Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that revolves around the

concept of objects, which are instances of classes. OOP organizes software into manageable,
reusable components, making it easier to develop and maintain complex systems. The
fundamentals of OOP include classes and objects, encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and
abstraction.

1. Classes and Objects: In OOP, a class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the
properties (attributes) and behaviors (methods) that objects of that class will have.
Objects are instances of classes, representing specific instances of the data structure and
behavior defined by the class. For example, a Car class might have properties like make,
model, and year, along with methods like start() and stop(). Objects of the Car class
would represent individual cars, each with its own make, model, and year.
2. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the bundling of data (attributes) and methods
(behaviors) that operate on the data into a single unit, typically a class. It hides the
internal state of objects from the outside world and only exposes a public interface for
interacting with them. Encapsulation helps in preventing unauthorized access to data and
ensures that the object's state remains consistent. Access specifiers like public, private,
and protected control the visibility of members within a class.
3. Inheritance: Inheritance is the mechanism by which a class can inherit properties and
behaviors from another class. It promotes code reuse by allowing a new class (derived
class) to inherit from an existing class (base class). The derived class inherits attributes
and methods from its base class and can override or extend them as needed. This enables
the creation of hierarchies of classes, with more specialized classes inheriting from more
general ones. Inheritance facilitates the implementation of the "is-a" relationship, where a
derived class is a specialized version of its base class.
4. Polymorphism: Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects
of a common superclass. It enables code to be written in a more generic and flexible
manner, promoting reusability and extensibility. Polymorphism can be achieved through
function overloading, operator overloading, and virtual functions. Function overloading
allows multiple functions with the same name but different parameter lists to coexist
within the same scope, while operator overloading allows operators to be redefined for
 user-defined types. Virtual functions are functions declared within a base class that can
be overridden in derived classes, enabling runtime polymorphism.
5. Abstraction: Abstraction involves simplifying complex systems by modeling only the
essential aspects while hiding unnecessary details. In OOP, abstraction is achieved
through the use of classes, objects, and interfaces. Classes define abstract data types
along with their properties and behaviors, while objects are instances of these classes that
represent specific instances of the abstract data type. Interfaces define a contract for
classes to implement, specifying the methods that must be provided without specifying
how they are implemented. Abstraction allows programmers to focus on what an object
does rather than how it does it, leading to more modular and maintainable code.

By adhering to these fundamental principles, developers can design and implement software
systems that are modular, reusable, and scalable. OOP provides a powerful and flexible approach
to software development, facilitating the creation of complex systems while maintaining code
clarity and maintainability.

Writing a class in C++ encapsulates the essence of object-oriented programming (OOP) by

defining a blueprint for creating objects that exhibit specific behaviors and properties. Each class
encapsulates data members and member functions that operate on those data members,
facilitating the modeling of real-world entities, concepts, or systems in a structured and modular
manner.

To illustrate the process of writing a class in C++ OOP, let's consider an example of a simple Car
class:

cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

class Car {
private:
std::string brand;
std::string model;
int year;
double price;

public:
// Constructor
Car(const std::string& brand, const std::string& model, int year, double
price)
: brand(brand), model(model), year(year), price(price) {}

// Accessor methods (getters)

 std::string getBrand() const { return brand; }
std::string getModel() const { return model; }
int getYear() const { return year; }
double getPrice() const { return price; }

// Mutator methods (setters)

void setPrice(double newPrice) { price = newPrice; }

// Other member functions

void displayInfo() const {
std::cout << "Brand: " << brand << std::endl;
std::cout << "Model: " << model << std::endl;
std::cout << "Year: " << year << std::endl;
std::cout << "Price: $" << price << std::endl;
}
};

In this example, the Car class encapsulates several data members (brand, model, year, and
price) representing attributes of a car, along with member functions to operate on these data
members. Let's break down the components of the class:

1. Private Data Members: These are variables that store the state or attributes of objects
created from the class. In this example, brand, model, year, and price are private data
members.
2. Public Member Functions: These are functions that provide interfaces for interacting
with the class's data members. Public member functions can be called from outside the
class. In this example, we have accessor methods (getters) such as getBrand(),
getModel(), getYear(), and getPrice(), as well as mutator methods (setters) like
setPrice() and other member functions like displayInfo().
3. Constructor: The constructor initializes an object's data members when an object is
created. In this example, the constructor initializes the Car object with values for brand,
model, year, and price.
4. Private Access Specifier: The private keyword specifies that the data members and
member functions following it are accessible only within the class itself. This
encapsulates the internal implementation details and prevents direct access or
modification from outside the class.
5. Public Access Specifier: The public keyword specifies that the data members and
member functions following it are accessible from outside the class. These form the
public interface of the class, allowing external code to interact with objects of the class.

Using this Car class, developers can create instances (objects) of cars and manipulate their
attributes and behaviors through member functions. For example:

cpp
int main() {
Car myCar("Toyota", "Camry", 2020, 25000.0);
myCar.displayInfo(); // Output: Brand: Toyota, Model: Camry, Year: 2020,
Price: $25000.0
myCar.setPrice(26000.0);
 std::cout << "New Price: $" << myCar.getPrice() << std::endl; // Output:
New Price: $26000.0
return 0;
}

The process of writing a class in C++ not only facilitates the creation of structured and modular
code but also serves as the foundation for implementing key object-oriented design principles,
including encapsulation, abstraction, inheritance, and polymorphism. Through careful design and
implementation, classes in C++ empower developers to model real-world entities, concepts, or
systems in a coherent and organized manner, thereby enhancing code readability,
maintainability, and extensibility.

Encapsulation, the first principle exemplified by class construction in C++, involves bundling
related data members and member functions within a class and restricting access to them using
access specifiers such as private, protected, and public. By encapsulating data and behavior,
classes promote information hiding, preventing external code from directly accessing or
modifying the internal state of objects. This encapsulation shields the internal implementation
details of a class, reducing the risk of unintended interference and promoting code integrity. In
the example of a Car class, private data members such as brand, model, year, and price
encapsulate the attributes of a car, while member functions provide controlled access to these
attributes, enforcing data encapsulation and maintaining the integrity of the Car object.

Abstraction, another fundamental principle of object-oriented design, is exemplified through the

creation of a simplified interface that hides the complexities of the underlying implementation.
Classes in C++ enable developers to define abstract data types with well-defined interfaces,
allowing users to interact with objects at a higher level of abstraction without needing to
understand the intricacies of their internal workings. This abstraction fosters modularity,
flexibility, and code reuse, as changes to the internal implementation of a class can be made
without affecting external code that relies on its interface. In the Car class example, accessor
methods (getters) such as getBrand(), getModel(), getYear(), and getPrice() provide a
simplified interface for accessing the attributes of a car, shielding users from the complexities of
the underlying data representation.

Inheritance, a core concept of object-oriented programming, enables the creation of new classes
(derived classes) that inherit properties and behaviors from existing classes (base classes). This
hierarchical relationship facilitates code reuse, promotes the establishment of class hierarchies,
and supports the modeling of real-world relationships and hierarchies within software systems.
In the context of the Car class example, inheritance could be utilized to create specialized types
of cars, such as ElectricCar or SportsCar, that inherit common attributes and behaviors from
the base Car class while adding additional features specific to each subtype.

Polymorphism, the final principle demonstrated by class construction in C++, allows objects of
different types to be treated uniformly through a common interface. This enables code to be
written in a more generic and flexible manner, promoting reusability and extensibility.
Polymorphism facilitates dynamic method dispatch, where the appropriate method
implementation is determined at runtime based on the actual type of the object being referenced.
In the example of a Car class, polymorphism could be achieved through virtual functions and
function overriding, allowing subclasses to redefine or extend the behavior of inherited methods
to suit their specific requirements.

In conclusion, writing classes in C++ lays the groundwork for implementing key object-oriented
design principles, including encapsulation, abstraction, inheritance, and polymorphism. By
adhering to these principles, developers can create structured and modular code that promotes
code reuse, maintainability, and extensibility, enabling the development of robust and scalable
software solutions.