-1999 (R2011) Fossil Fuel Power Plant Feedwater Control System -
Drum Type.
•
nd
S.G. Dukelow, The Control of Boilers, 2 Edition, ISA, 1991.
Introduction
The objective of the feedwater control system is to supply enough water to the boiler to match
the sum of the evaporation rate and losses from blowdown and soot blowing. Since blowdown
and soot blowing normally is only a fraction of steam flow, and typically not measured, they may
be ignored when determining the feedwater demand.
Feedwater Flow Measurement

Feedwater flow rate is typically measured using the differential pressure across an orifice plate
or flow nozzle. Conversion to mass flow is necessary, for which including temperature
compensation is required.
Feedwater flow rate can also be measured with vortex-shedding flow meters for a better
turndown ratio.
Flow rates measured at individual pumps are used to control minimum flow recirculation valves.
Recirculated flow reduces the flow to the drum, which necessitates a final feed flow
measurement for measuring feedwater flow to the boiler.
Feedwater Flow Control Elements

Feedwater flow can be controlled with control valves or variable-speed pumps.
Control Valves
When control valves are used for controlling feedwater flow their flow characteristic should be
determined to linearize the relationship between controller output and flow.
A small startup valve is sometimes be used for improved control of feedwater under low flow
conditions (typically only during startup and shutdown). The startup valve should have its own
separate low-range flow measurement. Once the main feedwater flow control valve is in service,
the control system should automatically close the startup valve.
Variable-Speed Pumps
Pump speed can be manipulated for controlling flow rate, for example if the pump is driven by a
steam turbine or through a variable-speed drive. This can be used as the final control element in
place of a control valve to reduce energy consumption.
9839457 10-1
Although variable speed pumps are more expensive than the fixed-speed alternative, the total
cost of ownership has been shown to be lower – especially if the unit frequently operates at
lower loads.
Advantages of using variable speed pumps are:
• Improvement in unit efficiency because of reduced pressure loss across the feedwater control
valves
• Reduced pumping power
• Reduced feedwater valve erosion at low flow rates because of a lower pump discharge
pressure
• Improved control because of constant loop gain obtained from the variable speed pumps
A large part of the pump’s speed control range will be used up in providing the necessary head to
overcome boiler pressure. Below this speed will be a large dead zone where no flow is produced.
The feedwater flow controller output must be prevented from going into this dead zone for three
reasons:
1. Since the feed flow is already zero, reducing the controller output further into the dead
zone adds no further control action
2. When the controller output is well inside the dead zone and then wants to begin
producing feed flow, there will be a delay in the production of feedwater flow while the
controller moves through the dead zone to the point where boiler pressure is overcome
and feedwater begins flowing
3. Sparywater flow will be interrupted if the boiler feedpump discharge pressure becomes
lower than the steam pressure
Once the boiler pressure has been overcome and the pump is outside the dead zone, the flow
produced by a variable speed pump is reasonably linear to pump speed.
Variable-speed pumps are typically used in conjunction with control valves. The valves are used
to control flow rate at conditions below the pump’s minimum speed point at very low boiler
pressures.
Above the pump’s minimum speed, the pump should be used to control feedwater flow rate
because of its linear flow characteristic. Control valves can then be used to provide a pressure
differential required by the spraywater system. The pressure differential controller’s set point
can be changed to control the position of the most open spray water valve at a certain percentage
(e.g. 50%) open. This can go a long way to extend the life of spray valves that otherwise have
to throttle flow rates under excessively high differential pressure conditions, leading to valve
plug and seat erosion.
9839457 10-2
Minimum Flow Protection
Pumps require a minimum throughput for cooling purposes. If more than one pump is used
in parallel, individual pumps should be shut down before the minimum flow rate is reached.
When the feedwater demand reduces below the minimum flow rate with a single pump in
service, a recirculation valve must be opened to circulate flow back into the deaerator.
Sufficient dead band must be provided to prevent the minimum flow valves from cycling
between open and closed.
Feedwater Flow Control on Once-through Boilers
On super-critical boilers feed flow demand should come directly from the boiler demand and is
trimmed in relation to fuel flow rate by the superheat temperature controller.
9839457 10-3
9839457
11
CONDENSER AND DEAERATOR CONTROL
Introduction
From the condenser hotwell, condensate is pumped by condensate pumps through low pressure
feedwater heaters to the deaerator where dissolved gasses are removed. From the deaerator,
feedwater is pumped by boiler feed pumps through high pressure feedwater heaters and the
economizer to the boiler drum.
The level in the condenser hotwell and deaerator must be controlled, and the deaerator pressure
must be controlled.
Level Control
There are two levels to control and two control handles. The control handles are:
• Condenser extraction pumps (CEP) or the CEP discharge valve
• Condensate dump and makeup valves used as a pair
Technically, either control handle can be used for controlling either of the levels, but there are
some practical considerations. The surface area of the water in the condenser’s hotwell is much
smaller than the surface area of the water in the deaerator. This requires that the quicker
responding control action be used on the condenser level, and the slower one on the deaerator.
For this reason it makes sense to use the CEP/valve for controlling condenser level, and the
condensate dump/makeup valves to control deaerator level.
All the valves should be linearized to have a constant flow/demand relationship.
To have a constant loop gain, the condensate dump and makeup valves should be configured in a
split-range fashion, with the split-point determined as follows:
ℎ ℎ
% = × 100%
ℎ ℎ ℎ
Single-element control should be sufficient since there is no significant inverse response or

shrink and swell.
Level Measurement
Condenser Level Measurement
Level measurement should be done with a differential-pressure transmitter and a constant head
reservoir, similar to drum level measurement.
9839457 11-1
Problems can occur if the ambient/reservoir temperature increases above the saturation
temperature, because the water in the reference leg will then begin boiling and the leg will lose
its constant head. A low-flow make-up line can be used to constantly supply condensate to the
reference leg.
Suggestions have been made to use guided-wave radar for measuring condenser level, but this
has not been widely documented.
Deaerator Level Measurement
Level measurement should be done with a differential-pressure transmitter and a constant head
reservoir, similar to drum and condenser level measurement.
Problems can occur with accumulation of non-condensable gasses in the reservoir. This will
prevent steam from entering the condensing pot, resulting in a gradual loss of the constant head.
A low-flow vent line can be used to vent off these gasses.
Similar as for condenser level, suggestions have been made to use guided-wave radar for
deaerator level measurement, but this has not been widely documented.
Level Controller Tuning

Condenser and deaerator levels are integrating processes. Integrating loops are difficult to tune
using trial-and-error methods, which often result in a slow oscillation with a period of fifteen
minutes to an hour. The tuner is much better off doing step testing and calculating appropriate
tuning settings using software or the tuning rules given in Chapter 5.
Deaerator Pressure Control

Deaerator pressure is maintained by injecting steam to bubble up through the water. Steam can
be supplied from an extraction point on the turbine or from the boiler. In the case where turbine
extraction steam is used, the steam supply system must automatically switch over to boiler-
supplied steam in the event of a turbine trip.
9839457 11-2
12
FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL
• ANSI/ISA-77.41.01-2010 - Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Controls.
•
nd
• NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code, NFPA, 2011.
Introduction
This chapter covers furnace pressure control on balanced-draft units. Balanced-draft furnaces are
equipped with forced draft FD and induced draft ID fans. In balanced draft furnaces, the FD and
ID fans work together to move combustion air and flue gas through the furnace. The FD fan
regulates the combustion airflow (discussed later) and the ID fan regulates furnace pressure.
If the balance between FD and ID are disturbed, the pressure inside the furnace changes rapidly.
Even though the deviation in pressure may be small, considering the large surface area inside the
furnace, its effects could be extremely serious.
While either the FD fans or the ID fans could technically be used to control the furnace pressure,
NFPA 85 requires using the ID fan(s) for this purpose.
Furnace Pressure Measurement

Furnace pressure is measured using pressure transmitters. The measurement fluctuates quite a bit
and normal operating ranges are in the range of +0.25 to -1 inch H2O (+62 to -250 Pa). Narrow
spans are not practical because fast changes in flow may cause draft measurement to go outside
the range limits. Typical instrument ranges are:
• -4 to -3 inches H2O (-1 kPa to -750 Pa) for the low range limit
• +1 to +2 inches H2O (+250 to +500 Pa) for the high range limit.
The location of the furnace pressure measurement tap is important since pressure gradients exist
within the furnace, and some locations may be noisier than others. Pressure taps for measuring
furnace pressure may be located some distance below the top of the furnace.
Measurement lag should be minimized by using impulse piping with a diameter of 1 inch
(25 mm) between the tapping point and the transmitter, or a diameter of ¾ inch (19 mm) if the
distance is less than 25 feet (7.5 m).
To improve reliability and meet the NPFA 85 and ISA requirements, furnace pressure must be
measured with three independent transmitters with independent connections. The three pressure
signals must go through a median selector that also provides an alarm on high deviation between
the three signals.
9839457 12-1
Furnace Pressure Control
Balanced draft furnaces are typically operated slightly below atmospheric pressure to prevent
flue gas leakage to the surroundings. Too low a pressure must be avoided to minimize air
leakage into the furnace reducing efficiency and, in the extreme case, to prevent a furnace
implosion. Too high a pressure is a safety and fire hazard since flames can be blown from open
inspection doors.
Typically, pressure at the top of the furnace should be kept around -0.1 inches H2O (-25 Pa).
Because of the chimney effect of hot furnace gas, the actual set point should be lowered by a
further 0.01 inches H2O for each foot (8.2 Pa per meter) of elevation the tapping point is below
the top of the furnace.
Since combustion airflow changes with the firing rate, large disturbances can be introduced
during load ramps. Feedforward control should be used to respond to changes in airflow before
sensing a change in furnace pressure. Most of the control action should come from the
feedforward, while the feedback control loop should make fine adjustments to the induced draft
flow to maintain furnace pressure at set point.
Since air is compressible a change in the FD fan controller output does not affect the furnace
pressure instantaneously, but there is a delayed response. This effect might require the use of lag
compensation in the feedforward control path.
ID fan dampers should be linearized (see Chapter 4, Final Control Elements.) If flue gas flow
measurement is not available, the flow-characteristic curve of the ID dampers can be determined
using FD flow measurement by running the draft groups on a dark furnace with the PA fans shut
down. Linearization of the ID dampers is especially important if the ID flow rate is not measured
and controlled.
If fan speed and damper position are available for control, the dampers should be used as the
primary control element because of their relatively fast speed of response. The fan speed should
be manipulated with a different controller to bring the dampers back to the 50% position.
The NFPA 85 Code requires block logic preventing the ID controller output from increasing on
low furnace pressure and decreasing on high furnace pressure. An override should close the ID
inlet damper or reduce the ID fan speed on a very negative furnace pressure. Additional logic
should reduce the controller output by an amount proportional to the load before the trip and then
release the output for further automatic control. These overrides must be downstream of the
hand-auto control station for the ID fans so that operators cannot intervene with their action.
9839457 12-2
Furnace Pressure
PT PT PT
Transmitters
Median Selection
Furnace
A ∆
pressure
P I
controller
Lag K
Feedforward from
A T Air flow demand
/L /H
T >
Block
decrease
T <
Block
increase
Main fuel trip

Tmr T <
f(x)
Load demand
f(x) Linearizer
ID fan speed /
FCV
damper control
Figure 12-1
Furnace Pressure Control
Furnace Pressure Controller Tuning

The furnace pressure measurement is a noisy signal, requiring the use of a relatively low
controller gain. Minimal filtering should be applied to not affect the relatively fast loop
dynamics.
PI control should be used since the furnace pressure tends to be too noisy for the use of
derivative control.
Because of the extremely large volume of the furnace compared to the very slight negative
pressure being controlled, the furnace pressure control loop will react almost like an integrating
process. Integrating loops are difficult to tune using trial-and-error methods, which often result
in an oscillating loop. Especially when using low controller gains. The tuner is much better off
doing step testing and calculating appropriate tuning settings using software or the tuning rules
given in Chapter 5.
9839457 12-3
The feedforward should be calibrated for minimum feedback control requirement throughout the
boiler’s operating range. The lag on the feedforward should be adjusted to delay the ID fan
action if furnace pressure displays a lead characteristic (dampers move too far in the right
direction and then come back to the desired position) during large transients.
Furnace Pressure Oscillations

Furnace pressure can be oscillating because of many factors:
• FD control loop oscillating
• ID dampers have dead band or stiction
• Incorrect ID controller tuning
There is another source of furnace pressure oscillations, often present but it frequently remains
undiscovered. That is a partial blockage in a rotating air heater. This blockage may affect the
combustion air flow too.
If the furnace pressure oscillates with a period matching the rotational speed of the air heater, the
air heater motor should be turned off for 15 to 30 seconds and then back on. If this interruption
shifts the phase of the oscillation, it points to the air heater being partially blocked.
9839457 12-4
13
FUEL AND AIR CONTROL
•
nd
• T. Leopold, You can tune a boiler but you can’t tune a fish, booksurge.com, 2009.
Introduction
The heat used for generating steam for driving the steam turbine is obtained by burning fuel in
the furnace. Air for combustion is provided through forced-draft fans. On pulverized-fuel boilers,
coal is crushed in mills and transported to the burners with primary air which may be provided
by the forced-draft fans or by dedicated primary-air fans. Fuel and a portion of the combustion
air enter the furnace through multiple burners, while the remainder of the combustion air enters
the furnace through additional ports. After combustion, the products of combustion are extracted
from the boiler through induced-draft fans, and fed to the smoke stack. Heat exchangers, or air
heaters, extract heat from the hot gas exiting the furnace and heats up the combustion air prior
to entering the furnace.
The control of combustion in fired boilers is extremely critical. Fuel must be consumed at a rate
that exactly matches the demand for steam, and the combustion process must take place without
risk to the plant, personnel, and environment. The amount of energy released in the furnace is
considerable and could be more than a billion joules per second in a large boiler. In a process of
this scale, the results of an error can be catastrophic. Safe and efficient combustion requires the
accurate measurement and control of fuel and air.
Fuel Flow Control

Fossil fuel used for power generation can be in solid, liquid or gaseous forms. Each of these fuels
requires specialized handling, and instrumentation has to be appropriate for the type of fuel being
used.
The fuel master (controller) controls the total fuel flow to the furnace. It receives its set point
from the boiler master (cross limiting with air flow will be discussed later), and compares this
to the total fuel flow rate. The total fuel flow is the sum of all individual fuel flows, including
different fuel sources/types, and multiple mills.
The fuel master controller’s output adjusts fuel flow control valves, feeder speeds, or damper
positions to keep the total fuel flow rate at its set point.
9839457 13-1
Fuel Flow Measurement
Fuel Gas
The most common fuel gas is natural gas (methane), but it may also be propane or a mixture of
the two. The measurement of gaseous fuels must consider the physical properties of the gas,
particularly temperature, pressure, and specific gravity. Where widely changing properties are
encountered, automatic compensation should be used.
Gas flow rate is normally metered using a differential-pressure type flow meter with a primary
element such as an orifice plate installed in the main header. This produces a differential pressure
proportional to the square of the flow rate and requires square root extraction. Differential
pressure types of flow measurement have a low turndown ratio. For more accurate measurements
at low flow rates, an instrument with high turndown capability such as vortex shedding or
ultrasonic flow meters should be used.
Fuel Oil
Fuel oil flow is commonly estimated from only the oil pressure at the burner. This is cost-
effective and reasonably accurate, but it does not account for blockages and has a poor turndown
ratio. Fuel oil flow can be measured more accurately using a Coriolis mass flow meter. It
measures mass flow, is not affected by pressure or temperature, and has a high turndown ratio for
accurate mass flow measurements across a wide range of flow rates.
Fuel oil pressure must be equalized at the various levels of burners otherwise it will be affected
by hydrostatic pressure.
Coal
Coal flow measurement will be discussed in Chapter 15, Pulverizer Control.
Pressure-Flow Interactions
Fuel gas or fuel oil pressure is often reduced from the high supply pressure to a lower pressure
maintained in the fuel gas header. The fuel flow control loops may interact with this pressure
control loop, causing oscillations in fuel pressure and fuel flow rate. If this happens, the pressure
control loop should be detuned to attenuate the oscillations and return stability to the system.
Fuel Flow Scaling
Fuel feedback from all sources should be scaled as a percentage of full-load fuel flow. The
scaling is required so that when the boiler master requests 100% boiler load, the fuel master
should provide 100% measured fuel in total.
Fuel Flow Controller Tuning
The fuel master control loop is a relatively fast-acting loop requiring a fast integral time to be
able to quickly adjust feeders or fuel valves already in service when additional mills or burners
are placed in service.
9839457 13-2
The controller gain should be scheduled depending on the number of fuel control valves or
feeders (PA dampers for ball mills) are available in auto. Integral time does not need scheduling.
The controller gain (KC) should be set according to the KC required when the control elements in
auto can produce a maximum of 100% fuel flow, divided by the maximum production of the
control elements actually in auto.
Air-Fuel Cross-Limiting
The response times of fuel and air supply systems are seldom identical. On gas- and oil-fired
boilers the fuel flow tends to respond faster than the air flow to a change in demand. On coal-
fired boilers the fuel flow tends to respond slower than the air flow. The difference in response
speeds can lead to fuel-rich furnace conditions unless the fuel and air flow controls are cross-
limited to prevent this condition. Cross-limiting ensures that the fuel flow rate does not exceed
the equivalent combustion air flow rate.
To cross limit the fuel flow control loop, the boiler demand is compared to the actual percentage
air flow and the smaller value is selected using a low-select function block. This prevents the
fuel demand from exceeding available airflow.
To cross limit the air flow control loop, the boiler demand is compared to the actual percentage
fuel flow and the greater value is selected using a high-select function block. This prevents air
demand from dropping below actual fuel flow. For safety reasons, a minimum airflow must
always be maintained.
The cross-limiting control strategy (Figure 13–1) is sometimes called a lead-lag circuit since the
airflow will always lead the fuel on an increase in boiler demand (the low-select on the fuel set
point requires the air flow to increase before fuel flow) and lag the fuel on a decrease in boiler
demand (the fuel flow must be lower than air flow for the air flow set point to be decreased).
Fuel flow and air flow should both be defined in percentage of boiler load to simplify the
comparison logic.
9839457 13-3
Boiler Air/fuel
Fuel flow Air flow
demand ratio
FT A FT
Air flow
f(x)
curve
∆ < > × > ∆

P I P I
A
A T
Minimum air
A T
Linearizer f(x)
FCV FCV
Mill feeders / fuel FD fan speed /

valves damper control
Figure 13-1
Fuel and Air Cross-Limiting
Air Flow Control

The boiler demand signal is passed through a cross-limiter that ensures the air flow is always
more than or equal to the amount required for the current fuel flow. It is then multiplied by the
air/fuel ratio to form the air flow demand. The air flow demand is compared to the minimum air
flow parameter and the maximum of the two becomes the set point for the combustion air flow
controller.
The air flow measurement is corrected by the air/fuel curve before being compared to the air
flow set point.
The air flow controller output drives the position of dampers on the FD fan inlet or in the FD air
duct. The controller output should be characterized with a function generator to provide an air
flow rate that changes linearly with controller output.
Air Flow Measurement
A variety of techniques are used for measuring combustion air flow on boilers. Air-flow
measurements typically use differential pressure sensors. Primary measurement elements not
principally designed for flow measurement or located in flue gas should be avoided. These
include:
9839457 13-4
• Burner differential (windbox pressure minus furnace pressure)
• Boiler differential (differential across baffle in combustion gas stream)
• Air heater differential – gas side
• Air heater differential – air side
• Venturi section or flow tube installed in stack
More desirable measurement techniques use primary sensing elements designed for flow
measurement, and measure flow on the clean-air side. These include:
• Piezometer ring at forced draft fan inlet
• Venturi section in forced draft air duct
• Orifice segment in forced draft air duct
• Airfoil sections in forced draft air duct
• Area-averaging pitot array or annubar provided with straightening vanes and membrane-type
differential pressure cells.
The actual air flow measurement is based on the square root of the differential-pressure.
Consequently, the devices listed above are of little value below 25% of the maximum flow rate.
Air density must be considered in both calibration and operation of any air flow meter, and
therefore temperature compensation is required for the measurement to reflect mass flow. The
ISA 77.41 standard requires temperature compensation if the air temperature varies by more than
50°F (28°C), but this implies a tolerance of 10% and is too large for best practice purposes.
Better rangeability on air flow measurement with no need for temperature compensation can be
obtained from multipoint thermal mass-flow meters. Because of potential air flow stratification
in the duct, one device per square foot (300 mm x 300 mm) is recommended. Thermal mass-flow
meters have at least two advantages over other measurement technologies:
• Direct mass flow measurement. Thermal mass-flow meters directly measure the mass flow of
combustion air. Unlike differential pressure meters, thermal mass-flow meters do not require
any pressure or temperature compensation.
• Turndown. Thermal mass-flow meters have turndowns of around 10 to 1 which should be
sufficient for utility boilers.
The air flow measurement should be converted to a process variable ranged 0-100% of fan
capacity to match the air flow controller’s set point. The calibration should be such that air flow
rates of more than 100% can be indicated and the signal should not be limited at 100%.
Air/Fuel Ratio Trim
Adjustment of the air/fuel ratio can be accomplished by either adjusting the air flow demand or
air flow feedback. Placing the trim on the demand makes more sense and is easier to understand,
commission, and troubleshoot, i.e. if more air is required then, increase the air/fuel ratio set
point.
9839457 13-5
If the fuel/air ratio adjusts the air flow demand, the calibration of air/fuel curve, minimum air
flow set point, air flow trips and purge rate are easily established because air flow represents the
correct mass flow rate into the furnace. The only addition to the control strategy is that the
corrected air flow measurement must be divided by the air/fuel ratio before using it in the
cross-limiting logic.
The alternative would be to adjust the air flow feedback. Then the adjustment becomes the
fuel/air ratio. Increasing the ratio will decrease the air flow. This is not intuitive. Also, special
provision must be made to adjust the minimum air flow set point proportional to the air flow
feedback.
Placing the trim on air flow demand is the preferred method.
The air/fuel ratio can be trimmed automatically by using an O2 controller. The O2 controller
adjusts the air/fuel ratio to keep the excess O2 in the flue gas at the desired O2 set point. This is
discussed in the next chapter.
Air Flow Curve
The ratio of air to fuel is not constant for all unit loads, because the desired level of O2 in flue gas
changes with load. The O2 controller mentioned earlier can adjust the air/fuel ratio to obtain the
desired level of O2 under steady state conditions, but its response would be too slow to do this
effectively during load ramps.
For this reason, an air-flow curve (also called an air flow characterization curve) is required to
align the air flow measurement with the fuel flow rate in such a way that the desired level of O2
is obtained for that fuel flow rate.
The air flow curve is developed by placing the O2 controller in manual with its output at 50%
(generating and air/fuel ratio trim factor of 1.0), and zero bias. The boiler master and air flow
controller must be in manual control mode. At constant fuel flow, manipulate the air flow
controller output to obtain the desired O2 level for the steam flow rate. Once the desired O2
level has been achieved, note down the fuel flow rate and the air flow rate required for achieving
the desired level of O2. These become one set of X-Y points in the air flow curve’s function
generator. The actual air flow measurement becomes the X (input) and the fuel flow rate
becomes the Y (output). Do this at five points from minimum to maximum of normal fuel
flow rate to obtain a curve with four segments.
Final Control Elements for Air Flow
The flow rate of air can be controlled by using pitch-control in axial-flow fans, by using dampers
or vanes, or by adjusting fan speeds. See Chapter 4 for discussions on each of these methods.
Air-Duct and Windbox Pressure Control
If air flow is controlled to individual burners or burner groups feeding from a common air
duct (primary air) or windbox (secondary air), the air-producing fan or its dampers should be
manipulated to control the pressure in the common duct or windbox. The pressure could have
a fixed set point, or the duct pressure can be varied based on steam flow rate. The air-duct or
windbox pressure can also be varied to keep the maximum flow control damper position at a
fixed value, e.g. 50%.
9839457 13-6
If the air-duct or windbox pressure is not constant, a minimum override must be provided to
prevent the set point from decreasing below a predetermined minimum value. Also, the process
gains of the flow control loops will change with pressure, requiring that the gains of the
individual flow controllers be changed based on the pressure differential across which they are
controlling. These additions substantially increase the complexity of the system while providing
debatable benefits.
The simple but effective design would be to operate the air-duct or windbox at a constant
pressure.
9839457 13-7
9839457
14
EXCESS AIR/O2 CONTROL
•
nd
Introduction
The combustion process requires the provision of fuel and air in the correct ratio to each other.
The stoichiometric ratio is a condition under which enough air is provided to ensure complete
combustion of all the fuel, with no surplus or deficit. However, practical conditions require a
slight excess of air for optimum combustion compared to the stoichiometric ratio. If 1.2 times
the stoichiometric air is introduced to the furnace, it is said to be 20% excess air.
The excess air also leaves a few percent of oxygen in the flue gas that can be measured as
percent O2 in the flue gas, and used for control. The control of excess air is required for
improving boiler efficiency and safety. High amounts of excess air results in unnecessary heat
loss through the flue stack, while too low amounts of excess air wastes fuel because of
incomplete combustion and creates unsafe furnace conditions.
The measured concentration of O2 should be used to automatically adjust the air/fuel ratio in the
combustion airflow control loop. The O2 set point is a curve based on boiler load (steam flow).
O2 Control
The O2 controller compares the O2 measured in the flue gas to a set point for a particular steam
flow rate, and trims the air/fuel ratio used for generating the air flow demand signal.
The trim range is critical because any large deviation from the large deviation from the air/fuel
ratio set point can result in a dangerous combustion mixture. The trim should be limited to
approximately a 10% change, or 0.9 to 1.1. If more than this adjustment is needed, the reason for
it should be investigated. The fuel flow measurement or the air flow curve may need calibration,
or automatic adjustment of the heating value of the coal may be necessary.
If the minimum air flow value has been reached, the O2 trim should be prevented from trying to
decrease the air-fuel ratio. The O2 controller should be blocked from making changes during load
ramps, because the O2 will likely be high due to the air-fuel cross-limiting logic.
9839457 14-1
Boiler Oxygen in
Fuel flow Steam flow
demand flue gas Air flow
FT AT FT FT
O2 set
point
∆ f(x)
P I O2 SP
curve
Bias Air/fuel
f(x)
curve
A T A
Air/fuel
ratio
∆ < > × > ∆

P I P I
A
A T
Minimum air
A T
Linearizer f(x)
FCV FCV
Mill feeders / fuel FD fan speed /

valves damper control
Figure 14-1
Automatic Air/Fuel Ratio Adjustment
O2 Measurement
Typically, a zirconium oxide-based oxygen analyzer is used as a direct measurement of oxygen
in the flue gas, and by inference it indicates the excess air in the combustion process. The
measurement is taken upstream of the air heater to prevent errors due to air leaking past the air
heater seals.
A single point measurement of O2 is error prone and not recommended. Flue gas leaves the
combustion chamber through ducts of considerable cross-sectional area and the flue gas tends to
striate, forming ribbons or currents of varying oxygen content. Air entering the furnace though
the registers of idle burners will tend to produce a higher oxygen content in flue gas flowing
along one area of the furnace outlet duct than other areas where fewer burners may be idle.
It is therefore necessary to take considerable care that the measured oxygen content is truly
representative of the average oxygen content. It’s best to have several measurements taken in a
matrix. The measurements are often averaged. The individual measurements can be presented to
the operator to select one or more measurements to use for control.
9839457 14-2
Modern combustion control systems can intelligently select which oxygen analyzers to use based
on the operating conditions of the plant and which burners are in service. Such systems require
careful observation of the plant performance over an extended period of time so that the
appropriate correlations can be drawn.
The dirty, hot, and corrosive conditions of the flue gas at the sample points makes periodic
maintenance of the sensors and sampling system necessary for dependable measurement.
Since measurements can drift or fail, it is essential to give operators the capability to manually
intervene, choose analyzers to use, bias the air flow set point, and even place the oxygen
controller in manual operation in the absence of a reliable measurement.
O2 Optimization
Since most of a boiler’s thermal loss is through the stack, boiler efficiency can be increased by
decreasing any excess air fed to the furnace, but only up to a point. If excess air is decreased too
much, combustion efficiency suffers, and levels of unburnt carbon and CO in the flue gas
increases.
Excess air flow can be kept at a minimum by measuring and controlling the concentration of O2
in the flue gas at predetermined optimum levels. The optimum O2 level changes with unit load.
Consequently, the O2 controller’s set point has to follow a curve with the most efficient levels
of excess O2 versus boiler load. Steam flow rate is mostly used as an indication of boiler load.
The O2 set-point curve is determined by stabilizing the boiler at different load points and
reducing the excess air until opacity or CO levels in the flue gas increase. The steam flow rate
and O2 level are charted on an X-Y curve (Figure 14–2). Once completed this curve is
implemented as a function generator that provides the set point for the excess O2 based on
measured boiler load or steam flow rate.
A bias should be available for the operator to manually increase the excess oxygen set point
by a fixed amount. This provides manual compensation for controlling CO emissions.
9839457 14-3
10
8
Percentage Excess Oxygen
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage Boiler Load
Figure 14-2
Typical O2 Set Point Curve
O2 Controller Tuning
The flue gas sensor is located in the back of the furnace and does not have a very fast response
time, causing a significant delay between a change in air/fuel ratio and the corresponding change
measured in the flue gas. This requires the use of a long integral time. Since the O2 signal
can be quite volatile, very little proportional control and no derivative control should be used.
Consequently, the O2 controller cannot and should not be tuned to actively control the
combustion air flow; it should simply trim the fuel/air ratio to bring the excess O2 to the
predetermined set point over time.
Combustion Control
Combustion control goes beyond controlling O2 in flue gas. There are several other indicators
of combustion problems that should be monitored and if possible, used for control.
Supplementary Measurements
Using oxygen analyzers alone to determine the optimal fuel-air mixture can be misleading
because of the measurement inaccuracies mentioned earlier.
Carbon monoxide (CO) should be monitored as an additional measure of combustion
performance. Theoretically, controlling excess air indirectly controls CO emissions, but a high
concentration of carbon monoxide with plenty of excess air means the burners or mills need
tuning, or it could indicate excessive ingress of tramp air.
9839457 14-4
Another parameter to consider is stack opacity, since reducing air flow below a certain level
results in visible smoke. Although it is undesirable to operate a boiler in a region where smoke
is being produced, opacity should nevertheless be monitored as an indication for adverse
combustion conditions. Obviously this technique is more suitable for oil- and gas-fired boilers,
and less so for coal-fired boilers that already have a substantial reduction in opacity because of
ash.
For coal-fired boilers the carbon content of the ash should be monitored and used as an
indication of incomplete combustion. Online carbon-in-ash analysis can play a useful part in
optimizing the combustion process. However, because of long time constants in the combustion
process coupled with the slow response of these analyzers, and problems with stratification
render this technique more suitable for long-term combustion optimization under relatively
stable load conditions.
Real-time in-furnace combustion monitoring has been shown to provide enhanced visibility of
the combustion process enabling operators and software to properly balance furnace temperature,
O2 and CO thereby safely operating at reduced levels of excess air without the typical adverse
effects of slag formation and corrosion [21]. An in-furnace combustion monitoring system
obtains real-time measurements of temperature, O2, CO, and H2O concentrations directly in the
furnace by using tunable laser diode absorption spectroscopy. Using a dozen or more laser paths
in a parallel or grid arrangement across the length and/or width of the furnace overcomes the
typical problem of measurement uncertainty associated with point-source measurements. Such
systems facilitate combustion optimization through manual adjustment of air registers and
balancing coal flow rates. It can also feed into combustion optimization software to provide real-
time feedback of furnace conditions.
Constraint Control
Also called envelope control or override control, several process variables can be combined in a
control arrangement that uses one final control element to drive the most critical process variable
to a minimum. This is easily done by multivariable control technologies, but it is possible with
PID control too.
For example, the air-fuel ratio can be reduced to improve boiler efficiency up to the point where
the excess O2 is at its set point. However, if carbon monoxide increases above its limits it should
then become the active constraint and override the O2 controller to increase the air-fuel ratio
until carbon monoxide is reduced to its limit. Similarly, if opacity increases and becomes the
constraint, the opacity controller overrides the other two and increases air-fuel ratio to a point
where opacity is decreased below its limit (Figure 14–3). NOx can be tied in with unit load to
automatically reduce load if NOx exceeds regulatory levels.
In a constraint-control arrangement one controller at a time is ultimately in control. To prevent
the integral terms in the other controllers from winding up, external reset feedback should be
implemented, or a block designed for override/constraint control in the DCS should be used.
9839457 14-5
Figure 14-3
Constraint Control
Fuel and Air Flow to Individual Burners

Pulverized coal boilers can experience problems associated with poor air and fuel distribution.
Deviations from the design flow rates at individual burners result in some burners operating fuel
lean, while others operate fuel rich. Fuel-rich burners produce large amounts of CO, high levels
of carbon in ash and longer flames while locally lowering the oxygen level in the flue gas. Fuel-
lean burners produce high NOx levels and elevated levels of excess oxygen. The outcome at the
boiler exit is flue gas with high CO, high NOX, and elevated levels of unburned carbon and
excess oxygen.
Low air flow rate to a burner can cause fallout of pulverized fuel in horizontal sections of the
pipes feeding the burner. This can further reduce the flow rate causing a snowball effect until the
pipe becomes so blocked that it is incapable of delivering fuel to the furnace. High flow rates to a
burner can erode the pipe and burner.
These imbalances are typically addressed by optimizing the windbox air distribution and adding
orifices to improve the fuel distribution. Most Low-NOX burners allow adjusting the air flow
through movable sleeve dampers or other designs. These are typically adjusted during initial
optimization of the Low NOX system after a retrofit.
Some trials have been documented on the measurement and control of air and fuel at individual
burners [22, 23]. Measuring coal flow rates to individual burners is helpful for manual balancing
the fuel distribution, and neural networks or other advanced control technologies can also
automatically distribute fuel and air to individual burners to optimize combustion.
9839457 14-6
Combustion Optimization Software
Combustion efficiency is not dependent just on the ratio of fuel to air, but also on where exactly
the air and fuel are injected into the furnace. Changing the position of one overfire air damper
may have a totally different effect compared to changing another one. This is a very complex
multivariable problem, but there are software programs available that have been developed
specifically for this purpose [24]. Combustion optimization technology has been successfully
proven on many boilers.
9839457 14-7
9839457
15
PULVERIZER CONTROL
Guidelines
•
nd
• D. Lindsley, Power Plant Control and Instrumentation – the Control of Boilers and HRSG
Systems, The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2008.
Introduction
In pulverized coal-fired boilers, the coal is ground to a fine powder in a pulverizer or mill and
blown into the furnace for combustion. From a controls perspective, a pulverizer consists of a
feeder to control the coal flow, dampers to control the air flow, and dampers to control the air
temperature.
In general, the industry classifies pulverizers as high speed, medium speed, or low speed [25].
From a control standpoint, the coal inventory level associated with each class is more important
since that is what dictates the control philosophy that should be applied (Table 15–1, from [26]).
Table 15-1
Pulverizer Classification
Class Types Inventory Firing-Rate Control

High speed Hammer mill Low Coal feed rate
Medium speed Vertical spindle Medium Coal feed rate and/or PA
flow rate
Low speed Ball mill High PA flow rate
Measuring Coal Flow

Fuel flow in a coal-fired boiler cannot easily be measured directly, and various schemes have
been developed to infer the fuel delivery rate based on other variables. A coal flow measurement
strategy should also compensate for pulverizer dynamics.
Gravimetric feeders can measure coal flow rate into the mill with reasonable accuracy, and under
steady-state conditions, the gravimetric feed rate of coal will be a good indication of pulverized
coal production too. But this is not necessarily the case during transients in mill demand.
Low-inventory mills, i.e. hammer mills, the coal feed rate to the mill is a reasonably good
indication of pulverized fuel flow, since there is minimal holdup of coal in the mill.
Vertical-spindle mills hold medium inventory, and coal feed rate is a reasonable indication of
coal production, although there is some lag caused by the mill’s inventory. Primary air flow rate
can also be used, or a combination of feeder speed and coal flow rate.
9839457 15-1
For mills with a large inventory of coal, i.e. ball bills, dynamic coal flow rate is better inferred
from the flow rate of primary air (PA) through the mill. The measured coal feed rate should be
used for long-term correction. However, even PA flow is not a good indication of pulverized fuel
flow rate during large increases in mill demand, since the inventory of fine coal gets depleted
and there is a delay for additionally added coal to be ground fine enough for transportation. Mill
level also affects the coal flow rate for a given PA flow rate. The inferred coal flow signal should
take these characteristics into account.
Varying Heating Value

Because coal can have wide variations in heating values and moisture content, the coal flow as
measured by the feeders provide only an approximation of fuel flow to the boiler.
In the event that net heating value or flow rate of fuel varies unpredictable, heat release should be
inferred from steam flow rate and the rate of change of steam pressure and used as feedback for
fuel flow rate.
If the net heating value of the fuel changes appreciably, the fuel flow feedback signal should be
compensated for this. This is done by multiplying the fuel flow feedback by a trim signal driven
by a slow integration of the error between steam flow (ranged 0-100%) and compensated fuel
flow (also ranged 0-100%). It has been called BTU (British Thermal Unit) compensation and
fuel factor. This is helpful during load ramps to ensure the feedforward from the unit load set
point to the fuel demand increases the fuel flow by the right amount. The BTU compensator
must be limited to the normal variance in heating value, e.g. 0.5 to 1.5. The integration must be
slow enough to not be affected by steam flow lags during ramping. If not, it must be stopped
during load ramps. It must also be stopped if the steam flow rate is below the minimum rated
load of the boiler.
Mill Dynamics
Pulverizers induce time lags into the control process. There is a finite time between the
introduction of coal into the pulverizer and the delivery of fuel to the furnace. The grinding and
drying of the coal in the pulverizer and the time required to transport the coal/air mixture to the
burners both contribute to time lags. In addition, the volume of coal in the pulverizer increases
as the load on the pulverizer increases.
As a result, all pulverizers have some inherent time lag between a change in the raw coal feed to
the pulverizer and the change in delivery to the furnace. This has no effect during steady-state
operation, but can create control problems during rapid changes in boiler load.
To compensate for pulverizer response characteristics, a firing rate kicker (derivative action) is
usually required on the set point to the pulverizer control system [27]. This kicker should cause
a temporary overshoot in feeder speed and primary air flow when the demand to the pulverizer
changes.
9839457 15-2
Bumpless Manual to Auto Transfer
When all mills are in manual or local set point mode the fuel master controller should be in
tracking mode, but since there are multiple mills there is no way for the fuel master to know
which mill to track. The first one placed in cascade (remote set point) mode should be used for
setting the output of the fuel master. The set points of subsequent mills placed in cascade must
be ramped to the desired common set point.
Fuel-Flow Control at the Mill Level

Table 15–1 indicated the preferred control handles for the different types of pulverizers.
The boiler master sends fuel demands to individual mills. Oil flow rates of burners associated
with the mill should be subtracted from the mill’s fuel demand.
Firing demand to individual mills must have a minimum block to prevent fuel flow rates from
dropping below the level required for sustaining a healthy flame.
Mill Control
Vertical Spindle Mills
The pressure drop across a mill is dependent on the mill design, air flow through the mill, and
amount of coal in the mill (mill level). The pressure drop will increase with the square of the air
flow through the mill, similar to the pressure drop across a restriction or orifice in the primary air
pipe feeding the mill. Consequently, the relationship between the pressure drop across the mill
versus the pressure drop across an orifice in the primary air duct supplying the mill should be a
straight line [28]. This is called the mill load line. It is defined by the mill manufacturer and is
specific to a particular type of mill operating under defined conditions.
The load line can be used for mill level control on vertical-spindle mills, because the level of the
coal in the mill appreciably changes the pressure drop across the mill. When the feeders are used
to balance the bill on its load line, the feeders lag behind changes in primary air flow
(Figure 15–1).
9839457 15-3
Fuel DP across PA
DP across mill
demand flow nozzle
DP DP
T T
Minimum PA
Flow
> K
∆
∆ P I
P I
PA flow Feeder
damper speed
Figure 15-1
Control Structure to Keep Mill on its Load Line
A feedforward from the boiler master can be sent directly to the feeders to prevent them from
lagging behind PA flow, but this should be overridden with the primary air flow rate to ensure
the feeders do not deliver coal in excess of the primary air’s removal capacity (Figure 15–2).
Fuel PA flow
demand
FT
Minimum PA
Flow
> <
∆
P I
PA flow Feeder
damper speed
Figure 15-2
Parallel Control of PA Flow and Feeder Speed
9839457 15-4
For suction mills, the exhauster fan controls primary air flow while the mill air inlet dampers are
used to control the negative pressure inside the mill. A control diagram for suction mills is given
in Figure 15–3.
In all cases, the PA dampers should be characterized to provide a linear flow rate with demand.
The feeder speed should be fed back to the fuel master control system as an indication of fuel
flow rate. Although this is a crude representation of fuel flow, the feedback responds faster than
other methods such as heat-release. In any event, the steam flow rate should be used for a long-
term correction of fuel flow to compensate for changes in calorific value.
Fuel Air flow Air pressure at

demand to mill mill inlet
FT PT
Minimum
PA Flow
> <
∆ ∆
P I P I
Exhauster
Feeder Mill inlet
flow-control
speed damper
damper
Figure 15-3
Control of Mill with Exhauster
Ball Mills
Because of ball mills’ large coal inventory, the coal feeder signal is virtually useless in the
control scheme as a fuel flow signal. An inferred fuel flow signal can be derived from boiler heat
release, primary air flow, linearized classifier differential, characterized primary air damper
position, or exhauster inlet damper position. Since these signals, with the exception of heat
release, can produce an apparent coal flow in an empty mill, the signals must be verified by logic
signals monitoring the mill level and feeder status.
On ball mills, the feeder is manipulated to control inventory level inside the mill. Primary air
flow through the mill is used to control the fuel flow. A feedforward from fuel demand is
required to the feeder (Figure 15–4). The coal feeder control for ball tube pulverizers may be
based on the following:
9839457 15-5
• Pulverize level (differential measurement)
• Pulverizer decibel (dB) (sound measurement)
• Pulverizer kilowatt (kW) (power measurement)
• Pulverizer kW and dB
Figure 15-4
Ball Mill Control
Feeders
Feeder speed determines the volumetric flow of coal into the mill. Feeder speed can be adjusted
with a variable-ratio gearbox, hydraulic couplings, and variable-speed motors. Variable-speed
motors are the most reliable, inherently linear, and provide the best control resolution.
An operator-adjustable feeder bias should be available for each feeder.
After being placed in auto, any error between the feeder speed and its set point should be ramped
out over time to bring the mill in line with the others in an orderly fashion.
There should be an override from mill motor amps that reduces the feeder demand in case the
mill motor current exceeds some limit. An override from the burner management system must
drive the demand to zero on a main fuel trip or mill trip.
Primary Air Temperature

Primary air is also used to dry the coal passing through the mill. The temperature has to be high
enough to dry the coal, but not so high that it drives off volatiles and/or risk ignition inside the
mill. The tempering air damper is manipulated to control the primary air temperature.
9839457 15-6
If hot and cold air dampers exist for temperature control, the two should be driven in opposite
directions. If the hot air damper opens from 0 – 100%, the cold air damper should close from 100
to 0%. This can be done with one actuator, but the use of two actuators allows each damper to be
biased with respect to the other by the operator or a mill optimization program.
Temperature control dampers may be linearized, but it is normally not worth the effort, since
mill temperature is not a critical variable.
If mill inlet and outlet temperatures are measured, the potential for implementing cascaded
temperature controls exist. However, because the process dynamics of controlling inlet
temperature are very similar to those of outlet temperature, cascade control is not recommended.
9839457 15-7
9839457
16
STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL
• ANSI/ASME TDP-1, Recommended Practices for the Prevention of Water Damage to Steam
Turbines Used in Electric Power Generation, 2006.
• ANSI/ISA-77.44.01-2007 - Fossil Fuel Power Plant - Steam Temperature Controls.
• S.G. Dukelow, The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, ISA, 1991.
Introduction
The improved heat rate of modern plants results mostly from the high cycle efficiency obtained
from high steam temperatures. To maximize efficiency, temperatures approach the creep limits
of high-pressure components and it is of utmost importance that the frequency and extent of
temperature excursions be minimized for obtaining the maximum working life of a power plant.
Other reasons for accurate steam temperature control include preventing excessive thermal
expansion in the turbine from dangerously reducing blade-to-shell clearances; and avoiding
erosion of the last stages of the turbine by moisture resulting from low steam temperatures.
Standard performance practice for steam generating equipment usually permits a tolerance of
±10°F (6°C) in outlet steam temperature [27].
Steam Temperature Measurement

Steam temperature is normally measured with thermocouples, and sometimes with resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs). Because of the high pressures involved, the sensors are housed
in pressure-rated thermowells. If thermowells are excessively thick, thermocouples do not fit
properly, or thermocouples are of the ungrounded type, the response of the measurement device
is negatively affected.
The response time of the sensor in a control loop is an important factor in the loop’s
performance. A typical superheater steam temperature control system in a power plant utilizes
two temperature measurements, one at the desuperheater outlet and another at the final
superheater outlet. The desuperheater outlet temperature should be a fast responding
measurement to help eliminate disturbances quickly.
Steam Temperature Control–Drum Boiler

Various designs and modifications exist for controlling steam temperature. These designs are
described below and comments are made on their application and suitability. The discussions and
diagrams below cover only one of the two parallel flow paths. The design for the second flow
path is identical.
9839457 16-1
Single-Loop Control
Single-loop or single-element control is the most basic form of steam temperature control
(Figure 16–1). The final steam temperature is measured and used as the process variable for a
single steam temperature controller. The controller output drives the spraywater control valve
directly.
Steam
temperature Steam to high-
measurement pressure turbine
TT
Process variable
Steam
Set point A ∆
temperature Final
P I D
controller superheater
Controller output
Auto / manual
A T
transfer station
Desuperheater
FCV
superheater
Figure 16-1
Single-Loop Steam Temperature Control
This single-loop design for steam temperature control is more suitable for small boilers with fast
superheater dynamics, or for base-loaded units. Because of the slow dynamics of large
superheaters, firing-rate disturbances during load ramps, and process nonlinearities, this design is
less suitable for large, load-following boilers.
Cascade Control
Cascade control or two-element control also measures and controls the final steam temperature,
but instead of the main steam temperature controller driving the spray valve directly, it drives the
set point of a secondary temperature control loop that regulates the outlet temperature of the
desuperheater (Figure 16–2).
The secondary, desuperheater outlet temperature control loop responds relatively fast compared
to the main steam temperature control loop. It can therefore improve main steam temperature
control by being able to quickly compensate for:
• Variations in steam temperature at the desuperheater inlet
• Changes in spraywater cooling capacity with steam flow rate and conditions (enthalpy) of
steam and spraywater
9839457 16-2
• Variations in pressure differential across the spraywater control valve because of changes in
steam or feedwater pressure
• Nonlinear spraywater control valve characteristics
Main steam temperature

measurement Steam to high-
pressure turbine
TT
Main steam
temperature A ∆
Final
controller P I D
superheater
Desuperheater
outlet temperature
measurement
Desuperheater
∆ TT
outlet temperature
P I D
controller
A T
Desuperheater
FCV
superheater
Figure 16-2
Cascade Steam Temperature Control
Feedforward Control
One major disturbance to steam temperature control is caused by load ramping. It is therefore
beneficial to use a feedforward between boiler load and steam temperature control [29, 30]. The
feedforward can be generated from boiler demand, throttle pressure versus its set point, airflow
versus fuel flow or steam flow [31]. Figure 16–3 shows the tie-in of a feedforward controller into
the steam temperature control by adding it to the output of the main steam temperature
controller.
As a minimum, the feedforward signal should be derived from a load index (or indices). The
feedforward signal should ideally recognize all major influences on steam temperature. Several
feedforward signals can be used:
• Boiler demand
• Throttle pressure versus set point as an indication of over firing
• Fuel flow versus steam flow as an indication of over firing
• Reheat temperature control demand
• Rate of change of drum pressure
9839457 16-3
Not all boilers respond the same. Different feedforwards will work better on some boilers and
not others. The key is to look for a correlation between a variable or some derivative of it, and
spray flow rate. The variable must be a reliable and repeatable leading indicator that spray flow
is about to change.
Main steam
Load index temperature
calculation measurement Steam to high-
pressure turbine
Load TT
Main steam
A ∆
temperature
P I D
controller Final
superheater
f(x)
Desuperheater
outlet temperature
measurement
Desuperheater
∆ TT
outlet temperature
P I D
controller
A T
Desuperheater
FCV
superheater
Figure 16-3
Feedforward for Improving Steam Temperature Control
Multistage Desuperheating
Some boilers have two or more stages of desuperheaters. The last desuperheater will have the
fastest response on the superheater outlet temperature and must be used as the primary method of
steam temperature control. The other desuperheaters can be used to control outlet temperature of
the intermediate superheaters and the set points are based metal-temperature limits of the
intermediate superheaters. Alternatively, spray flow can be balanced between the last and other
desuperheaters.
The tuning of the last desuperheater outlet temperature control loop should be fast and according
to its process characteristics. The tuning of each upstream control loop should be significantly
(3 to 5 times) slower than its downstream loop to ensure disturbances caused by it occur slowly
enough that the downstream loop can react to it.
9839457 16-4
Steam Temperature Controller Tuning
For this discussion the inner loop refers to the desuperheater outlet temperature, and the outer
loop refers to the final superheater temperature.
If the cascaded steam temperature control arrangement is used, the inner loop should be tuned
first. This loop should be tuned for a fast response with minimal overshoot. Step-testing should
be done at least at minimum and maximum load conditions to ensure stable control at both ends.
Controller gain scheduling might be required.
Once the inner loop has been tuned, it should be placed in cascade control mode and the outer
loop should be step tested at least at minimum and maximum loads. If step testing indicates that
the dead time of the outer loop is less than three times the dead time of the inner loop, removing
the inner loop should be considered. However, this is not a likely scenario given the relative
distance if the two temperature sensors from the spraywater injection point.
The outer should also be tuned for a fast response with minimal overshoot. If possible, derivative
control should be used. Note that if set point changes are used to test control performance, it will
likely display more overshoot than what will actually occur under constant set point conditions.
Scheduling of controller gain, integral time, and derivative time will very likely be required.
Steam Temperature Control – Once-Through Boilers

For once-through type boilers, the water becomes steam as it flows through the waterwall tubing.
The ratio of firing rate to feedwater flow determines the final value for the superheat steam
leaving the boiler.
One design philosophy uses steam temperature controller to adjust the feedwater-to-fuel ratio
[32]. Two approaches exist: boiler demand sets feed flow rate and the temperature controller
ratios the fuel flow; or boiler demand sets the fuel flow and the steam temperature controller sets
the feed flow. Under steady-state there is no difference, but dynamic testing may indicate faster
response from one of the two methods on the final steam temperature. Typically, fuel has a faster
effect on temperature and feed flow has a more profound effect on steam production/throttle
pressure, but the manufacturer’s recommendation should be followed.
Since superheater spray flow is extracted from feedwater flow, a change of superheat spray
flow will not result in a permanent change in final steam temperature leaving the boiler since it
does not change the ratio of firing rate to feedwater flow. After a change in spraywater flow
rate, the final steam temperature will eventually return to its previous value. For this reason,
desuperheating is not used for steady-state correction but serve to stabilize steam temperature
during transient conditions. To allow the transient temperature control to operate in both
directions, the superheat spray valves should be maintained at a normal regulating range.
To achieve this, the firing rate to feedwater flow ratio should be manipulated to regulate the
specified attemperator differential temperature.
An alternative design is to use the firing rate to feedwater flow ratio to control the waterwall
outlet temperature [33]. If the waterwall temperature increases above set point, the fuel is
trimmed back and vice versa. The waterwall temperature set point is based on a load curve with
9839457 16-5
an operator bias input. The final superheat control is regulated through superheat sprays.
However, the waterwall outlet temperature strongly impacts the downstream superheat steam
temperature. The waterwall temperature set point is therefore biased to maintain the superheat
sprays within control range and thereby hold superheat temperature close to set point.
Because of the high degree of interaction between the control elements of fuel, feedwater,
and spray flow on waterwall and superheater outlet temperatures, once-through boilers lend
themselves extremely well to temperature control with multivariable, model-predictive control.
Application of MPC has proved successful [34].
Steam Temperature Controller Tuning
On once-through boilers, spray flow controls temperature spikes. Primary temperature control is
trim on feedwater and fuel demands. This is a slow loop and should have high and low limits on
the amount of trim.
Reheat Temperature Control

Reheat spray water does not pass through the high pressure (HP) feed water heaters and is
therefore less regenerative. Further, this spray quantity bypasses the HP part of the cycle and
expands only in intermediate pressure/low pressure (IP/LP) turbines doing less work. Because of
these reasons, the cycle efficiency reduces and heat rate increases. The reduction in efficiency
(or increase in heat rate) is a function of the quantity of spray water used. Typically, the cycle
efficiency decreases by about 0.08 % for every 1% RH spray [35].
Therefore, flue gas recirculation, superheat/reheat gas bypass damper, or burner tilts, if available,
are used for maintaining the reheater outlet temperature at its set point with zero or very little
reheat spray. Gas recirculation fans and burner tilts are reportedly difficult to keep working in the
long term; while gas bypass dampers (gas proportioning dampers) are easier to maintain [31].
If two gas dampers are used, one for the superheater and one for the reheater, care should be
taken that both dampers do not close at the same time. If a single set of actuators drive both
dampers, they should be set up that while one damper opens from 0 – 100%, the other one closes
from 100 – 0%. If each damper has its own actuator, ID fan power consumption can be
minimized through a split-range design that closes the one damper only if the other one is fully
open.
The time lag between manipulating burner tilts or gas flow paths and reheat temperature is quite
long, typically 120 seconds on large boilers. For this reason, and to protect the reheater in case of
a damper getting stuck in an unfavorable position, spraywater flow should be used as a backup.
The set point for controlling reheat temperature with spray valves should be set a few degrees
higher (typically 10°F/5.5°C) than the other control methods to ensure minimum use of
spraywater [31].
Strategies for Improving Steam Temperature Control

Since steam temperature control is one of the greater challenges in controlling boilers, several
best practices for improving steam temperature control has been established.
9839457 16-6
Using Derivative Control
The dynamic characteristics of a superheater temperature control loop are ideal for the use of
derivative control:
• The process time constant is longer than the dead time
• The process variable (temperature measurement) has a reasonably low noise content
When the above two criteria are met, derivative control offer several mechanisms that
individually and cumulatively improve control loop response:
The derivative control mode increases the restorative control action while steam temperature is
pushed away from its set point by a disturbance. This additional control action reduces the extent
of the deviation compared to proportional + integral control only.
The derivative control mode opposes the control action while steam temperature moves toward
its set point. The net reduction in control action reduces the extent of overshoot compared to
proportional + integral control only.
The derivative control mode adds stability to a control loop, which allows the use of a slightly
higher controller gain and a faster integral. The higher controller gain reduces the extent of
deviations from set point, and the faster integral brings temperature back to set point quicker.
Smaller deviation from set point

when using derivative
Less overshoot when using derivative
Disturbance
Additional control action from derivative
Figure 16-4
Simulation Indicating the Benefits of Using Derivative Control
9839457 16-7
For these reasons, derivative control is often used in superheater temperature controllers.
However, if trail-and-error tuning methods are applied, a PID controller is more difficult to tune
than a PI controller. And since many controls personnel lack formal training and/or experience in
proper controller tuning methods, they mostly use trial-and-error tuning methods, often leaving
much room for improvement in control performance.
Linearization of Spray Valves
Spraywater control valves should be linearized to obtain a linear relationship between controller
output and spraywater flow rate. Since this relationship is also affected by boiler load, a two-
dimensional correction may be required [36].
Figure 16-5
Spray Control Valve Linearization
Gain Scheduling
Changes in process characteristics often require changes in tuning settings to obtain optimal
control under all operating conditions. The control system can be programmed to automatically
change a controller’s tuning settings through a technique called gain scheduling. Gain
scheduling, sometimes called adaptive tuning, uses a function generator to set the controller gain
based on the current operating condition (e.g. steam flow rate). Additional function generators
can be used to adjust integral time and derivative time if needed.
Significant improvements in desuperheater outlet temperature control obtained with the
implementation of gain scheduling have been reported [36]. With constant controller settings,
controllers have to be detuned to remain stable at all boiler loads. With the implementation of
gain scheduling, control loops can be tuned for considerably faster response.
9839457 16-8
Main Steam Temperature Controller
The dynamic response of a superheater slows down with a decrease in unit load. Steam travels
slower through the superheater tubing at lower loads, leading to a longer dead time and process
lag (or time constant). The controller gain, integral time, and derivative time (if used) of the
steam temperature control loop should be adjusted in relation to the changing dynamics of the
superheater to achieve optimal control performance at all loads.
To design the gain schedulers, step tests should be done at low, mid-range, and high unit loads.
Steam flow rate should be noted at each test condition and optimal controller settings should be
calculated at each load point. A gain scheduler consisting of two (for PI control) or three (for
PID control) function generators should then be designed and implemented to provide the
appropriate controller settings based on steam flow rate (Figure 16–6).
Desuperheater Temperature Controller
Although the dynamic response (dead time and time constant) of the desuperheater outlet
temperature control loop is not affected much by unit load, its process gain varies significantly
with changes in steam flow rate. Higher steam flow rate require larger changes in spraywater
flow rate to achieve the same amount of cooling. To some degree this may be self-correcting if
there is sufficiently less available differential pressure across the spray valves at lower loads. If
not, it could require an adjustment of controller gain based on steam flow rate (Figure 16–6).
To design the gain scheduler, if needed, step tests should be done at low, mid-range, and high
unit loads. Steam flow rate should be noted at each test condition and optimal controller settings
should be calculated at each load point. It is expected that integral and derivative times would be
reasonably constant while controller gains would be different at the various steam flow rates. A
gain scheduler consisting of a single function generator should be designed and implemented to
change the controller gain based on steam flow rate.
9839457 16-9
Figure 16-6
Use of Gain Scheduling on Superheater Temperature Control
Burner Tilts
Burner tilts, if available and reliable, should be used to optimize the heat distribution in the boiler
between the evaporator and superheater/reheater. Ideally, optimal burner tilt positions should be
obtained experimentally for the entire range of unit loads and used for positioning the burners.
However, different combinations of burners in service will have different optimal burnet tilt
angles. Hence feedback control should be used to bias the tilt angles and obtain the desired heat
distribution.
Burnet tilts can be used to control superheater temperature, but only if the reheater has a method
other than spraywater to control its temperature. The loss of efficiency makes the use of
spraywater for controlling reheater outlet temperature unattractive.
Burner tilt angle can be used to control main steam temperature directly or it can be used to drive
superheater spraywater flow to a minimum value required for steam temperature control. The
latter should be used only if attemperation has a faster effect on steam temperature than changing
the burner tilt angle.
If the steam temperature is low and spraywater flow is at zero, steam temperatures can decrease
uncontrollably, especially during down ramps when the decrease in steam flow lags behind the
decrease in fuel flow. A feedforward from the rate of change of boiler load can be used to bias
burner tilt angle to help control steam temperature during load ramps.
9839457 16-10
Saturation Protection
Wet steam conditions downstream of the desuperheater should be prevented because it renders
the temperature controller incapable of reducing the desuperheater outlet temperature any
further, and attempting to do so will only result in excessive amounts of spraywater being
dumped into the steam piping.
The cascade-control design for steam temperature control supports the implementation of
saturation protection to keep steam conditions at the desuperheater outlet above the saturation
temperature. The saturation temperature is determined using drum pressure and a function
generator, or using the control system’s built-in function block for calculating saturation
temperature if it exists.
The target value for the desuperheater outlet temperature controller is compared to the saturation
temperature plus a margin of 10 to 20°F (5.6 to 11.1°C) [37], and the maximum of the two
values is used as the set point to the desuperheater outlet temperature controller (Figure 16–7).
Figure 16-7
Saturation Protection Logic
If cascade control is not used, the main steam temperature controller’s output should be blocked
from opening the spraywater control valve any further if the desuperheater outlet steam
temperature decreases to a few degrees above the saturation temperature, assuming that this
measurement is available.
On multistage desuperheaters, each desuperheater could have its own saturation protection logic
although it is likely that only the first-stage desuperheater will need it.
9839457 16-11
Controller Windup Protection
When the spray control valve is fully closed, fully open, or blocked from opening further
because of saturation protection, the integral term of the controller driving the valve should be
blocked from winding up under these conditions. This is called anti-reset windup and is standard
on modern digital controllers.
In cascade control designs, a blocked condition on the inner loop (desuperheater outlet
temperature) also needs to block further control action changes in the same direction on the outer
loop (main steam temperature) to prevent the outer loop’s controller from “winding up” and
causing large temperature overshoots and oscillations when the original block condition in the
inner loop clears up.
Spray Block-Valves
Spraywater control valves often leak in the fully closed position, making them ineffective for
shutting off spraywater flow. Additional control logic should be implemented to automatically
close spraywater block valves (or stop valves) when no spray is called for.
Figure 16-8
Spraywater Block Valve in Series with Control Valve
Model-Predictive Control
Model-predictive control (MPC) uses a time-domain model of the process to predict the future
behavior of the process over a defined time horizon. Control actions are calculated to minimize a
cost function over this time horizon, and are bound by constraints. The process model is obtained
through step-testing, a process during which step changes are made to individual manipulated
variables, and the effects on each controlled variable is captured in a matrix of dynamic process
responses [38].
9839457 16-12
MPC has been around since the 1980s and is in widespread use in the refining and petrochemical
industries. It is especially useful for solving multivariate control problems containing multiple
interactions between control loops and should therefore lend itself very well to application on
boilers. A few successful installations of MPC for steam temperature control have been
documented [34, 39, 40], and EPRI has also been doing research in this field and describes the
development and successful testing of a model predictive steam temperature controller in a
simulated environment [41, 42]. The controller demonstrated an improvement over conventional
PID control, paving the way for its testing on live plant. However, the power industry has been
slow to adopt this technology [43].
Intelligent Sootblowing
Heat distribution can be shifted through intelligent soot blowing to decrease the use of
spraywater and consequently improve unit heat rate [44].
9839457 16-13
9839457
17
UNIT LOAD AND STEAM PRESSURE CONTROL
• ANSI/ISA-77.43.01-2002 (R2008) - Fossil Fuel Power Plant Unit/Plant Demand
Development–Drum Type.
•
nd
• T. Leopold, You can tune a boiler but you can’t tune a fish, booksurge.com, 2009.
Introduction
Because electric power cannot be stored in significant quantities, power must be generated based
on consumer demand. And since demand increases and decreases during the day and can change
from one minute to the next, at least some power plants must be able to alter their rate of power
generation to meet fluctuations in demand.
Nuclear generators are generally run at their maximum continuous rate of generation, while solar
and wind power fluctuates on their own natural cycles. The favorable price of natural gas tends
to keep combined-cycle plants running at high loads, leaving the following of changes in demand
mainly with coal-fired steam plants.
Front-End Controls
The load response of a unit is determined by the dynamic characteristics of its two major
components: the boiler and the turbine. These differ significantly from each other. The response
of the turbine is almost instantaneous. The response of the boiler depends on the speed at which
fuel flow rate can be changed and the thermal inertia of the evaporator. Consequently, the turbine
can respond far quicker than the boiler to changes in load demand.
Rapid response to large changes in unit load set point often requires coordination between
the boiler and turbine controls. This coordination is done by the boiler and turbine master
controllers, called the front end. The unit load demand signal can be fed to the turbine master
controller (boiler-follow mode); or to the boiler master controller (turbine-follow mode); or it
can be directed to both (coordinated mode). The set point to the boiler master should have lead
compensation (derivative kick) to overcome the thermal inertia of the boiler.
Turbine controls and boiler controls should ideally be in the same DCS, or at minimum in two
control systems that are digitally connected for the exchange of set points and other information.
The unit master controller must have the facility to accept a remote dispatch signal for load
control of the unit, while still leaving the operator with the ability to set limits and even hold
the unit at a particular load, thereby preventing load increments and decrements.
The unit master demand must be high and low limited, and the set point generation to boiler
and turbine masters must be rate limited. The rate limiter should be adjustable by the operator,
usually to a maximum of 1-2% of maximum rated unit load.
9839457 17-1
Constraint Control
In addition to the operator-adjustable maximum ramp rate, process deviations can be used to
further limit the ramp rate. Deviations from set point of major operational parameters (e.g. steam
temperature, waterwall metal temperatures, drum level, deaerator level, condensate flow,
feedwater flow, air flow, fuel flow, condenser vacuum, etc.) should be monitored and the
parameter with the greatest error above the preset percentage overrides and reduces the unit load
ramp rate.
The result is that the control system dynamically selects the most critical process deviation and
automatically readjusts the unit ramp rate to keep the system within tolerable limits. This allows
the unit to respond to load changes at its maximum rate, and only intervenes if adverse
conditions warrant. The unit remains in full automatic operation throughout, whereas units
without this feature typically have to be put into manual or risk a unit trip.
Unit Capability and Load Runback
Unit load demand should be automatically limited by unit capability logic if it detects that one or
more process variables cannot meet their demands. For example, if only one of two feed pumps
required for full load feedwater production is available, the unit capability logic would limit the
unit load demand at the level achievable with one feed pump.
Deviation-limit (also called directional blocking) logic should be provided to stop load ramps
if drum level, or steam temperature deviate from their set points by a predetermined amount.
Rundown logic should reduce unit load under certain conditions such as generator stator
temperature high, mill feeders at maximum speed, FD or ID fans at maximum speed or damper
position, or throttle pressure deviating from its set point by a predetermined amount.
Runback logic should very rapidly reduce unit load to an achievable level upon the loss of a
major piece of equipment, for example, boiler feed pump or forced draft fan trip. Automatic
mill trips should be executed if the new target load is below the combined minimum limits of
the number of mills in service. Upon initiation of a run-back, the boiler master should go to
manual control mode, and the front-end should switch to turbine-follow for rapid throttle
pressure control.
Boiler-Follow Mode
In boiler-follow mode the turbine master receives the unit load set point and modulates
the turbine throttle valves to control generated load using the stored energy in the boiler
(Figure 17–1). This requires that the turbine operates with partially closed throttle valves. The
boiler master controls the main steam pressure (also called throttle pressure) by manipulating
the fuel flow rate. In boiler-follow control mode the turbine responds first to changes in unit load
demand and the boiler follows in response to restore steam pressure to the set point.
Boiler-follow mode allows fast control of generated load, but the boiler master control loop is
much less stable and more difficult to tune than with turbine-follow mode [31].
9839457 17-2
Figure 17-1
Boiler-Follow Mode
Single-element boiler-follow control mode consists of a single throttle-pressure control loop.

It is not suitable for units undergoing rapid load demand changes [30]. Two-element control
improves load-following performance by adding a load index feedforward. The feedforward will
change the boiler demand directly based on energy flow from the boiler, without having to wait
for throttle pressure to decrease. One choice for a load index could be steam flow rate, but
problem with using it is if the steam flow rate increases due to a boiler disturbance, the
feedforward signal increases demanding more fuel which will further increase the steam flow
rate. For this reason the feedforward should be non-regenerative [45]. Some texts suggest using
the calculated desired output or calculated turbine throttle valve opening [30]. A straight-forward
choice would be to use the unit load demand signal.
Turbine-Follow Mode
In turbine-follow mode the boiler master receives the unit load set point and modulates the
fuel flow rate to control generated load. The turbine master controls the throttle pressure by
modulating the throttle valves (Figure 17–2). In turbine-follow control mode the response to
changes in unit load demand is slower because of lags fuel flow rate and the inertia in the boiler.
Turbine-follow mode provides a more stable front end than with boiler-follow mode, but it
responds slower to changes in unit load demand, and provides less precise control of generator
load [31].
9839457 17-3
Figure 17-2
Turbine-Follow Mode
Coordinated Unit Control

In coordinated control mode the unit load demand is sent to the turbine master controller and in
parallel to the firing rate controller as a feedforward. The megawatt (MW) error is added to the
throttle pressure error on which the throttle pressure controller acts. Similarly, the throttle
pressure error is subtracted from the MW error on which the MW controller acts.
Coordinated control mode, when properly designed and optimized provides superior load
response over wider load ranges than turbine-follow and boiler-follow modes while maintaining
stable front-end operation [31].
9839457 17-4
Figure 17-3
Coordinated Control, Derived from [30]
Direct-Energy-Balance Unit Control

The Direct-Energy-Balance (D-E-B) approach for controlling boilers is based upon the use of
a non-interacting feedforward. The method is a computation that balances a measure of the heat
released into the boiler with the energy demand [46].
The method calculates heat release from steam flow and the rate of change in drum pressure.
It calculates the energy demand as the ratio of throttle pressure set point to throttle pressure,
multiplied by the steam flow rate. The energy demand is dynamically compensated with a phase
lead (derivative action).
The D-E-B method features:
• A nonregenerative feed-forward that does not respond to boiler upsets or changes in fuel
quality
• A means to control pressure with minimal use of integral control
• A computation of the change in stored energy (as opposed to its absolute value), based on the
true heat release in the furnace
• A means to limit the unit’s rate of change of combustion in the event that the boiler or its
auxiliaries cannot support the new rate
9839457 17-5
Tuning
Load Controller Tuning
In boiler-follow mode the turbine throttle valves control load. The load response to valve
position is very rapid. The controller should have a moderate gain, and a moderately fast integral.
Using derivative control mode is not required.
In turbine-follow mode the boiler firing rate controls unit load. This is a slow-responding loop.
The controller will typically have a moderately high gain, and a slow integral, some derivative
is required to compensate for lags in the firing system.
In both cases, step-testing should be done to determine the process characteristics and calculate
controller tuning settings.
Throttle Pressure Controller Tuning
In boiler-follow mode the firing rate controls the throttle pressure. This is a slow-responding
process that behaves like an integrating process. It requires a moderately high controller gain and
a long integral time. Using derivative control is recommended. If the gain is reduced for tuning
purposes, the integral time should be lengthened proportionally. This loop needs a non-
regenerative feedforward such as unit load demand.
In turbine-follow mode the turbine throttle valves control the throttle pressure. This is relatively
fast-reacting process with a short dead time and a much longer time constant. The controller
should have a moderately high gain, and a reasonably fast integral. Derivative control is
generally not needed.
Coordinated Mode Controller Tuning
Leopold [31] recommends the following tuning strategy: The boiler master controller should
look mostly at throttle pressure and a tiny bit at megawatt error, using a ratio of 10:1, and have a
3 MW dead band on load. The turbine master should look mostly at megawatt error and a tiny bit
at throttle pressure, using a ratio of 10:4, and have a 3-5 psi (20-35 kPA) dead band on pressure.
The turbine master should be tuned first, using only PI control. The boiler master should be
tuned last, using full PI control with external derivative only on pressure (not MW).
Two boiler control experts interviewed on this method recommended more flexibility in the
choice of ratios, because they would depend on the performance criteria for the unit. For the
tightest MW control, no pressure control should be done with the turbine. And for better pressure
response with less accurate MW control, more pressure control should be done on the turbine.
The point here is that the front end should be optimized taking into account the basic principles
of the coordinated control strategy and the performance objectives of the unit.
9839457 17-6
18
OPTIMIZING BOILER CONTROLS
Guidelines
1003740.
• Power Plant Control System Troubleshooting Short Course Notes. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
2006. 1010262.
• T. Leopold, You can tune a boiler but you can’t tune a fish, www.booksurge.com, 2009.
• Morse, R. H., et al, Aspects of Tuning a Boiler Control System - A Strategy for Optimization,
ISA IPI 76462, pp 121-142, ISA POWID Symposium Proceedings, 1976.
Introduction
Because of the multi-variable and highly interactive nature of control loops on a boiler,
optimizing the boiler control system cannot be done successfully if approached in an ad-hoc
fashion. Boiler optimization should consist of the following steps:
1. Linearize the final control elements.
2. Calibrate the feedforward controllers.
3. Tune the feedback controllers in a specific sequence.
4. Apply dynamic compensation to the feedforward controls.
Linearization
Dampers and control valves tend to have nonlinear flow characteristics and can be linearized to
obtain a linear relationship between the controller output and the process variable. Linearization
is should be done for all control loops in which fast response (relative to the process dynamics) is
important. If fast response s not important, the loop can simply be detuned to ensure it remains
stable throughout the operating range. Loops that need to respond fast need linearization to
prevent the loop from becoming sluggish or unstable as the gain of the final control element
changes. To linearize a final control element, a calibrated function generator is placed in the
signal between the controller output and the final control element. This is discussed in Chapter 4.
Calibration
The goal of calibration is to develop a feedforward signal that can operate over the full range
of unit loads requiring the minimum adjustment from the feedback controllers.
Before the boiler is started up for the first time, best estimates can be used. Once the boiler is
running, measurements for calibration should be taken at three or four load points between
minimum and maximum load. The feedforward signals should then be calibrated with the
objective of having the least adjustment required by the feedback controllers. Calibration curves
with three or four X-Y pairs should be sufficient in most cases.
9839457 18-1
For boilers that have been in operation for a period of time with process data archived to a
process historian, data for calibrating the feedforward controllers can be obtained from steady-
state data at different load points. In cases where feedforward controllers do not exist or have the
wrong gains, the feedback controllers will, over time, drive the controller outputs to the desired
values. These values can be noted and used for designing the feedforward controllers.
Mill combinations, fuel quality, boiler cleanliness, and other factors are likely to affect the
calibration curves. Several measurements at the same load level under different conditions
should be averaged to and this midpoint used for the calibration curve. The feedback controls
should take care of variability beyond the calibration curve. If the variability is very large,
different feedforward curves can be used to cater for different plant conditions, e.g. if the mill
combination has a substantial effect on steam temperature control during load ramps.
Tuning Sequence
Except for the period early during the initial startup when each control loop must be dealt with as
it becomes available for operating, the control system should be tuned loop-by-loop following a
definite sequence.
This sequence is based on first tuning those control loops that has minimum interaction with
other variables, progressing in sequence to those loops that interact strongly throughout the
process. Controllers that have not been tuned yet should be in manual control or detuned. Each
loop is placed in automatic control after it has been tuned. Thus, as each control loop is placed in
service after tuning, it becomes part of the overall process when more interactive loops are tuned
later. Each succeeding loop is tuned to be compatible with those previously tuned.
To reduce cyclical interactions between control loops, they should not be tuned for a ¼-
amplitude damping objective but should be tuned for a slower, more stable, and less interactive
response.
Controller tuning should be done at least at minimum and maximum unit loads. Controllers that
require significantly different tuning settings at the two load points should be provided with gain
scheduling. Note that integral and derivative time should also be scheduled where appropriate.
Dynamic Compensation
Dynamic compensation consists of lead/lag action on the main feedforward controls. On boilers,
lead actions are more common. These should be adjusted to compensate for process lags of the
underlying control loops during load ramping. For example, due to the inherent lags in fuel
production from coal mills, a phase-lead compensator should be placed between the fuel
controller and the individual mill controls.
9839457 18-2
SECTION III: PERIPERAL SYSTEMS
9839457 18-1
9839457
19
BURNER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
•
nd
• G.F. Gilman, Boiler Control Systems Engineering, ISA, 2005.
Introduction
The multitude of operating steps required safely and properly admitting fuel to a furnace (or
removing fuel supply from a furnace), leaves considerable room for operator error, if left solely
to the operator’s judgment and actions. Also, considering that one or two seconds of accumulated
unburnt fuel can cause a major furnace explosion, it is apparent that human decision-making and
reaction time alone is not fast enough for ensuring safe boiler operation.
Burner management systems (BMS) are required on all boilers to prevent continued operation
during hazardous furnace conditions, and to assist the operator in starting and stopping burners
and fuel-delivery equipment. BMS ensure safe operation of the furnace, burners, and igniters.
They include a means of monitoring the presence and stability of the flame and an automated
procedure for operating the associated valves in a sequence that provides safe ignition at startup
and a safe method of shutdown, either in the event of a fault or in response to an operator
command.
NFPA 85
The NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code of 2011 [14] defines in detail the
sequences for light-off, monitoring, and shut-down operations of burners, and shows how these
are to be linked with the plant interlock systems. It also describes the events and failures which
should be recognized in the design of a BMS. The Code covers, among numerous other topics,
safety interlocks, alarms, trips, sequencing, and other related controls that are essential to safe
boiler operation. Although a few aspects of the NFPA 85 Code are discussed below, this EPRI
guideline does not attempt to cover all the aspects of the NFPA 85 Code. BMS designers must
refer to the NFPA 85 Code in its entirety for compliance purposes and use the information in this
chapter solely as supplemental information.
Burner Management Overview

The most important function of a BMS is to prevent furnace or pulverizer explosions which
could threaten the safety of operating personnel and damage the boiler and auxiliary equipment.
But the system must also avoid trips of fuel equipment when a truly unsafe condition does not
exist.
The design of the BMS must therefore address all critical safety issues and the sequences
of light-off and shut-down as well as monitor the boiler’s running operation.
9839457 19-1
The procedure for lighting a burner must begin with checking that it is safe to light it at all. This
requires confirmation that other burners already have an established flame, or that any flammable
mixtures have been purged from the furnace. The latter requires running the FD and ID fans for a
period of time to pass a certain volume of air through the furnace.
Once the burner has been successfully lit, its operation must be continuously monitored and fuel
flow must be shut off upon detecting a loss-of-flame condition to prevent unburned fuel from
entering the furnace. When a burner is shut down, steps must be taken to ensure any unburned
fuel is cleared from the piping.
The BMS should provide first out indication on trips, and indicate permissives down to the
burner level. Its interface should allow the operator or the technician to troubleshoot a light-off
or flameout problem without any documentation or drawings.
Sequential Automation
Although it is permissible for an operator to manually take the steps and do the checks necessary
to place burners in service or remove them from service, best practices include complete
automation of these actions and checks. Automation provides consistency and further reduces the
chance of an error. The operator initiates the start or stop command and is expected to monitor
each step of the operating sequence up to completion.
Instrumentation and Control

Double-acting burner control valves should be replaced with single acting spring return to ensure
failsafe operation.
Switches should be replaced by transmitters for reliability. A failed switch may go unnoticed,
while a failed transmitter can easily be detected and alarmed to the operator.
Three redundant transmitters, with median select logic, should be used to generate the
measurement to be used for initiating trips and alarms. This essentially provides two-out-of-three
voting. Alarms should be raised if the measurements deviate by more than a set tolerance.
Where used, switches that may trip the unit should be triple redundant with two-out-of-three
voting for trip signals. Switches should be tested periodically for proper operation.
To achieve high levels of safety and fault tolerance, triple-redundant processors should be used.
These should process the same field inputs and execute the same core logic.
Digital communication between the BMS and other systems should use redundant networks.
Flame Detectors
Flame detectors should be microprocessor-based and have self-monitoring circuits to warn of
overheating and other failures. Purge air is required to cool flame detectors and prevent soot and
dust from being deposited on their optical parts. The purge air supply should be monitored and
its failure alarmed to the operator.
9839457 19-2
Proper location and detection angle of the flame detector is essential reliable and unambiguous
detection of the flame. The optimal location and detection angle of the flame detector depends on
many factors and should be determined by the boiler manufacturer in conjunction with the BMS
manufacturer.
Since there seems to be no ultimate flame scanner, for the purpose of a retrofit various types of
scanner should be selected according to the type fuel and furnace design, and then individually
tested. Tests should be done for many burner locations, under all load conditions, and with
various burner combinations in service. The type of scanner with the best ability to discriminate
between flame and no flame under all furnace conditions should be selected.
Flame detectors have to be frequently checked and maintained to ensure proper operation.
Interlocks and Trips

The NFPA 85 code requires several interlocks and trips, but insists that a plant’s design or
operation may require additional protection not listed in the code.
Process Interlocks
Various process interlocks are required for safe startup, operation, and shutdown. These include,
but are not limited to:
• Purge Interlock – Prevents fuel from being admitted to an unfired furnace until the furnace
has been thoroughly air-purged
• Low Airflow Interlock – Fuel is shut off upon insufficient combustion air flow to furnace
• Fan Interlock – Fuel is shut off upon loss of combustion air fan
• Low Fuel Supply Interlock – Fuel is shut off upon low fuel flow rate that would otherwise
result in unstable flame conditions
• Loss of Flame Interlocks – Fuel to a burner is shut off upon detecting a no-flame condition
at the burner, and all fuel to the boiler is shut off upon detecting loss of flame in the furnace
• Fan Interlock – Stop the forced draft upon loss of the induced draft fan
• Low Water Interlock – Shut off fuel upon detecting low water level in the drum
• High Drum Level (optional) – Shut off fuel upon detecting high water level in the drum.
Usually implemented with a timer
• High Combustibles Interlock – Shut off fuel upon detecting high combustible content in the
flue gas
• Parallel Fan Interlock – Where fans are operated in parallel, close the shutoff dampers of fans
not in service to prevent reverse flow and recirculation
• On a load runback – front end should switch to turbine-follow with boiler demand in manual.
Governors can easily control pressure and boiler master in manual will quickly straighten out
the boiler (fuel flow)
9839457 19-3
Auto-Manual Interlocks
Several interlocks between controller modes are required. These are stated below as interlocks,
driving controller modes to manual, but they should also be interpreted as permissives that
should be met before a controller can go to automatic mode.
• If the ID fan (furnace pressure controller) is placed in manual, the FD fan (air flow
controller) must go to manual
• If the FD fan is placed in manual, the O2 controller must go to manual
• If the FD fan is placed in manual, the fuel master must go to manual
• If the PA flow damper on a mill is placed in manual the feeders on that mill must go to
manual
• If all feeders or fuel control valves are in manual, the fuel controller must go to manual
• If the fuel goes to manual, the steam pressure controller and the megawatt controller must go
to manual
• If any process variable (measurement) signal goes bad, controller should go to manual
Master Fuel Trip

A list of triggers for the master fuel trip relay follow:
• Total loss of flame
• Partial loss of flame, introducing a hazard
• Low combustion air flow
• Loss of all forced-draft fans
• Loss of all induced-draft fans
• Loss of all primary-air fans
• Loss of fuel
• High furnace pressure
• High drum level
• Low drum level
• Inadequate waterwall circulation
• High steam pressure
• High steam temperature
• Loss of power to BMS
• Loss of primary and redundant BMS processors
• Operator-initiated boiler trip
• Turbine trip (optional if boiler has a sufficiently sized bypass system)
9839457 19-4
20
CONTROL LOOP PERFORMANCE MONITORING
Guidelines
• Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines – Volume 3: Monitoring and Improving
• A. Horch, Condition Monitoring of Control Loops, PhD Thesis, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 2000.
Introduction
Power plant performance depends among other things on the performance of its control system.
For peak plant performance the control loops should always be kept performing at the highest
possible level. However, a typical coal-fired power plant can have several hundred control loops,
and to monitor the performance of all these loops would be a tremendous task for a human.
Because of the effort involved, manual loop monitoring is simply not practical. Consequently,
most poorly performing loops go unnoticed until they seriously affect production.
However, the assessment of loop performance can be automated. An automatic loop monitoring
application should collect process data from the control system, assess the performance of the
control loops, and report overall loop performance and a list of poorly performing loops to
maintenance personnel.
Loop Performance Assessment

Loop performance should be evaluated from various perspectives. For example, a control loop
has to run in automatic control mode, be stable and responsive, and it must reduce process
variability. Loop performance from each of these perspectives should be calculated and
expressed as a numerical value, or metric.
Each metric can be compared to a threshold for proper loop performance. If one or more metrics
exceed their threshold, the loop should be flagged as having poor performance and maintenance
or engineering staff should attend to the problem.
Several metrics can be easily computed by the process historian, while others require the use
of specialized algorithms typically found in control loop performance monitoring software
applications. The following metrics are essential for assessing the performance of the control
loop:
• Percentage of time the controller is not in its correct mode (or in manual)
• Percentage of time the controller output is at its limits
9839457 20-1
• Standard deviation in error (error = set point - process variable)
• Tendency of loop to oscillate
• Controller responsiveness to set point changes and disturbances
Several other metrics can provide useful additional information on the performance of the
control loop, control valve, and measurement device, for example:
• Cumulative control valve travel per day (can be used for predictive maintenance)
• Number of direction changes in control valve travel per day
• Mean value of controller output (can be used to indicate oversized and undersized valves or
incorrectly ranged transmitters)
• Process variable noise
• Maximum deviation from set point
• Standard deviation of controller output
• Number of process alarms generated by the control loop and its associated process
• Number of times the operator changed controller mode and/or output
• Number of tuning constant changes done on the controller
Once the various metrics of control loop performance have been calculated, they should be
combined into a single number representing the control loop health. The composition should be
done in a way that the weakest aspect of loop performance sets the overall level of loop health.
The lowest ranking loop performance metric can be selected for this purpose. For example if a
loop ranks well on all aspects except responsiveness, its responsiveness ranking should be used
to indicate the loop’s overall health.
Index of Overall Loop Performance
When every loop has a single metric indicating its overall performance, loops can be ranked in
order of priority. This list should be filterable to show the loops with highest importance, so they
can be worked on first. Then loops of a lower importance can be addressed.
Loop Performance KPIs
For monitoring loop performance in the long term, key performance indicators (KPIs) are
required. Many KPIs should include:
• Number of loops with overall poor performance
• Number of loops not in their correct mode
• Number of oscillating loops
• Number of loops with poor response
• Number of loops with output at limits
• Number of loops with large standard deviation
9839457 20-2
Reports should be produced periodically, with trends of relevant KPIs included. If the report is
for maintenance personnel, it should also list poorly performing loops.
Implementing Loop Monitoring Software

Control loop performance monitoring and diagnostic products have become commercially
available over the last decade to automatically and continuously monitor the performance of
control loops. The software potentially identifies several aspects of poor control and generates a
list of problem loops with diagnoses of the individual problems so that these can be attended to.
The installation, configuration, and calibration of the software are not trivial tasks and require
involvement from the software vendor or an authorized specialist.
Pre-Installation
Prior to installation, the vendor should be involved with the deployment options, and specifying
hardware. The software will collect data live from the control system using OPC DA or collect
historical data from the process historian, using OPC HDA or a custom interface. The software
could do this data collection using remote data collector applications. The software will also
likely provide client access via a Windows or Web interface. The users will likely reside on
different networks. Network deployment design will require involvement from the plant’s
network security personnel.
Installation
The software installation will likely be too complex or at least unfamiliar for site staff to install,
commission and troubleshoot. Troubleshooting OPC connections and distributed-architecture
communications can be especially troublesome.
Configuration
After loop assessment software has been installed, it must be set up with a list of control loops
to be assessed. Each loop configured in the software must be configured for data collection and
several parameters must be configured to ensure accuracy of the loop’s assessment. This task can
be reasonably easy if the software can directly import the DCS configuration. It could also be
tremendously onerous if hand configuration is required.
At minimum, the following information should be provided:
• All control loops in the DCS are identified and configured in the software. The loop name
and description are set.
• The OPC addresses for all of the required controller and process parameters are configured.
• The calibration range of the process variable measurement and the unit of measure are set.
• The process data sampling rate is set according to the control loop settling time.
• The range of the controller output is set (for some brands of DCS).
Various performance-related parameters may also be required, like acceptable PV noise level,
importance of the loop, cascade arrangements, and expected loop response time. These
parameters can also be set during the calibration phase.
9839457 20-3
After the software has been configured and the OPC connection established, the loop monitoring
software is ready to collect data and assess the performance of the configured control loops.
However, the accuracy of the assessments might be lower than desirable until the software has
been calibrated to take into account the specific objectives and operating conditions of each
control loop.
Calibration
After installation, when the software is being set up and fine-tuned, a person with a high level of
technical expertise on control loops, the process being controlled, and the monitoring software is
required for adjusting the assessment parameters until system is properly set up and the results
of the loop assessments are accurate for all loops. This person should be able to look at the loop
assessment results and make a judgment on the accuracy of the analysis and the appropriate
corrective action where needed. This could be accomplished with a process control engineer
from the plant working with a process control knowledgeable software expert from the vendor.
Training
The vendor or an authorized agent should present training on the use of the application,
maintenance of the software (calibration, adding users, reports, etc.), and troubleshooting
communication failures and other common issues.
Results
With loop assessment software, diagnoses and recommended corrective actions should be
verified by a skilled person. Although the loop assessments might be mostly correct, the software
sometimes comes to an incorrect conclusion due to unexpected features in the data. Loop
assessment software might misinterpret the information in a noisy or disturbance-ridden process
variable signal and give a wrong diagnosis.
Loop assessment software’s diagnosis should always be checked by inspecting the data the
software analyzed to come up with the diagnosis, and by looking at the data and diagnoses of
previous assessments done on the same loop.
Benefits
If loop monitoring software has been correctly setup and configured, it can potentially benefit a
plant in several ways:
• Monitor loop performance automatically
• Prioritize poorly performing loops for maintenance
• Diagnose control problems
• Provide guidance on problem resolution
• Improve work efficiency and save time
• Assist younger and inexperienced controls staff with identifying poorly performing loops
• Help measure success of control improvement projects
• Keep history on loop performance
9839457 20-4
21
ALARM MANAGEMENT
• ANSI/ISA-18.2-2009-Management of Alarm Systems for the Process Industries.
• EEMUA Publication 191: Alarm Systems - A Guide to Design, Management and
Procurement, Second Edition, EEMUA, 2007.
• Advanced Control Room Alarm System: Requirements and Implementation Guidance. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA. 2005, 1010076.
• J. Errington, et at, Effective Alarm Management Practices (ASM Consortium Guidelines),
ASM Consortium, 2009.
• B. Hollifield, E. Habibi, The Alarm Management Handbook, Second Edition, PAS, 2010.
• D. Rothenburg, Alarm Management for Process Control, Momentum Press, 2009.
Introduction
According to the Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association (EEMUA), an
operator should on average not receive more than six alarms an hour under normal operating
conditions. During a transient condition or a trip, the rate should not exceed 24 alarms per hour
[47].
Operators typically face 300 to 400 alarms during an eight-hour shift, which they would
routinely acknowledge and silence. Operators become desensitized to alarms and may miss
an important alarm when it is annunciated.
The problems with poor alarm management are well known. These include nuisance alarms,
chattering alarms, stale alarms, alarm floods, and unclear alarms. Alarm priorities may be
applied inconsistently, and some alarms might show up on operator graphics, while others do
not.
The solutions to these problems are also known, but they take dedication and discipline to
address. The practices essential to designing and maintaining an effective alarm management
system are described in ANSI/ISA-18.2-2009-Management of Alarm Systems for the Process
Industries, and EEMUA Publication 191: Alarm Systems - A Guide to Design, Management
and Procurement.
This chapter touches on several aspects of alarm management, but should be seen only as an
introduction. The reader is referred to the aforementioned publications for a comprehensive
guide to alarm management.
9839457 21-1
Types of Alarm Problems
One of the most common problems with alarms systems is nuisance alarms. These are alarms
that trigger when no abnormal condition exists or when no operator action is required.
Maintenance issues are a frequent cause of nuisance alarms. Informational alarms (e.g. high
ambient temperature) are another cause. Because they require no response, these alarms
desensitize the operator, and thus reduce the response to real alarms.
Chattering alarms result from a process variable that oscillates into and out of the alarm limit.
These alarms further desensitize the operator to alarms, and specifically to the chattering alarms.
Another common problem is stale alarms. These are alarms that remain in alarm for extended
periods of time because no operator action is required, no operator action is possible, or because
they do not clear after operator action has been taken. These alarms clutter the alarm summary
display and mask other alarms from the operator.
Arguably the most dangerous problem with alarm systems, and the most complex to solve, is the
flood of alarms usually associated with a process upset. Alarm floods overwhelm the operator
making it impossible to process every incoming alarm. This makes it difficult to determine the
cause of the event, but more seriously, critical alarms may go unnoticed, hidden by the flood of
other alarms.
Some alarms lack clarity. When the cause of the alarm or the response to the alarm is not clear to
the operator, the desired action is delayed or not taken and the alarm is ineffective.
Alarm priorities may be set inconsistently, leading to confusion about the urgency of some
alarms. Operator graphics might also lack consistency in the way alarms are indicated.
Indicators of Poor Alarm System Performance

There are a number of indicators that a unit has alarm problems. Any of these indicators can
serve as a red flag that alarm management should become a priority. They include:
• Major unit upsets, such as losing a draught group, generate an unmanageable number of
alarms.
• Minor operating upsets, as well as seemingly routine operations, such as putting a mill in
service, generate a significant number of alarms.
• Some active alarms, such as low primary air flow rate on a standby mill, do not require
operator attention.
• Some alarms remain active for significant periods of time.
• When some alarms activate, such as 22 kilovolt (kV) breaker open, the operator is not sure of
what to do about them.
• When nothing is wrong active alarms occur, such as unit at maximum load.
• Some alarms are not as critical as their priority might suggest.
9839457 21-2
Steps for Addressing Alarm Problems
ANSI/ISA-18.2 introduces an alarm management lifecycle with the following steps:
• Philosophy
• Identification
• Rationalization
• Detailed Design
• Implementation
• Operation
• Maintenance
• Monitoring and Assessment
• Audit
The standard also requires that a management-of-change procedure be followed for any changes
made to the alarm system.
Alarm Philosophy
The alarm philosophy documents the plant’s approach to alarm management. It includes the
definitions and principles for the alarm system as well as the details of the practices and
procedures for each of the remaining life cycle stages. It is a defined strategy of what will alarm;
how alarms will be annunciated, viewed, acknowledged and recorded; and how to ensure alarms
are cleared either operationally or through the maintenance system. It also defines the rationale
for setting alarm priorities.
The philosophy is the roadmap for effectively implementing a successful alarm management
program. Alarm management improvements without a written philosophy often result in
backsliding to pre-improvement performance. The philosophy provides a lasting reference to
sustain an effective alarm system.
Identification
Identification means compiling a list of all alarms that should exist on the system. Identification
of possible alarms can be done by several methods, such as a process hazard analysis, safety
requirements, best practice guidelines, operating procedure reviews, or incident investigations.
Only process or equipment conditions requiring operator actions should be alarmed.
Rationalization
Rationalization is sometimes referred to a Documentation and Rationalization (D&R). It is the
process of reconciling each identified alarm against the principles and requirements of the alarm
philosophy and documenting the alarm to support the other stages of the life cycle.
Each identified alarm is reviewed and the following is documented:
• The rationale for the alarm
• Causes
• Consequences
9839457 21-3
• Impact of each consequence
• Steps to determine the exact cause of the problem
• Operator actions required as a result of the adverse condition
• Operator response time
• Alarm priority
• Secondary notification requirements like paging or email
It is typical to assign the alarm priority based on a matrix of impacts (cost, safety, and
environmental) and the required operator response times. This matrix is defined in the alarm
philosophy.
Detailed Design
The design stage includes specifying alarm attributes specific to the target control system, the
basic configuration of alarms, the annunciation of alarms and their display on the human
machine interface (HMI), and optionally advanced methods of alarm management such as
state-based alarming and dynamic alarm priority adjustment.
Implementation
Implementation is the stage where the design is put into service. This process includes testing
of the alarm system functions and training the operators.
Operation
This is the normal operation of the implemented alarm system, and feeds into monitoring and
assessment.
Maintenance
Where necessary, instruments should be checked periodically to ensure proper operation of the
alarm system.
Monitoring and Assessment
Alarms are typically sent to printers, especially on older control systems. Best practices use
searchable alarm database and alarm management software for monitoring alarm system
performance and identifying bad actors.
The overall performance of the alarm system should be continuously monitored and evaluated
against the performance goals stated in the alarm philosophy. Commercial software packages for
alarm analysis are available from several vendors. Analysis of alarm performance data will likely
trigger maintenance activities, readjustment of alarm attributes, or changes to operating
procedures. Without monitoring, an alarm system is likely to degrade.
Alarm analysis should include the following, but can include much more:
• Number of alarms per day
• Frequency of alarm floods
9839457 21-4
• Severity of alarm floods
• Most frequently occurring alarms
The first three items should be compared to goals to ensure system performance does not
degrade. The last item should trigger maintenance actions or reassessment of alarm settings.
Audit
A rationalized alarm system should be locked down to prevent unauthorized changes. Approved
alarm settings and documentation should be kept in a secure master alarm database, and placed
under strict management of change. Audits of the actual alarm parameters should be run
periodically against the master alarm database and exceptions should be reported, corrected,
and the origin investigated. Preventive methods should be implemented to eliminate future
exceptions.
The audit should be automated by using software to do the comparisons. Optionally, the same
software can be used for restoring any changed values. Commercial software is available for
these functions.
Management of Change
All proposed changes to the alarm system should be approved and documented before
implementation. The change process should follow the same steps as listed above.
Alarm Reduction Practices

The frequency of alarms can be greatly reduced by following a few basic configuration practices:
• Dead Bands. Alarm dead-bands must prevent the alarm from chattering on normal process
variations.
• Time Delays. A short-time delay on the alarm prevents unnecessary annunciation during
short-lived transients.
• Automatic Suppression. All alarms that can occur because a piece of equipment is shut down
should be automatically suppressed when the equipment is shut down. The same applies for
instruments that undergo a periodic auto-calibration cycle.
• Consequential alarms. Alarms that occur because of known consequences to a process upset
or equipment trip should be suppressed. For example if a boiler trips on low drum level, low
fuel flow, flame-out, and low steam flow alarms can be suppressed.
• Dynamic alarming. Change alarm settings based on operating conditions. For example:
Excess O2 has a sliding set point, and alarms indicating high or low O2 levels should
dynamically change with the set point.
• Temporary Suppression. At times, certain abnormal operations and maintenance activities
generate alarms. The operator should be able to temporarily deactivate the alarm for a
defined time period after which the alarm is automatically reactivated.
9839457 21-5
Alarm Management Software
Several vendors provide alarm management software with the following features:
• Rationalizing and documenting alarms
• Implementing rationalized alarms into the control system
• Providing operators on-line access to alarm documentation
• Collection and archiving of alarms and events from an operational system
• Analyzing alarm frequency, floods, etc.
• Calculation and reporting of alarm system performance metrics
• Auditing alarm settings against master alarm database
• Restoring changed alarm settings
• Suspending alarms based on equipment shutdowns
• Dynamically changing alarm settings based on operating conditions
• Providing a facility for temporary alarm deactivation to the operator
These software systems play a vital role in successfully managing alarm systems in power
generating units and any other industrial process plant.
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22
HUMAN-MACHINE INTERFACE (HMI)
• P. Bullemer, et al, Effective Operator Display Design: (ASM Consortium Guidelines), ASM
Consortium, 2008.
• M. Endsley, et al, Designing for Situation Awareness: An Approach to User-Centered
Design, CRC Press, 2003.
• Guidelines for Designing Displays for DCS Retrofit Projects. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA. 1992,
TR-101378.
• J.Y. Fiset, Human-Machine Interface Design for Process Control Applications, ISA, 2008.
• ISA-TR77.60.04-1996 (R2008) - Fossil Fuel Power Plant Human-Machine Interface -
Electronic Screen Displays.
• B. Hollifield, et al, The High Performance HMI Handbook, PAS, 2008.
Introduction
When analog control systems were being replaced with digital systems during the early 1990s,
the new HMI usually consisted of a combination of some hard-panel controls and some video
display controls. It was typical to retain the discrete manual-automatic control stations for
interfacing with individual loops. It was also common to retain at least some of the annunciator
panels, especially the ones with critical alarms. These decisions were made because users were
unsure of the reliability of the video display interfaces and wanted a backup system in case of
failure.
Twenty years later, the quality and reliability of video technology has improved tremendously
and there is no reluctance to use it exclusively for the human machine interface system. Little or
no discrete panel controls are provided anymore, except for emergency trip pushbuttons. This
enables the control room design to be streamlined considerably while providing a better user
interface. Other changes include using a large number of displays per operator and providing
large-screen displays for plant mimics and overview graphics.
With the increased display capabilities of modern computer systems and the proliferation of
high-resolution, life-like, 3D graphics and animations, some modern operator graphic displays
resemble computer games swamped with large densities of numerical data. Although the
graphics are visually appealing, it has been found that they do not serve the operators well during
abnormal situations [48, 49].
Hence there has been a tendency to steer away from life-like three-dimensional (3D) graphics
using multitudes of vibrant colors to more subtle designs that help draw an operator’s attention to
abnormal process conditions and assist him/her functionally rather than please him/her visually.
Several guidelines (see reference list above) have been published in this area to help HMI
designers create the most effective HMI systems.
9839457 22-1
One study in this field showed that operators using displays developed along the new guidelines
compared to more traditional interfaces recognized problems significantly faster and more
consistently; responded and solved problems faster and more consistently; were more likely to
successfully solve the problems [48].
This chapter summarizes a few key aspects of new trends in HMI design techniques, but the
reader is advised to also review the published guidelines listed above for more information.
Steps in an HMI Design Project

• Develop and document a comprehensive HMI design guideline
• Describe the unit and list all its constituent processes. Map out a process hierarchy from an
operations viewpoint
• Determine all modes of operation for the unit and each process (e.g. feedwater, furnace draft,
fuel, drum, steam temps, turbo-generator) on the hierarchy and the key objectives/goals of
each mode of operation
• Do a task analysis to establish to determine control handles needed by operator to achieve the
goals and objectives of each operating mode, and to change between modes. The ISA 77
standards provide lists of required and optional variables to display to operators for various
processes
• Map out a hierarchy of operator displays, taking into account the density of information on
each display
• Design each display using the design guideline. Before starting the design of any display,
answer the following questions:
- Among all the available data, what information does the operator need?
- What is the best way to present this information?
- How should it be organized?
- What information should be emphasized?
• Install and commission the new displays
• Train the operators
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the displays and adjust as necessary following a management of
change process
HMI Design Guideline

Similar to the alarm philosophy, great attention must be paid to developing and documenting a
comprehensive HMI design guideline. The guideline should take the following aspects of HMI
design into account:
• Displays (graphic pages)
- Types of displays
- Purpose and content of each type
- Style, text size, fonts
- Display layout
9839457 22-2
- Hierarchy of displays
- Navigation between displays
• Use of color
• Graphical process symbols and connections
• Use of text and numbers
• Analog versus digital display of values
• Process time-trends
• Interaction with the display
• Alarm indication
- Colors
- Priorities
- Audible and visual alarm annunciation
• Design of training programs for new displays
• On-line guidance systems
• Human factors design methodology
• Management of change
Features of Effective HMI Design

Traditional graphic pages are usually far too cluttered and covered with numeric data [48]. The
operator needs contextual information to work effectively. The information needs to be arranged
logically and displayed in a clear and effective manner.
Although the HMI design guidelines are site-specific and almost personal, what follows are some
generic features of a best practices HMI design.
• Four levels of graphic pages, with each successive level having less scope and more detail:
- Level 1 – Unit overview
- Level 2 – Subsystem overview, e.g. furnace air flow
- Level 3 – Equipment overview, e.g. induced draft fan with motor control, damper, lube
oil pump, vibration indications
- Level 4 – Support and diagnostic pages, e.g. fan startup logic
• Navigation between graphic pages should be hierarchical, logical, easy, and consistent. When
looking at Mill A, tabs at the top of the page could be used to navigate up in the hierarchy
and to Mill B, Mill C, etc.
• Graphic pages should have consistent layout, color coding, style, and use of graphic objects
• Operator graphics should not have flashy designs, animation, shadows, bright colors, 3D
renderings
• A good HMI should have a gray background and make limited use of color. It should have
low-contrast, 2D depictions of the process
• Easy to read and at-a-glance indications of overall process conditions
9839457 22-3
• No unnecessary detail or clutter, but convey relevant information
• No animations, such as flickering flames, spinning feeders, or turning fans, should be used.
These are distracting and add no value to the function of the graphic
• The layout of objects on a graphic page should be consistent with the operator’s mental
model of the process
• Relative brightness plus an indicative word is the best presentation of the state of equipment.
Objects brighter than the background are on/running; while objects darker than the
background are off/stopped
• Analog depictions are very powerful because humans are hard-wired to understand pattern
recognition. A bar graph on a tank indicating its level can be interpreted much quicker than
reading a numeric value
• One of the most common deficiencies in most HMI designs is the lack of trending
information. Almost every graphic has one or two important values on it that would be much
easier to understand if they were presented as trends. Ideally, trends should be embedded in
the graphics, and appear whenever the graphic is called up. For example, when looking at the
feedwater system, the drum should display a trend of drum level, steam flow rate and
feedwater flow rate
• Trends should show the limit of normal ranges and indicate where the process variable is in
comparison to where it should be. That is, they should indicate the process variable, set point,
upper and lower alarm limits, and trip points
• All operating functions should be done through the HMI, except emergency trips
• Any action with significant consequences (e.g. shutting down major equipment) should be
confirmed
• Alarms should be depicted redundantly based on priority. They should be consistently coded
by color, shape and text. Alarm colors should never be used for anything else in the HMI
• A dedicated alarm summary display is required with alarms appearing in order of priority,
then in order of time received – the latest alarm of highest priority being at the top and
always visible
Design Team
The team should have at least one person who is experienced in designing effective HMIs. This
person could be a consultant or a suitably skilled employee of the company.
The team should have a system expert who is very experienced with configuring operator
graphics on the target control system and who is intimately aware of the capabilities and
shortcomings of the system.
The team should have several graphics developers who can do the actual implementation under
the supervision and guidance of this system expert.
Highly experienced operators have to be involved in the design process. This will improve the
design and will also promote buy-in from other operators. Operators should receive training on
effective HMI design principles to help them understand the essentials of effective HMI designs.
9839457 22-4
Control Room and Operating Console
Control rooms are often redesigned in conjunction with control system retrofits and HMI
upgrades. Proper design of the control room is essential to operator alertness and effectiveness.
Factors to consider include:
• The environment, such as lighting, temperature, noise, clutter, and distractions
• The number, type, and arrangement of computer screens and input devices (keyboard and
mouse). Computer screens can include the following functions:
- Dedicated high-level unit overview
- Dedicated alarm summary
- 4 general purpose screens, typically set to display mill overview, feedwater system, steam
flow (superheater & reheater), air flow (draft groups)
• Ergonomic factors, such as console height, types of chairs, location of computer screens,
drawers, shelves etc.
• Access to support equipment, such as phone and radio
• Engineering stations where engineers, technicians, and supervisors can call up process trends
and graphics without interfering with the operator’s displays
Training Requirements
An upgrade from a panel-board operator interface to a modern digital HMI will require
significant operator training and orientation.
The operators might have been accustomed to a large hardwired panel with meters, indicators
and gauges to inform them of plant conditions, as well as hardwired pushbuttons and selector
switches for them to perform their operations. The new system would have the operator using
computer monitors with keyboards and mice/trackballs.
Complexity
Many boiler sub-control systems are very complex and provide large amounts of information
that can potentially be displayed to the operator. Accommodating this amount of information can
lead to very cluttered graphic pages. The development of these graphic pages requires an
unusually large effort to do the design correctly, and if insufficient time or money is allocated the
results could range from unwieldy to dangerous.
Duplicate Equipment
The mill groups are carbon copies of each other, varying only in respect to the tag names or
numbers of each item, and the operating parameters of each mill. Since the operator will
typically be starting, stopping, or adjusting only one mill at a time, it is reasonable to display
only one mill on a page. However, to help the operator avoid making any mistakes, the page
should clearly and unambiguously indicate with which mill it is associated.
A master graphic page should also be available to the operator to see the key operating variables
of all mills simultaneously, for information and balancing purposes.
9839457 22-5
Code Requirements
The NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code requires that the following
information, at a minimum, be provided to operating personnel in a continuous trend display:
• Steam flow rate
• Feedwater flow rate
• Total fuel flow rate as % of maximum unit load
• Total air flow rate as % of maximum unit load
• Drum level
• Final steam temperature
• Main steam (throttle) pressure
• Furnace pressure
Alarm System Requirements

The new HMI also includes the design and implementation of the interface to process alarms.
There are a few principles to keep in mind:
• Alarms should be displayed on a dedicated alarm summary display
• Variable in alarms should be visually highlighted on the appropriate process graphics
• The operator should be able to navigate directly from the alarm summary display or process
graphic to the alarm documentation to find the consequences, causes, verification, and
resolution of alarm conditions.
9839457 22-6
23
DATA HISTORIAN
Introduction
A process historian is a software system that collects, time-stamps, compresses and stores
process data for future retrieval, analysis and trending.
Process historians are designed to accommodate very large real-time and historical databases
typically sized so that every process point can be stored on-line for years, at very near its original
resolution. With this high-resolution data available, users can view a plant’s current state and get
a very clear, accurate picture of past operating conditions.
On newer DCS, two archives are generally used. One resides within the DCS for short term
storage of all data to support operator trends. The second one is external to the DCS to support
long-term storage of selected data. This chapter covers the latter.
Specification/Selection
A few things to consider when specifying or buying a new process historian are:
• Data collection interface. OPC DA is very common, but an Application Programming
Interface (API) may be required
• Ability to serve data via OPC DA, OPC HDA, and perhaps Object Linking and Embedding,
Database (OLE DB), save as Excel file, etc.
• Speed at which the system can collect and store data, and retrieve data. Does the system get
slower with terabytes of stored data?
• Compression capabilities. Most systems use “lossy” data compression
• Trending capabilities. Zoom, scroll, read data, drag & drop tags, colors, templates, auto
scaling are all virtually standard features, but are easier to use on some systems then others
• Mathematical, statistical, and data analysis capabilities. For on-the-fly analysis such as
boiler-wide oscillations and for creating new data to store, such as unit efficiency
• Programming capabilities
• Reporting
• Displaying process/operator graphics
• Scalability. Can you start with one unit and then expand to multiple units and sites?
• Vendor support, availability of power industry references
System Deployment
Several trends are being promoted by the main stream process historian vendors. These include:
• Servers running process historian software and databases should be virtualized for server
consolidation, improved availability, and provisioning
9839457 23-1
• Using 64-bit servers to access a larger memory footprint and reduce limitation to applications
• Using data mirrors, one below the firewall, collecting and storing data, and one above the
firewall, receiving data from the twin system and serving this data to users
Configuration Guidelines
It will go a long way to providing consistency if a basic data retention philosophy is established
for configuring a process historian. The following should be considered:
• What types of data to collect and archive. The trend is toward storing all data. Digital storage
space and interface speeds are improving to support this goal.
- Analog Readings: temperature, pressure, flowrates, levels, weights
- Digital Readings: valves, limit switches, motors on/off, discreet level sensors
- Alarms: out of limits signals, return to normal signals
- Calculated values
- Other
• How to select a sampling rate. The data sampling rate should be sufficiently fast to capture
the dynamics of control loops, but not overly fast to unnecessarily load the system. A
reasonable tradeoff between system loading and capturing dynamics would be a collection
rate equivalent to collecting 10 samples during the response time (dead time + time constant)
of a process variable and its associated controller output and set point
• What level of compression to use. Data compression should be high enough to not store
noise, but low enough to pick up on subtle process variances like small oscillations
• For how long to keep the data, if not for infinity
• How to name tags. It is important that different people with access to the system use the same
naming convention
- If one historian spans multiple units, the unit number should be part of the tag name.
Similarly, if one historian serves multiple sites, the site name should form part of the
tag name (two-letter abbreviation will do)
- The naming convention should specify how to use letter case. Cryptic tag names such
as GA2TIC431PV should be all upper case, but descriptions read better in Title Case
- Names without underbars and special characters are easier to type, try to stay clear from
them
• What groups of individuals need access to the system, and what read/write/configuration
privileges should they have
9839457 23-2
24
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Fossil Plant Instrumentation and Control Guidelines

Volume 4: Best Practices for Power Plant Control Engineering

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI. and TOGETHER…SHAPING THE FUTURE OF

Categorization of Standards and Best Practices

Sources of Documented Best Practices

Electric Power Research Institute Publications

Technical Conference Papers

Trade Magazines and Topical Websites

National Fire Protection Association

Control System Configuration

I/O and Instrumentation

Peripheral Systems (Optional)

Compliance to Standards and Codes

Factory Acceptance Tests

Operation & Maintenance

Computer Software and Hardware Upgrades

Control System Retrofits

Cost of Not Upgrading

Additional Value Derived from Upgrade

Other Business Drivers

Other Components of a Business Case

Steps for Implementing Best Practices

Installation of Impulse Lines

Level Measurement with Differential Pressure

Redundancy, Voting and Selection

Percentage of Maximum Flow

Controlling Multiple Pumps or Fans in Parallel

Process Variable Controller Output

Process Variable Controller Output

Final Control Element Performance Checks

Controller Output Process Variable

Manual Tuning Methods

Dead time ∆PV

Set Point Process Variable

If quarter-amplitude damping-based tuning rules such as Ziegler-Nichols or Cohen-Coon tuning

Selecting a Tuning Rule

Set Point Process Variable Controller Output

Set Point Process Variable Controller Output

Tuning for Set Point Changes or Disturbance Rejection

Tuning Objective Self-Regulating Process Integrating Process

Assumptions Made by Tuning Rules

Varying Process Characteristics

Single-Loop Feedback Control

Controlled Large, Measured

Combining Dampers and Fan Speed Control

A Note on Parallel Controller Algorithms

Multiple Parallel Equipment

Step Testing and Model Building

Operation and Maintenance

DCS manufacturers provide sequential automation capabilities as a standard function in the

Maintenance and Training

Drum Level Measurement

Drum Level Control

Feedwater Flow Measurement

Feedwater Flow Control Elements

Single-element control should be sufficient since there is no significant inverse response or

Level Controller Tuning

Deaerator Pressure Control

Furnace Pressure Measurement

Main fuel trip

Furnace Pressure Controller Tuning

Furnace Pressure Oscillations