MODUL PERKULIAHAN

English for Design 1

Indonesian Art History

Fakultas Program Studi Tatap Muka Kode MK Disusun oleh

Fakultas Desain Desain Produk A71196CA Waridah Muthi’ah, M.Ds.
dan Seni Kreatif
05

Abstract Kompetensi
Pembahasan mengenai pembuatan Mahasiswa mengetahui pengertian,
timeline untuk memahami sejarah fungsi, jenis, dan teknik pembuatan
seni Asia timeline untuk memahami seni Asia
History of Asian Art
SUMMARY

Definition

An article summary is a short, focused paper about one scholarly article. This paper is
informed by critical reading of an article. For argumentative articles, the summary identifies,
explains, and analyses the thesis and supporting arguments; for empirical articles, the
summary identifies, explains, and analyses the research questions, methods, and findings.
Writing article summaries can be a useful practice to develop essential skills in critical
reading, summarizing, and clear, organized writing.

How to Make a Summary of a Historical Article

Identifying Sources

The source of an article could be originated from both primary and secondary sources. A
primary source is a document that was created at the time of the event or subject by people
who were observers of or participants in that event or topic. The medium of the primary
source can be anything, including written texts, objects, buildings, films, paintings, cartoons,
etc. What makes the source a “primary” source is when it was made, not what it is. Primary
sources would not, however, include books written by historians about this topic, because
books written by historians are called “secondary” sources. The same goes for historian’s
introductions to and editorial comments on collections of primary documents; these materials,
too, are secondary sources because they’re twice removed from the actual event or process
you’re going to be writing about. So while a historian’s introduction to Upton Sinclair’s novel
The Jungle (1906) is a secondary source, the novel itself, written in 1906, is a primary source.

An article could be an expository, descriptive, persuasive, and narrative article. An expository

writing try to explain a topic or subject, by presenting relevant facts and figures, without
voicing personal opinions. A descriptive writing try to describe a character, an event, or a
place in great detail. A persuasive or an argumentative article try to convince the reader by
presenting a claim or position regarding a topic (Roanestate.edu, n.d.). It equipped with
reasons, arguments, and justifications to support the argument, but it contains the opinions
and biases of the author. Meanwhile, narrative writing's main purpose is to tell a story of a
character or person (Meer, 2016). In historical articles and essays, autobiographies and
biographies are the examples of narrative writings. Outside those four types of article or
essay, empirical and review article are also known in academic writing. An empirical article is
based on experience and observation, rather than systematic logic (MedicineNet.com, n.d.).

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 Meanwhile, review article is an article that summarizes the progress or current state in some
particular subject, area, or topic (University of Texas, n.d.)

Common Problems in Making an Article Summary

An article summary should have to focus on the writer’s position or arguments as reflected in
the article, not about the actual topic of an article. For example, a summary about The History
of Indonesian Temple by David Fischer should highlight Fischer’s theory and arguments in
that subject, and not include arguments from another perspective or about the Indonesian
Temple itself. Of course, the application of this principle depends on the subject of an article.
If the article itself is a critical writing about someone else’s theory, we have to highlight the
key points of the first theory as presented in the article, before highlighting the author’s
opinion or arguments.

A summary is not a review. Therefore, an assessment or opinion about the thesis or findings
is not necessary to be included in a summary. Rather, the summary should be focusing on
identifying, explaining, and analyzing the main point and how it is supported.

Critical Reading

The key to make a good article summary is to understand the article. Therefore, it is essential
to read carefully and closely. The steps for critical reading are pre-reading, active and
analytical reading, and reflection.

Argumentative Articles

Following questions are helpful in making a summary of an argumentative article:

a. What is the topic?

b. What is the research question? In other words, what is the author trying to find out
about that topic?
c. What is the thesis or position? What are the supporting arguments?
d. How are supporting arguments developed? What kind of evidence is used?
e. What is the significance of the author’s thesis? How does it help to understand the
topic?

Empirical Articles

Following questions are helpful in making a summary of an empirical article:

a. What is the topic?

b. What is the research question?

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 c. What are the predictions and the rationale for these predictions?
d. What methods were used (participants, sampling, materials, procedure)? What were
the variables and controls?
e. What were the main results?
f. Are the findings supported by previous research?
g. What are the limitations of the study?
h. What are the implications of the findings?

Create a Reverse Outline

Creating a reverse outline is one way to ensure the full-understanding of the article. Following
strategies are helpful in observing how parts of the article connect to the main idea or the
whole article.

a. Pre-read the article (read the abstract, introduction, and/or conclusion).

b. Summarize the main question(s) and thesis or findings.
c. Skim subheadings and topic sentences to understand the organization; make notes in
the margins about each section.
d. Read each paragraph within a section; make short notes about the main idea or
purpose of each paragraph.

Structure of the Summary

A summary is written in paragraph form and generally does not include subheadings. An
introduction is important to clearly identify the article, the topic, the question or purpose of the
article, and its thesis or findings. The body paragraphs for a summary of an argumentative
article will explain how arguments and evidence support the thesis. Alternatively, the body
paragraphs of an empirical article summary may explain the methods and findings, making
connections to predictions. The conclusion explains the significance of the argument or
implications of the findings.

Below are the sample outline of an argumentative summary, as depicted in www.trentu.ca

(2014). You can adapt the outline to fit the article that you have found. Remember, the
summary should be presented in an essay format. Therefore, you do not have to include the
headings or subheadings in your summary.

Sample Outline for an Argumentative Article Summary

I. Introduction
A. General topic of article
B. Author’s research question or approach to the topic

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 II. Author’s thesis
III. Main points
A. Explain some key points and how they support the thesis
B. Provide a key example or two that the author uses as evidence to support
these points
IV. Conclusion
A. Review how the main points work together to support the thesis?
B. How does the author explain the significance or implications of his/her
article?

Writing the Summary

One significant challenge in writing an article summary is deciding what information or

examples from the article to include. Article summaries are much shorter than the article itself,
therefore there is no need o explain every point the author makes. Instead, the author’s main
points need to be explained and supported by some examples to illustrate these points.

Article summaries should be written in your own words. Scholarly writing can use complex
terminology to explain complicated ideas, which makes it difficult to understand and to
summarize correctly. In the face of difficult text, many students tend to use direct quotations,
saving them the time and energy required to understand and reword it. However, a summary
requires you to summarize, which means “to state briefly or succinctly” (Oxford English
Dictionary) the main ideas presented in a text, to demonstrate your understanding.

Adapted from Trent University (2014)

EXERCISE

Make a brief summary (150-250 words) of one of these articles about The History of Art in
Southeast Asia below. Note that you have to mention the author and the author’s key points
in presenting facts and/or arguments/opinions. Do not include your own opinions regarding
the articles. Please post your work both on your Google Drive and on the forum.

READING 1

Southeast Asia Art

The term Southeast Asia encompasses present-day mainland (Burma, Cambodia, Laos,
Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam) and island (Indonesia, Bali, etc.) in Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia, 1000 B.C.–1 A.D.

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 Villages evolve into settled cultures and, by the middle of this period, stratified societies with
centralized rule have developed on mainland Southeast Asia. The large drums produced by
the Dongson culture in northern Vietnam are among the most distinctive artifacts of the
period. Traders and religious missionaries come from India, and evidence of an early form of
writing based on Sanskrit has been identified in Cambodia. Cultural links between southern
Vietnam and island Southeast Asia continue to grow with the settlement of Austronesian
speakers from Borneo. Around 111 B.C., Chinese conquerors first under the leadership of
Emperor Wudi and then General Ma Yuan gain control of Vietnam.

Southeast Asia, 1–500 A.D.

Expanding international trade characterizes this period in Southeast Asia: Indonesian

outriggers travel to the East African coast; Indian ceramics and glass beads are found in Bali
and on the mainland; Chinese mirrors and Roman coins have been excavated in Cambodia;
and horses from the Kushans in northwest India were imported. By the sixth century A.D.,
Indian influence on the mainland is significant—prosperous kingdoms in Thailand adopt
Indian political, cosmological, and religious practices, and Sanskrit inscriptions are found in
eastern Kalimantan and western Java.

Southeast Asia, 500–1000 A.D.

In both mainland and island Southeast Asia, smaller confederacies amalgamate into larger
polities. The Dvaravati kingdom of the Mon speakers and the various pre-Angkorian sites
associated with the Khmers are the best known on the mainland. The accession of
Jayavarman II in the early ninth century marks the beginning of the powerful Angkor dynasty
that will control much of the region from the tenth through the thirteenth century. The
Shailendras, who control the maritime realm of Shrivijaya in the eighth and ninth centuries,
and build the famed Borobudur, are prominent in Indonesia. Sculpture, generally images of
Buddhist and Hindu deities, is the dominant art form in Southeast Asia during this period.

Southeast Asia, 1000–1400 A.D.

The Khmer capital at Angkor is the center of a powerful, opulent empire that includes most of
continental Southeast Asia. The Angkor period is noted for the vast number of breathtaking
monuments constructed from the late ninth to the thirteenth century. Ranging from relatively
small structures to the gigantic Baphuon and Angkor Wat, these temple-mountains are
profusely decorated with sculptures, which are used to provide a relative chronology for other
works from the same periods. Angkor hegemony is challenged in the middle of the fourteenth
century with the rise of new kingdoms in Laos and Thailand. The establishment of the
kingdom of Majapahit in eastern Indonesia in the thirteenth century marks one of the high

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 points of unification in island Southeast Asia. Sculptures, many of large scale, and metalwork
are the most important artistic traditions during the period.

Southeast Asia, 1400–1600 A.D.

The Thai kingdom, centered on the capital city of Ayudhya, is a dominant polity in mainland
Southeast Asia after the defeat of the Cambodian Khmer empire in 1431. Sculptures of
Buddhas, walking and sitting, made of bronze and brass, are widely produced. A thriving
ceramic industry flourishes at kilns such as those of Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai in the
central region, and smaller centers such as Kalong and Phan in the north. Ceramics are also
produced in some number in Vietnam from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century.
Established around 1400, the town of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula plays an important
role in the spice trade linking the mainland with Indonesia, the Spice Islands, China, India,
West Asia, Portugal, and other European nations. The spread of Islam on the Malay
Peninsula, in Indonesia, and other islands reflects the prevalence of Muslims in this trade.
Textiles are among the dominant artworks of the period. In addition, metalwork—including
pieces made of gold, small bronze and terracotta figures, and clay architectural decorations—
are made for domestic consumption throughout Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia, 1600–1800 A.D.

In mainland Southeast Asia, courtly and urban centers flourish in prosperous regional
kingdoms, such as that of Ayudhya in Thailand. Conflicting relationships between these
polities often lead to changing boundaries. Development of these centers is linked in part to
the growing importance of trade in the region. Theravada Buddhism flourishes in Burma and
Thailand due to royal patronage and direct contact with monasteries in Sri Lanka; sculptures
and paintings, often depicting the Historical Buddha Shakyamuni, are produced in some
number. Christianity plays an important role in the Philippines, with Chinese craftsmen
producing religious images for the European and South American markets. Islam continues to
flourish in island Southeast Asia and peninsular Thailand and Malaysia.

Textiles, produced in a variety of regional centers, are traded throughout the region, and to
South Asia and Europe. Ceramics, produced in Vietnam and Thailand, continue to play an
important role in regional transmarine commerce. The period from 1600 to 1800 is one of
increasing interaction between European traders and trade goods, and the indigenous arts
and cultures of the Southeast Asian archipelagos. A central force in these interactions is the
Dutch East India Company, which seizes control of the lucrative spice trade from earlier
Portuguese and English traders and holds a virtual monopoly on European trade in the
Indonesian archipelago throughout the 1600s and 1700s. Many Dutch trade items, such as
cloth, beads, silver, and gold, are incorporated into the archipelago’s indigenous art forms.

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 Images of Dutch ships and coats of arms also begin to appear in Indonesian woodcarving and
textiles.

Southeast Asia, 1800–1900 A.D.

Mainland

Over the course of the nineteenth century, Southeast Asia is colonized by Britain, France, and
Holland. In 1799, the Dutch government takes over the Dutch East India Company’s rule of
parts of the Indonesian archipelago. Over the next hundred years, it extends control
throughout the entire archipelago, including Sumatra and Bali. The modern boundaries of
Indonesia are established at this time. Starting in 1824, Britain fights for control of Burma,
finally incorporating it into its Indian empire in 1886. It gradually takes over peninsular Malaya
as well, and, by 1874, effectively rules the area that will become modern-day Malaysia. By
strengthening central authority over local chiefs and opening trade to Europe, Thailand
remains free under a stable and strong monarchy. But France colonizes Vietnam, Laos, and
Cambodia to proclaim the French Indochina Union in 1887.

Colonization has an enormous impact on the populations and economies of the region. The
British favor Indian and Chinese immigrants for skilled positions in Malaysia, and dismiss the
general Malaysian population as peasantry. Education policies deepen ethnic divides. In
Cambodia, the French favor the Vietnamese over the local population, while the British
encourage widespread immigration of Indians and Chinese into Burma, a policy that leads to
political division felt into contemporary times. The Burmese economy, long based on
subsistence farming, shifts drastically to a large-scale export economy. A policy called
Cultuurstelsel, applied in Indonesia, forces farmers to grow export crops. Though successful
in some ways, the policy causes famine and impoverishment. The desire to sell European
goods in colonial markets erodes traditional crafts, such as the production of batik and ikat
textiles in Indonesia. Regular wars waged to gain control further damage the region.

Under colonial domination, however, ancient monuments and texts are closely studied,
preserved, and restored. Angkor Wat, for instance, is rediscovered in the mid-nineteenth
century, and the monuments of Cham, in Vietnam, come to public attention in 1885.
Photography aids in the documentation of these monuments: Angkor Wat is photographed for
the first time in 1866. From the mid-nineteenth century onward, colonial governments begin to
open museums and found archaeological surveys. While knowledge of the past is gathered in
the service of power, it also generates respect for and pride in Southeast Asian cultures, and
becomes an important source of inspiration for local artists in the twentieth century who strive
to create modern, non-Western arts.

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 Many traditions continue to thrive in the nineteenth century. Religious imagery tends to be
conservative and relatively immune to Westernization. Many indigenous courts patronize a
high level of craftsmanship in textiles, metalwork, jewelry, and ceramics. Manuscript paintings
remain largely traditional, though some reveal European influences and resemble the
Company School paintings of India. During the early nineteenth century, China is a dominant
cultural influence in mainland Southeast Asia. However, elite culture becomes increasingly
Westernized as colonial powers expand their control. In Burma, for instance, European
pictorial conventions dominate the frescoes at the Kyauk-Taw-Gyi Temple (1849–50), while
the Altumashi Monastery in Mandalay (1857) mixes European and indigenous architectural
structures and motifs. The Javanese painter Raden Saleh (ca. 1807–1880), considered the
“father” of Indonesian modern art, travels to Europe to study painting in 1829. Western art
makes an impression much later in Vietnam, beginning with a few painters like Le Van Mien
(1873–1943) who work in oils in the late nineteenth century. Despite Thailand’s
independence, the passion for things Western hits its elite at this time as well. The
architecture of King Mongkut (r. 1851–68) incorporates Greek orders and Chinese ceramics
into a Thai stylistic rubric. Over the next half century and well into the early twentieth,
photography and naturalistic painting and sculpture dominate Thai court art.

Island

While the great majority of the population in this period are Muslim, Buddhist, or Christian,
Southeast Asia is also home to a diversity of indigenous peoples, who share aspects of their
language, art, and culture with the Polynesians, Micronesians, and other Pacific Island
groups. Often living in isolated enclaves separated by hundreds, even thousands, of miles,
the region’s indigenous peoples nonetheless exhibit remarkable similarities in their art and
cultures, indicating that these groups share a common ancestry. One of the most striking
similarities is in their conception of the human form, which is typically depicted in a seated or
crouching position with the legs drawn close to the body and the hands or forearms resting on
the knees.

Sculpture in indigenous Southeast Asian societies serves as a means of honoring and

communicating with the supernatural beings believed to ensure the safety and prosperity of
the village community. Most images depict local ancestors or fearsome supernatural
guardians. Southeast Asia’s indigenous peoples, particularly in Indonesia, also create a rich
variety of textiles. However, by the mid-1800s, the colonial powers begin to send Christian
missionaries to convert indigenous peoples from their local religions and many artistic
traditions, particularly the creation of figural sculpture, begin to decline.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. (2000, October). Southeast Asia. Retrieved from
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/sse.html

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 READING 2

Indonesian Architecture

Indonesian architecture has been shaped by interaction between indigenous customs and
foreign influences, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

The culture and art of Indonesia has been shaped by interaction between local indigenous
customs and multiple foreign influences. Situated on the ancient maritime trading routes
between the Near East and the Far East, Indonesia was exposed to a multitude of foreign
cultural practices and religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. The result is a
complex fusion of many different customs, expressed in Indian art forms.

Architecture in Indonesia before 1200 CE

The Sri Vijaya Empire

Indonesia has a particularly rich tradition of Hindu–Buddhist sculpture and

architecture, which was strongly influenced by India from the 1st century CE onward.
The earliest Buddhist structures in Indonesia to survive to the present day are the 4th
century Batujaya plastered brick stupas in West Java. However, Buddhist art reached
its golden era under the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri Vijaya Empire. The islands of
Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the Sri Vijaya Empire (8th–
13th centuries), which practiced Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism and were a
major political and cultural influence in the Southeast Asian peninsula.

Stone and bronze sculpture flourished between the 8th and 10th century CE under
the Sailendra dynasty in Java and Bali. These sculptures were either free-standing
statues or relief sculptures and friezes incorporated into temples; they are
characterized by their delicacy and serenity of expression.

Borobudur

The most outstanding example of this classical Hindu–Buddhist sculpture in

Indonesia is found in the temple of Borobudur in central Java. Built in the 8th century,
Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world and is supposed to represent a
map of the Buddhist cosmos; it is a masterful combination of didactic narrative
sculptures, spiritual symbolism , monumental design, and meditative serenity. The
entire structure resembles a stupa, and when seen from above, looks like a mandala ,
a concentric diagram with spiritual significance in Buddhism. As part of its structure, it
has 504 statues of the Buddha and 2,672 relief panels depicting the life of the

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 Buddha. As a visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds
from beginning to end. The last three levels simply contain stupas and statues of the
Buddha.

Prambanan

Near Borobudur is the 9th century temple complex of Prambanan, one of the oldest
and largest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia. The complex consists of eight main
shrines, surrounded by 224 smaller ones. The Indian influence on the building is
unmistakable, not only in the architectural style but also in the stone reliefs featuring
scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana, which adorn the outer walls of the main
temples.

Architecture in Indonesia after 1200 CE

The Majapahit Empire

The decline of the Sri Vijaya Empire in the 11th century was accompanied by a
corresponding decline in Buddhism and a shift of power to Eastern Java. The
Majapahit Empire was established in 1293 and lasted until around 1500. The
Majapahit rulers practiced a mix of Hinduism, Buddhism, and animism, and the
religious architecture reflects this synthesis. Indonesian art enjoyed a golden age
under Majapahit rule, and an enormous number of Hindu–Buddhist temples, or candi,
were built during this period. The building material of choice was brick and mortar of
vine sap and palm sugar. Majapahit architecture is characterized by tall and slender
roofed red brick gates, a strong geometrical quality, and a sense of verticality,
achieved through numerous horizontal lines . Majapahit influence can still be seen to
the present day in Hindu temples in Bali.

Introduction of Islam

By the 15th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra,
Indonesia’s most populous islands. Islamic cultural and artistic influences were
absorbed and reinterpreted in the local landscape, resulting in mosques that reflected
both Indonesian and Islamic background, with additional influences from Hindu,
Buddhist, and Chinese architecture. Indonesian mosques lacked the ubiquitous
Islamic dome until the 19th century, and they had tall timber tiered roofs similar to the
pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples.

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Indonesian Architecture. Retrieved from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/indonesian-art/

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 READING 3

Borobudur

Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism

Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. We are all familiar with the streets, trails,
and lanes along which we routinely travel. Ancient Roman roads are utilized in some places
even today. In contemporary computer culture we follow “paths” on webpages as we find our
way to the information or experience we are searching for or find unexpectedly. There are
simulated paths in complex first-person virtual reality video environments, where role-playing
games formulate their content around the path to be conquered. The idea of path is an
important concept in Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose
of one of the most remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur.

Located on the island of Java in Indonesia, the rulers of the Śailendra Dynasty built the
Temple of Borobudur around 800 C.E. as a monument to the Buddha (exact dates vary
among scholars). The temple (or candi in Javanese, pronounced “chandi”) fell into disuse
roughly one hundred years after its completion when, for still unknown reasons, the rulers of
Java relocated the governing center to another part of the island. The British Lieutenant
Governor on Java, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, only rediscovered the site in 1814 upon
hearing reports from islanders of an incredible sanctuary deep within the island’s interior.

Candi Borobudur’s design was conceived of by the poet, thinker, and architect Gunadharma,
considered by many today to be a man of great vision and devotion. The temple has been
described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has
been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact,
the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits
characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation,
Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis
mundi (cosmic axis). Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually
ascend to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct
adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures
mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher
states of consciousness.

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 The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and
opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative
reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the
Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic
stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief
sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that
were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s
weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late
19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability.

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three
upper terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a
seated Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a
symbol of the enlightened mind.

The experience of meaning

While the sheer size and scope of a mandala structure such as this makes the site worthy of
admiration, it is important to understand how the experience of Borobudur relates to the
philosophic and spiritual underpinnings of the Buddhist religion it reifies and commemorates.
Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago, Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as
the paradoxical nature of human existence. The most essential tenet the religion promulgates
is the impermanent, transient nature of existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma
(the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed,
immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the

heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the
ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic
magnificence along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of
circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of
enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes
the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically
move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help
one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.

The texts illustrated on the walls refer to pathways as well. For instance, the Gandavyuha
Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries. The last chapter of a larger text
called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a youth who commences a
journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to enlightenment. The concept of
“path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an enlightened being (bodhisattva)

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 named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra illustrate the concepts under
discussion:

“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in the
dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva
impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.

I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of
Nirvana.

Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual
obstructions. And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.

Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates the
path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.

All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable,
causing all worlds to be vessels of truth...”

From darkness into light

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of
Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu),
represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base,
through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four
galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness
(arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72
stupas.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be

merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and
the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a
microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic
path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of
desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material
effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment
generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.

Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the
East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy.

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 Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of
the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical,
the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its
physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

Gordon, Robert E. (n.d). Borobudur. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/southeast-asia/maritime-se-asia/a/
borobudur

READING 4

The Batak

Located in the mountainous highlands of northern Sumatra, the Batak are one of the largest
indigenous groups in Indonesia. They are divided into six groups, the Toba, Pak Pak/Dairi,
Karo, Angkola, Mandailing, and Simalungun, and have an estimated total population of 3
million.

The traditional communal houses of the Batak have three levels, which correspond to the
three levels of their universe: the upper world, the middle world, and the lower world. The high
roof represents the upper world, the realm of the gods. The living level (elevated above the
ground on pillars) is symbolic of the middle world where humans dwell. The space for animals
below the living level represents the lower world, believed to be the home of a mythological
dragon. The main decorative elements of communal houses are large, carved animal heads
(1988.143.68). These sculptures, positioned at the ends of side beams, function as protective
devices that have the ability to release positive energy as well as protect the inhabitants from
disease or evil.

The most powerful members of a Batak community are ritual specialists, known as datu. They
are experts in religion, and are most often members of the village’s founding family. These
specialists, who are exclusively male, are able to cure the sick, contact the spirits of the dead,
and predict auspicious days for particular events.

A datu‘s most important possession is his ritual staff, made of special wood that symbolizes
the tree of life. Since a specialist is required to create his own staff, they vary widely in style
and form. The simplest type of ritual staff, tungkot malehat (“smooth staff”), has a single
wooden or metal figure (1988.143.141) attached to the top end of the shaft. Specialists
“animate” or activate the power of the figures by filling them with a magical potion, known as

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 pupuk. This substance is considered to be extremely powerful and can be stored only in
certain types of containers such as the hollow horns of water buffalo (1987.453.1), wooden
vessels, or Chinese trade ceramics (1988.124.2ab).

The Toba Batak, located in the center of the region, are known for their hand-woven textiles.
Made exclusively by women, these cloths are used as traditional clothing and ritual gifts of
exchange. One important type of cloth, the ulos ragidup (1988.104.25), is traditionally used at
wedding ceremonies. On the day of the wedding, the father of the bride presents this cloth to
the mother of the bridegroom. This symbolic act unites the two families and ensures the
fertility of the couple. It is then passed down from one generation to the next as an heirloom,
along with jewelry and other household objects.

The Toba Batak also create carved wooden puppets known as si gale gale. These puppets
(1987.453.6) are used during funerary ceremonies for wealthy men who have no male
descendants to perform their mortuary rites. The puppets are carved in the likeness of the
deceased individual, dressed in clothing, and given a complex system of internal strings that
are controlled by a puppeteer. After dancing amidst the mourners, the puppets are stripped of
their clothing and thrown over the village walls, marking the conclusion of the ceremony.

Caglayan, Emily. (2004, October). The Batak. Retrieved from

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bata/hd_bata.htm

READING 5

The Asmat

Located in southwestern New Guinea, the Asmat live along the vast system of rivers that flow
into the Arafura Sea. With an estimated population of 70,000, the Asmat are divided into
several hundred villages ranging in size from 35 to 2,000 inhabitants. The Metropolitan
Museum has an outstanding collection of Asmat art, the majority of which was collected in
1961 by Michael C. Rockefeller.

Wood carving is a flourishing tradition among the Asmat, and wood carvers are held in high
esteem. The culture hero Fumeripits is considered to be the very first wood carver, and all
subsequent wood carvers (known as wowipits) have an obligation to continue his work. The
Asmat also believe that there is a close relationship between humans and trees, and
recognize wood as the source of life.

According to the Asmat origin myth, Fumeripits was the first being to exist on earth, and he
also created the first men’s ceremonial house, or jeu (a club house for men where community
issues are discussed, artwork is made, and ceremonies are held). Fumeripits would spend his
days dancing along the beach, but after awhile grew tired of being alone. So, he chopped

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 down a number of trees, carved them into human figures, and placed them inside the jeu.
However, since the sculptures were inanimate, Fumeripits was still unhappy. He then decided
to create a drum (1978.412.962), and chopped down another tree, hollowed out the center,
and stretched a piece of lizard skin over the top. As he began to play the drum, the human
figures miraculously came to life, their elbows came unstuck from their knees, and they began
to dance.

Like Fumeripits, present-day Asmat have a strong tradition of carving figural sculpture out of
wood. These figures (1979.206.1589), which are representations of ancestors, are
traditionally displayed inside the men’s ceremonial house. Although these sculptures
commemorate specific individuals who have died, they are not direct portraits, and have
generalized features and similar body types. A common pose for these ancestral figures is the
elbows-to-knees position (or wenet pose), believed to be the same pose that all humans
assume at birth and again at death.

Ancestral imagery also appears on other forms of Asmat art, including wood war shields
(1978.412.929). Shields were created as functional items for warfare, and were meant to
protect the user from the spears and arrows of his enemy. At the same time, the imagery that
is carved and painted on the surface of the shield endows the piece with the power of the
ancestors, which is also intended to protect the user. The designs can be either figural or
abstract, depending on the region from which the shield came.

Bis poles (1979.206.1611) are perhaps the most impressive works of art by the Asmat,
reaching heights of up to twenty feet. These poles are carved to commemorate the lives of
important individuals (usually warriors), and serve as a promise that their deaths will be
avenged. These works also assist in the transport of the souls of the dead to the realm of the
ancestors. The mangrove tree, from which the sculptures are created, is actually turned
upside down and a single planklike root is preserved (which will ultimately project from the top
of the artwork). The imagery on the pole itself varies, but usually includes a series of stacked
ancestral figures. In interior Asmat villages, wuramon, or spirit canoes (1979.206.1558), serve
a similar function.

Asmat body masks (1978.412.1282a) are full-length costumes made of plaited cordage
composed of rattan, bark, and sago leaf fiber. The body masks are usually painted with red
and white pigment, decorated with carved facial features, and given skirts made of sago
leaves. The end result depicts an otherworldly being, which appears only for special funerary
ceremonies, known as jipae.

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 Caglayan, Emily. (2004, October). The Asmat. Retrieved from
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/asma/hd_asma.htm

References
Caglayan, Emily. (2004, October). The Asmat. Retrieved from
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/asma/hd_asma.htmHeilbrunn Timeline of Art
History. (2000, October). Southeast Asia. Retrieved from
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/sse.html

Caglayan, Emily. (2004, October). The Batak. Retrieved from

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bata/hd_bata.htm

Meer, Syed Hunbbel. (2016, May 10). Four Different Types of Writing Styles: Expository,
Descriptive, Persuasive, and Narrative. Retrieved from
https://owlcation.com/humanities/Four-Types-of-Writing

Study.com. (n.d.). Argumentative Essay: Definition, Format & Examples. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/argumentative-essay-definition-format-
examples.html.

Trent University. (2014). Academic Skills: Writing Article Summary. Retrieved from
https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/documents/articlesummary.pdf

Kurland, Daniel J. (2000). How the Language Really Works: The Fundamentals of Critical
Reading and Effective Writing. Retrieved from
http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm

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