Japanese Journal of Communication Studies Vol.49 No.

1, 2020 5-23
©2020 日本コミュニケーション学会
doi: 10.20698/comm.49.1_5

What Helps International Students Disclose

Themselves and Be Assertive to Host Nationals
for Their Cultural Adjustment?:
Focusing on Language Ability and Length of Stay
IMAI Tatsuya
(Nanzan University)

Abstract. Previous studies suggest that international students self-disclosure and asser-
tiveness to host nationals play significant roles in their cultural adjustment. However, what
specific factor helps them disclose themselves and be assertive has not been fully researched.
Using culture learning theory, this study hypothesized that ability in the host country s lan-
guage (i.e., Japanese) and length of stay in a host country (i.e., Japan) are associated with these
two forms of communication. Results indicated that language ability and length of stay were
positively associated with levels of self-disclosure. A structural equation model further showed
that length of stay was indirectly linked to levels of self-disclosure through Japanese fluency.
Surprisingly, international students who stayed for a longer period in Japan with higher levels
of Japanese were not more assertive than those who stayed for a shorter period with lower
levels of Japanese. This study also investigated differences in the association among those vari-
ables between Asian international students and Western international students. These findings
suggest that those who try to adjust to a new culture should be aware that what is considered
an appropriate communication style varies depending on the host culture.

1 . Introduction
In 2009, the number of international students residing in Japan was 132,72 (JASSO, 2009). In
2019, there were 312,214 international students in Japan (JASSO, 2019). Over a decade, the number of
international students in Japan has grew more than twofold and the increase is expected to continue.
Despite the rapid growth in international students, not enough care has been provided for those who
have a socially or psychologically hard time adjusting to Japan (Onishi, 2016). To fully and truly
globalize Japan, it is important to consider how to help international students overcome various
acculturative difficulties and adjust to Japan. Previous studies suggest that successful intercultural
interaction with host nationals plays a key role in helping international students adjust to a new
country (Gareis, Merkin, & Goldman, 2011; Gudykunst, Nishida, & Chua, 1986).
Specifically, international students self-disclosure (Kudo & Simkin, 2003) and assertiveness
(Chen, 1992) to host nationals have been considered effective to adapting to the new culture. How-

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ever, it is still unclear what factors could help international students disclose themselves and be
assertive to host nationals. Although there has not been academically much attention to the factors,
culture learning theory suggests that international students ability to use a language of the accept-
ing country and their length of stay in the county are associated with their intercultural interaction
(Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Consistent with these theoretical ideas,
past research has shown that the language ability and length of stay are related to various accultura-
tive experiences such as sociocultural (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007) and psychological (Wang & Mallinck-
rodt, 2006) adjustment. However, the link between these factors and intercultural interaction such as
self-disclosure and assertiveness has not been fully investigated.
Further, while international students self-disclosure and assertiveness have been considered
effective to adjust to Western countries such as the U.S., such ways of self-expression might be inef-
fective to adjust to Asian countries including Japan where indirect expression is highly valued (e.g.,
Tanaka, Takai, Kohyama, & Fujihara, 1993). Considering the cultural difference, are international
students proficiency in Asian countries language and length of stay in Asian countries still associ-
ated with the degree to which they engage in intercultural interaction with Asian host nationals? The
question has been left unexplored.
To address the limitations in the past literature, the current study examines the association
between international students Japanese ability and length of stay in Japan, and their intercultural
interaction with Japanese people. Further, according to previous studies showing that international
students of various ethnicities have distinct experiences of acculturation (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh,
2006; Yeh & Inose, 2003), this study investigates if the hypothesized association would vary depend-
ing on their ethnicities. To discuss how this study examines these theoretical ideas, the following
section first explains the fundamental theory for this study: culture learning theory.

2 . Literature Review
2.1. Culture Learning Theory of Acculturation
The core idea of culture learning theory of acculturation is that people face various accul-
turative difficulties while staying in a different country if they do not have the culture-specific skills
required for the adjustment (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward et al., 2001). The skills include abilities
to use a language of the accepting culture, appropriate use of nonverbal communication, and under-
standing the norms and values of the culture. The theory also argues that these skills allow people
to have successful intercultural interactions while staying in the different culture and the interactions
play a key role in helping them adjust to the culture. This study specifically focuses on international
students self-disclosure and assertiveness to host nationals as key intercultural interactions for their
adjustment.
Self-disclosure. Past studies suggest that international students self-disclosure to host na-
tionals plays an important role in facilitating their adjustment to the new culture. Self-disclosure

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is defined as interactions between individuals in which one intends to deliberately tell something
personal to another (Greene, Derlega, & Mathews, 2006). Using this definition, the current study con-
ceptualizes intercultural self-disclosure as interactions in which people from different countries talk
about their own personal information to each other. Previous studies found that self-disclosure has a
positive impact on international students adjustment to a host country. For example, self-disclosure
helps international students form friendships in the host country (Chen, 1993; Gudykunst et al., 1986;
Imai, 2017; Kudo & Simkin, 2003). Kudo and Simkin (2003) conducted semi-structured interviews
with Japanese students studying at an Australian university to examine factors associated with their
intercultural friendship formation with Australians. One of the most important factors was inter-
national students self-disclosure to host nationals. A participant noted that, I can talk (about) any-
thing with my very close friends. I can understand what my friends are saying, and they understand
me well. That is why we can become close to each other. Related to the results, Imai (2017) found
that the more international students disclosed themselves to host nationals, the less lonely they felt
while residing in the host community.
Assertiveness. Another type of important intercultural interaction is international students
assertiveness to host nationals. Assertiveness is conceptualized as the legitimate and honest expres-
sion of one s rights, thoughts and feelings without offending others (Rakos, 1991). Mori (2000) argues
that being assertive in culturally different situations is a critical skill for successful cultural adjust-
ment. Consistent with the argument, the more assertive international students are in the U.S., the
better adjustment to the U.S. they experience (Chen, 1992; Lee & Ciftci, 2014). Similarly, international
students in the U.S. who are more assertive are less likely to feel lonely compared with those who are
less assertive (Poyrazli, Arbona, Nora, McPherson, & Pisecco, 2002).
Desired social skills in Japan. Previous studies above indicate that self-disclosure and as-
sertiveness facilitate the adjustment of international students especially in Western countries such
as the U.S. However, literature on international students adjustment to Japan shows a mixed picture
regarding the effectiveness of self-disclosure and assertiveness. In the study by Tanaka et al. (1993),
twenty-three Japanese social psychologists who were experts on interpersonal relationships argued
that one of the most important skills for international students to adapt to Japan was indirect expres-
sion. Specifically, whereas international students self-disclosure was considered an appropriate so-
cial skill for their cultural adjustment, assertiveness was not. While the study above found that self-
disclosure was effective to form interpersonal relationships with Japanese, Nakanishi (1986) reported
that Japanese people generally evaluated a low level of self-disclosure positively. Consistent with the
finding, the results based on interviews with sixteen international students in Japan revealed that
suppressed self-expression was a key to successful interaction with Japanese people (Tanaka, 1993).
However, the recent study that examined what social skills 102 international students considered
important to interact with Japanese people revealed that suppression of emotional expression was
not chosen as an effective means (Tanaka & Okunishi, 2016). In line with the finding, Lee (2018)

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argued that although it should be tailored to Japanese culture in which indirect expression is highly
valued, assertive communication is necessary to develop desired interpersonal relationships between
Japanese people and non-Japanese people. As shown above, unlike research conducted in Western
countries, the effectiveness of self-disclosure and assertiveness of international students in Japan
has been still unclear.
Taken together, although how international students in Japan should express themselves for
their successful adjustment has not been clarified, some research did indicate international students
self-disclosure and assertiveness with host nationals helped them adjust to the host country. With
that in mind, what helps international students engage in such successful intercultural interaction?
Cultural learning theory argues that international students language ability and length of stay are
critical factors related to the desired intercultural interaction, which will be discussed in detail in the
following section.

2.2. Ability to Use The Host Country s Language

Culture learning theory argues that in order to have successful intercultural interaction, people
should be able to speak a language used in the receiving community (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward
et al., 2001). That is, international students inability to speak the host country s language may pre-
vent them from having effective interaction with host nationals. Before discussing the specific link
between language ability and intercultural interaction, previous studies on the effect of the language
ability on various aspects of international students adjustment to the host country will be reviewed.
First, academic adjustment is more difficult for students who do not have a sufficient profi-
ciency level of the host country s language. International graduate students studying in American
universities who had lower English proficiency levels reported lower GPAs than those who had
higher English proficiency levels (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006). Turkish college students in the U.S.
who had better English language skills achieved higher GPAs (Poyrazli, Arbona, Bullington, & Pi-
secco, 2001). International undergraduate students in the U.S. with higher TOEFL (Test of English
as a Foreign Language) scores experienced more successful academic adjustment than those with
lower scores (Gong & Fan, 2006). One of the reasons for the association between language skills and
academic performance might be that inadequate language skills prevent international students from
understanding lectures and completing assignments successfully (Mori, 2000).
Further, language barriers are associated with higher instances of psychological issues among
international students. Chinese and Taiwanese students studying in the U.S. who reported lower
levels of English proficiency showed more psychological distress (Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006). Tai-
wanese international students in the U.S. who demonstrated lower English fluency levels showed
more depressive symptoms than those who had higher levels of fluency (Dao, Lee, & Chang, 2007).
Sumer, Poyrazli, and Grahame (2008) also found a negative association between levels of English
proficiency and symptoms of depression as well as anxiety among international students in the U.S.

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 Finally, previous studies indicate that inadequacy in the host country s language leads to poorer
sociocultural adjustment of international students. Sociocultural adjustment can be defined as how
effectively people fit in the new culture by managing intercultural interaction (Smith & Khawaja,
2011; Ward et al., 2001). International students studying in the U.S. whose English ability was lower
reported that they were less socially adjusted in the host country than students whose English abil-
ity was higher (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006; Yeh & Inose, 2003; Wang &
Mallinckrodt, 2006). Specifically, international students who had lower levels of English felt less
socially connected with host nationals (Duru & Poyrazli, 2007). International students with higher
levels of English gained more social support (Yeh & Inose, 2003). Barratt and Huba (1994) revealed
that international students with higher English fluency levels reported that they were more involved
with host nationals than those with lower English fluency levels.
Whereas these studies consistently showed the significant impacts of proficiency in the host
country s language on various outcomes, there is little research on how the language ability is associ-
ated with specific forms of intercultural interaction such as self-disclosure and assertiveness to host
nationals. International students language ability is expected to impact their self-disclosure because
verbal communication is the main tool for disclosing themselves to others. For example, Pennebaker
(1997) argues that language plays a critical role in helping people disclose their inner thoughts and
emotions. Further, the Disclosure Decision-Making Model (Greene, 2009) implies that language pro-
ficiency is an important factor making people feel capable of disclosing themselves to others. The
model argues that in order to disclose themselves, it is important for people to believe that they are
capable of doing so and this belief is called disclosure efficacy. For international students, those
without sufficient foreign language ability may believe that they are not capable of conveying per-
sonal information about themselves without causing misunderstanding (i.e., low disclosure efficacy).
Such beliefs are consistent with the ideas of culture learning theory arguing that the inability to use
a foreign language prevents international students from having effective intercultural interaction
such as intercultural self-disclosure. The association between international students proficiency in a
foreign language and their self-disclosure has not been fully explored by past studies.
Further, foreign language ability would be associated with how assertive international students
can be when interacting with host nationals. It theoretically makes sense that people staying in a
different country need high proficiency levels in the foreign language to assert their rights with-
out offending others. Consistent with the idea, Poyrazli et al. (2002) found a positive association
between international students English proficiency and their assertiveness based on the sample of
international students in the U.S. However, the association has not been researched for international
students in non-Western countries. In most Western countries, being assertive in interpersonal in-
teraction has been considered appropriate, while such an attitude may not be appropriate in some
Asian countries (Yum, 1988). Taken together, although Poyrazli et al. (2002) found that the ability to
use English (which is mostly used in Western countries) is associated with assertiveness, would the

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ability to use languages used in Asian countries such as Japanese be associated with assertiveness,
too? To examine the association between language ability and intercultural interaction, the following
hypotheses are posed:

H1: International students proficiency in Japanese is positively associated with their self-disclo-
sure to Japanese people.
H2: International students proficiency in Japanese is positively associated with their assertive-
ness to Japanese people.

2 . 3 . Length of Stay
Culture learning theory also argues that sojourner adjustment is likely to increase with length
of stay in the host country (Masgoret & Ward, 2006). The reason for the increased adjustment as-
sociated with the length of residence in the host country might be due to the increase in international
students familiarity with the norms of the new culture (Mouw & Xie, 1999). Consistent with the ar-
gument, the results of meta-analyses using sixty-four studies on international students adjustment
revealed that the longer international students stayed in the host country, the more adjustment as
well as the less psychological symptoms and acculturative stress they experienced (Zhang & Good-
son, 2011). Whereas previous studies found a positive impact of length of time in the host country
on international students sociocultural and psychological adjustment, little research has been con-
ducted to explore if length of time is associated with their interaction with host nationals. Also, past
research has focused on the influence of international students length of stay in Western countries
such as the U.S. and European countries, but little attention has been paid to such influences in Asian
countries. In order to address these limitations, this study developed the following hypotheses:

H3: International students length of stay in Japan is positively associated with their self-disclo-
sure to Japanese people.
H4: International students length of stay in Japan is positively associated with their assertive-
ness to Japanese people.

2 . 4 . Mediating Role of Language Ability

Culture leaning theory further suggests international students length of stay in the host county
would be indirectly associated with intercultural interaction through their ability to use the host
country s language (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward et al., 2001). Even if international students stay in
a host country for a certain period, without enough ability to use language of the host country they
would not be able to communicate effectively with host nationals. In other words, international stu-
dents language ability may mediate the effect of length of stay in the host country on intercultural
interactions such as self-disclosure and assertiveness as Figure 1 indicates.

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Figure 1. Theoretical model of effects of length of stay and language ability on intercultural
interaction

Based on the data of international students in Japan, Tanaka, Takai, Kohyama, and Fujihara
(1994) tried to examine the association between their Japanese ability/length of stay in Japan and
their adjustment to Japan. The results were mixed: that is, the correlation between Japanese ability/
length of stay and their adjustment was positive for some international students, but the correlation
was negative for others. The current study could help explain the inconsistent results of the past
research by investigating how the two key variables such as Japanese ability and length of stay are
associated with intercultural interaction, that is hypothesized to impact their adjustment. Thus, the
following hypothesis is posed:

H5: International students length of stay in Japan is indirectly associated with intercultural
interaction (i.e., self-disclosure and assertiveness) through their Japanese language ability.

2.5. Asian Students and Western Students

Previous studies report that international students from different cultures experience distinct
patterns of adjustment to a host country. Yeh and Inose (2003) found that international students in
the U.S. from Asia, Central/Latin America, and Africa experienced more acculturative stress com-
pared to those from European countries. Poyrazli and Kavanaugh (2006) also revealed that Asian
students studying in the U.S. experienced more stress related to their academic performance and
English skills than European students. On the other hand, Anglo-European sojourners experienced
more difficulty adjusting to an Asian country than Asian sojourners (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). Based
on culture learning theory, the difference in acculturative experiences is related to how different an
international students home culture is from the culture of the host country. The difference is called
cultural distance and has been defined as the perceived similarities and differences between the cul-
ture of origin and the accepting culture (Masgoret & Ward, 2006). Taken together, the more cultural
distance international students experience toward a host country, the more difficulty they would
experience when adjusting to the country.
This study examines if the cultural distance could affect the link between international stu-
dents language proficiency/length of stay in the host country and their intercultural interaction. The
main prediction of this study is that international students language proficiency and length of stay
would be associated with their intercultural interaction such as self-disclosure and assertiveness to
host nationals. Would the hypothesized association vary depending on their ethnicity? The current

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study was conducted in Japan, an Asian country, so international students from Western countries
may experience more cultural distance than Asian students (e.g., Ward & Kennedy, 1999). If so,
how would the association between their proficiency in Japanese and length of stay in Japan and
intercultural interaction vary between Western students and Asian students? Due to the lack of past
research on the question, the following research questions are posed:

RQ1: Does the association between international students proficiency in Japanese and their self-
disclosure as well as assertiveness to Japanese people vary between Asian students and
Western students?
RQ2: Does the association between international students length of stay in Japan and their
self-disclosure as well as assertiveness to Japanese people vary between Asian students
and Western students?

3 . Method
This study used an online survey on which international students in Japan responded to vari-
ous questions related to information about themselves as well as their skills and experiences that are
explained below.

3.1. Participants and Procedures

One hundred and forty-six international students studying in Japan (men=78 (53%); wom-
en=68 (47%)) participated in this study. The mean age of the sample was 27 and the age ranged
from 19–42 years. Twenty-four participants were from the United States (16%), followed by China
(n=20, 14%), India (n=12, 8%), Indonesia (n=7, 5%), England, Korea, Singapore, the Philippines
(n=6, 4%), Canada, Taiwan (n=5, 3%) and other countries (n=49). 81 students were considered to be
from Asian countries and 65 students were considered to be from Western countries.
Whereas some participants were involved in this study through a company with which they
registered themselves as possible research participants for monetary incentives, other participants
were personally asked to participate in this study by the author and other international students who
had already completed the questionnaire.

3.2. Measures
The questionnaire is composed of measures examining participants proficiency in Japanese,
length of stay in Japan, self-disclosure and assertiveness. The reliabilities, means, and standard
deviations for the measures as well as correlations among the variables are reported in Table 1. The
participants sex and age were also asked in the questionnaire. There was no statistically significant
difference in those variables between Asians and Westerners except for their proficiency in Japa-
nese. Asian students (n=81, M=9.83) were more fluent in Japanese than Western students (n=65,

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 Table 1. Correlations among variables for all participants
α M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Japanese .80 9.45 2.37 —
2. Length of Stay — 50.0 31.5 .39** —
3. Self-disclosure .85 2.87 0.73 .33** .21* —
4. Assertiveness .85 3.12 0.71 .16 .14 .20* —
Notes. *p<.05, **p<.01.

M=8.97), p=.029.
Proficiency in Japanese. Participants proficiency in Japanese was examined using 12 items
developed by Iwao and Hagiwara (1988) to assess Japanese language ability. Participants were asked
to answer whether or not they could do behaviors in a statement of each item in Japanese. Example
items are Converse with friends and Read the major news in the newspaper. Participants an-
swered yes (1) or no (0) to the questions. The sum of the scores was used for the analyses with higher
scores showing higher levels of Japanese. The Cronbach s α was .80.
Length of stay. Participants length of stay in Japan was examined by asking them how
many months they had been residing in Japan.
Self-disclosure. Ten items of the Self-Disclosure Index (Miller, Berg, & Archer, 1983) were
used to assess participants self-disclosure in the host country. This index asked participants how
openly they talk about ten self-related topics with Japanese people such as their deepest feelings and
worst fear. A 5-point Likert scale was used (1: Discuss not at all—5: Discuss fully & completely). The
Cronbach s α was .85.
Assertiveness. Part of the SocioCommunicative Style Scale (McCroskey & Richmond, 1996;
Richmond & McCroskey, 1990) was used to assess participants assertiveness to Japanese people.
The SocioCommunicative Style Scale is composed of two parts: one assessing responsiveness and
the other one assessing assertiveness. To assess participants assertiveness, this study used the latter
part that has nine items by asking them the degree to which they believed each of nine character-
istics applies to them such as being dominant and competitive. A 5-point Likert scale was used (1:
Strongly disagree that it applies—5: Strongly agree that it applies). The Cronbach s α was .85.

4 . Results
Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, and 4 were tested using correlation analyses and the results are shown in
Table 1. Specifically, Hypothesis 1 predicted that participants proficiency in Japanese would be posi-
tively associated with their self-disclosure to host nationals. As predicted in H1, a correlation analy-
sis showed that the more fluent participants were in Japanese, the more they disclosed themselves to
host nationals (r=.33, p<.001).
Hypothesis 2 predicted that participants proficiency in Japanese would be positively associated

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 Figure 2.
Standardized path values of the structural equation model
Unstandardized coefficients are in parentheses. *p<.05, **p<.01. Bold paths=Significant
indirect paths

with their assertiveness to host nationals. A correlation analysis showed there was no significant as-
sociation between these two variables (r=.16, p=.053).
Hypothesis 3 predicted that participants length of stay in a host country would be positively
associated with their self-disclosure to host nationals. As predicted in H3, a correlation analysis
showed that the longer participants stayed in Japan, the more they disclosed themselves to host
nationals (r=.21, p=.012).
Hypothesis 4 predicted that participants length of stay in a host country would be positively
associated with their assertiveness to host nationals. A correlation analysis showed there was no
significant association between these two variables (r=.14, p=.105).
H5 predicted that length of stay would be indirectly associated with intercultural interaction
through language ability. The indirect effect was examined only for the association between Japanese
ability/length of stay in Japan and self-disclosure because no association was observed between
Japanese ability/length of stay in Japan and assertiveness based on the results described above. H5
was investigated by using structural equation modeling (SEM) through the use of Mplus 5.2 (Muthén
& Muthén, 2010) as shown in Figure 2. The model including length of stay as a predictor, Japanese
ability as a mediator, and self-disclosure as an outcome indicated a good fit: χ 2 (1)=1.230, p=.27,
CFI=.994, RMSE=.040 (90% CI=.000; .228), SRMR=.027.
A mediation analysis with 5,000 bootstrap samples indicated that length of stay was associ-
ated with Japanese ability that in turn resulted in self-disclosure, β=.13 (95% confidence interval
[CI]=[0.054, 0.201]). Since there was no value of zero within its interval, the indirect effect was con-
sidered to be significant. Further, the Sobel test was performed to test the significance of the indirect
effect and the result revealed, z=3.19, p=.001, indicating the significant indirect effect. Taken to-
gether, Japanese ability mediates the association between length of stay in Japan and self-disclosure.
RQ1 asked whether the association between participants proficiency in Japanese and commu-
nication varies between Asian participants and Western participants. Correlations for Asian partici-
pants are reported in Table 2 while those for Western participants are reported in Table 3.
Regarding self-disclosure, correlation analyses showed that there was a statistically signifi-
cant association between the Japanese skills and self-disclosure for both Asian participants (r=.28,
p=.010) and Western participants (r=.37, p=.002). Regarding assertiveness, correlation analyses

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 Table 2. Correlations among variables for Asian participants
1 2 3 4
1. Japanese —
2. Length of Stay .50** —
3. Self-disclosure .28** .21 —
4. Assertiveness .23* .15 .30** —
Notes. *p<.05, **p<.01.

Table 3. Correlations among variables for Western participants

1 2 3 4
1. Japanese —
2. Length of Stay .31* —
3. Self-disclosure .37** .23 —
4. Assertiveness .09 .12 .08 —
Notes. *p<.05, **p<.01.

showed that there was a statistically significant association between Japanese skills and assertive-
ness for Asian participants (r=.23, p=.043), but not for Western participants (r=.09, p=.476). Taken
together, the association between Japanese skills and communication varied between Asian partici-
pants and Western participants.
RQ2 asked whether the association between participants length of stay in Japan and com-
munication varies between Asian participants and Western participants. Regarding self-disclosure,
correlation analyses showed that there was not a statistically significant association between length
of stay and self-disclosure for either Asian participants (r=.21, p=.066) or Western participants
(r=.23, p=.070). Regarding assertiveness, correlation analyses showed that there was not a statisti-
cally significant association between length of stay and assertiveness for either Asian participants
(r=.15, p=.193) or Western participants (r=.12, p=.336). Taken together, the association between
length of stay in Japan and communication did not vary between Asian participants and Western
participants.

5. Discussion
Studying in a different country has been a more common way to advance one s career than
in the past. Japan is one of the countries that attracts many people who would like to have study
abroad experiences because of its unique culture and traditions. However, past research pointed
out that there is not enough support that international students could gain to adjust to the unique
culture of Japan (e.g., Onishi, 2016). To address the issue, it is essential to investigate what factors
are related to international students cultural adjustment based on theoretical considerations. Using
culture learning theory that emphasizes the importance of culture-specific skills for acculturation

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(Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward et al., 2001), this study examined the association among international
students Japanese ability, length of stay in Japan, self-disclosure, and assertiveness. Results indi-
cated that international students Japanese ability and length of stay in Japan were associated with
their self-disclosure to Japanese people. Further, the association between length of stay in Japan and
self-disclosure was mediated by Japanese fluency. Japanese ability and length of stay in Japan, on
the other hand, were not associated with how assertive they were to Japanese people. However, the
results varied if analyses were run separately for Asian students and Western students. Whereas
there was an association between Japanese ability and assertiveness for Asian students, there was
not an association for Western students. These results are discussed in detail in the following section.
Consistent with ideas of culture learning theory (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward et al., 2001) and
research on international students adjustment (e.g., Zhang & Goodson, 2011), results showed that
levels of fluency in a language used in the accepting country and length of residence in the country
were associated with the international students self-disclosure. In other words, as international stu-
dents get more familiar with the culture of the host country, they could talk more about themselves
to host nationals. The reason for the increase in their self-disclosure, according to their language abil-
ity and length of stay, might be related to appropriateness of self-disclosure. Derlega and Grzelak
(1979) argue that self-disclosure is effective only when it is considered appropriate by the recipient of
the self-disclosure and the appropriateness is determined partially by cultural norms. There is little
research on cultural differences in the appropriateness of self-disclosure, but some studies found
that self-disclosure culturally varies regarding topics to disclose and the positivity of the disclosure
(Chen, 1995; Kito, 2005; Nakanishi, 1986). These studies imply that there might be Japanese cultural
norms affecting the perceived appropriateness of self-disclosure. Taken together, international stu-
dents in Japan who have higher levels of Japanese and stay for a longer period in Japan might better
understand Japanese cultural norms including what they should disclose about themselves and what
they should not. Their perception that they understand Japanese cultural norms might make them
believe that they can talk about themselves to host nationals without causing misunderstanding
(Greene, 2009).
In order to further investigate the association among length of stay in Japan, Japanese abil-
ity, and self-disclosure, SEM was carried out. The results showed that length of stay in Japan was
indirectly associated with self-disclosure through Japanese fluency. In other words, Japanese ability
mediates the effect of length of stay in Japan on self-disclosure. The results make sense because even
if international students stay in a host country for a long time, they might not be able to communi-
cate effectively with host nationals without a good command of the host country s language. Related
to the results, Masgoret and Ward (2006) argue that international students sociocultural adaptation
tends to improve over the first four to six months, but that improvement tends to level off nearing the
end of the first year. The results of this study might explain why the first six months are the criti-
cal term to facilitate international students sociocultural adaptation. International students might

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rapidly improve their ability to use the foreign language for the first six months. However, after about
six months, the improvement of the language skill may become slow, that leads to the slow pace of
their adjustment to the host culture. Summarizing previous studies on adjustment of international
students in Japan, Takai (1989) argued that some of them could not successfully adjust to Japan
even after they had spent three years in Japan. The maladjustment might be explained by the idea
that those who stay for a long time in Japan without attaining Japanese fluency may continue to
face cross-cultural barriers as indicated in the results of the current study. In short, it is critical for
international students to pick up a language used in the host country to have successful intercultural
interaction with host nationals.
While international students proficiency levels of Japanese and length of stay in Japan were
associated with their self-disclosure, neither of them was associated with their assertiveness. In
other words, even international students who stay for a longer period in Japan with higher levels of
Japanese are not more assertive than those who stay for a shorter period with lower levels of Japa-
nese. Why are those who learn culture-specific skills and knowledge not more assertive to Japanese
people? Based on culture learning theory, this study assumed that being assertive to host nationals is
a key to successful interactions in the host country. However, the results indicate that the assumption
may not hold; that is, being assertive may not help international students be successful in develop-
ing interpersonal relationships with Japanese people. In Japan, which is a high-context culture, not
all information is explicitly stated, so the listener is expected to understand the unspoken meaning
behind the spoken statement (Hall, 1976). On the other hand, in low-context cultures such as the
United States, most information is expected to be transmitted in messages, so people in the culture
keep communicating until the true intentions are clear in the conversation (Hall, 1976). Therefore,
the participants in this study might have realized the high-context communication styles of Japanese
people and tried not to be assertive so as to integrate themselves better into the culture.
Previous literature suggests that assertiveness through which people honestly express their
rights, thoughts and feelings (Rakos, 1991) might be seen as impolite in Japan. Concepts of assertive-
ness were originally developed in the United States in the 1950s and first incorporated in Japan in
the 1980s by Noriko Hiraki (Hiraki, 2012; Mochimatsu & Sakanaka, 2004). Hiraki (2012) argues that
Japanese people tend to be concerned about others opinions while putting themselves second, so it
is hard for them to accept assertiveness as an effective communication tool. International students
in Japan are aware of the tendency for Japanese people to be less assertive. Komiya, Hirakata, and
Naganou (2001) investigated concerns that international students experienced regarding their con-
versation with Japanese people and found that they were worried about the fact that Japanese people
did not clearly say what they thought and felt. The participants were also concerned about their
experience that they could not feel close to Japanese people because of conversations in which they
could not understand what the Japanese people were thinking. A series of studies on international
students adjustment to Japanese culture also found that assertiveness might prevent them from suc-

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cessfully adjusting to Japan (Tanaka, 1993: Tanaka et al., 1993). In the current study, international
students who stayed in Japan for a longer period with higher Japanese skills were not more assertive
than those who stayed for a shorter period with lower Japanese skills. The reason for the results
might be that the international students in the former case learned what is appropriate interaction
with Japanese people and they chose not to be assertive to include themselves in Japanese culture.
However, the results also found that Asian international students with higher Japanese lev-
els (but not Western international students) were more assertive compared with those with lower
Japanese levels. The results might be due to the fact that many Asian countries are high-context
cultures while many Western countries are low-context cultures (Hall, 1976; Kim, Pan, & Park, 1998;
Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005). For international students from Asian countries, it may be easy to
understand how and why Japanese people use indirect communication (i.e., being less assertive)
because the students tend to be from high-context cultures as well. Therefore, if the Asian interna-
tional students have higher levels of fluency in Japanese, they could be more assertive to Japanese
people without violating Japanese cultural norms. In other words, their high levels of Japanese may
allow them to be assertive without losing the nuances that could cause misunderstanding. On the
other hand, international students from Western countries may have a hard time being assertive to
Japanese people because Japanese cultural norms regarding directness of communication are very
different from those of their home country (Hall, 1976; Kim et al., 1998; Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005).
Thus, even if they have high levels of Japanese fluency, they would be afraid of offending Japanese
people by being assertive due to the significant difference in appropriate levels of self-expression
between Japan and their home country. The results are consistent with past findings showing that
Asian international students studying in Asian countries experienced less sociocultural difficulty
than Western international students because Asian students might have felt less cultural distance
to Japan (Ward & Kennedy, 1999). Taken together, Asian international students in Japan are better
at using their language ability to engage in more desired communication such as self-disclosure and
assertiveness probably because of the overlap between Japanese culture and their culture.

6 . Theoretical and Practical Implications

Theoretical accounts based on previous studies on international students cultural adjustment
argue that self-disclosure and assertiveness play critical roles in assisting them to adapt to the host
country (Chen, 1992; 1993; Gudykunst et al., 1986). However, the theories have been constructed
based on literature focusing on cultural adjustment to Western countries in which direct communica-
tion is positively evaluated (Hall, 1976; Kim et al., 1998; Ting-Toomey & Chung, 2005). For example,
according to culture leaning theory, international students who stay in the U.S. may pick up culture-
specific skills such as being assertive and the skills may help them to adjust to the host country.
However, the result of this study indicated that those who were supposed to have culture-specific
skills required in Japan (i.e., those who stayed for a long time in Japan with high levels of Japanese)

— 18 —
were not more assertive than those who did not have culture-specific skills. The results cannot be ex-
plained by theories of cultural adjustment developed in Western countries. This study may offer the
new theoretical perspective regarding cultural adjustment; that is, international students language
fluency and the length of residence in the host country might influence their judgement regarding
what communication is appropriate and what is not to involve themselves in the host culture.
The finding of this study may practically help educational institutions that accept international
students realize that students at the early stages of studying abroad are vulnerable to various ad-
justment issues such as their inability to communicate openly. This study found that international
students who stayed in Japan for a shorter period with lower levels of Japanese were also less likely
to disclose themselves. For Asian students, those with lower levels of Japanese were less likely to be
assertive. Research shows that people who could not talk about and express their thoughts and feel-
ings are vulnerable to mental health issues such as depression (Papageorgiou & Siegle, 2003; Wen-
zlaff & Luxton, 2003). Taken together, international students at the initial stages of studying abroad
may not be able to communicate openly with host nationals, and that might lead to poor psychologi-
cal adjustment. Educational institutions should provide students who cannot communicate openly
with host nationals with opportunities in which they could express themselves without requiring
high levels of a foreign language. Such opportunities should be beneficial not only for interaction
between international students and host nationals, but also for interactions where they could share
their thoughts and feelings with other international students. International students from different
countries may have similar concerns such as language barriers and communication issues. Thus,
giving them opportunities where they could share these concerns with other international students
may prevent them from suppressing their thoughts and developing mental health issues.

7 . Limitations and Future Directions

Using culture learning theory, this study assumes that international students language profi-
ciency and length of stay may impact their communication with host nationals. However, the cor-
relational design of this study does not allow us to argue such a causal relationship between these
variables. In other words, it is also possible that those who disclose themselves to host nationals
choose to stay in the country for a longer period than those who do not disclose themselves. To ad-
dress this limitation, conducting other study designs such as experimental research is encouraged.
For example, a participant who has higher levels of Japanese would be escorted into a laboratory
while a participant who has lower levels of Japanese would be escorted into a second laboratory.
Both groups of participants would be asked to have a conversation with a Japanese confederate in
each room and the conversation would be coded by observers regarding how open and assertive the
participant s statements are. If there are differences in the communication between two conditions,
the results may indicate that the language ability improves the quality of their intercultural interac-
tion.

— 19 —
 The other limitation is that this study examined only international students language ability
and length of stay as variables that are hypothesized to be related to communication. According to
culture learning theory, other factors such as their motivation for study abroad and personality may
be associated with their intercultural interaction (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Ward et al., 2001). Simi-
larly, self-disclosure and assertiveness are not the only intercultural interactions that international
students are encouraged to engage in. For example, resolving conflict (Ting-Toomey & Kurogi, 1998),
carefully listening to others (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005), and making favor asking messages (Lee,
Park, Imai, & Dolan, 2012) are also essential interactions for international students to deal with. Fu-
ture studies should examine those aspects of intercultural interaction using various research meth-
ods to capture the whole picture of international students culture learning.

8 . Conclusion
While witnessing the rapid increase in international students in Japan (JASSO, 2019), not
enough care has been provided for the students experiencing adjustment issues (Onishi, 2016). To
help international students in Japan have a better learning environment without worrying about
adjustment issues, this study attempted to investigate factors contributing to their communication
with Japanese people. The results revealed that international students Japanese skills and length of
stay in Japan were positively associated with their self-disclosure to Japanese people, while the two
factors were not associated with their assertiveness. In addition, Japanese fluency played a mediating
role to link the association between length of residence and self-disclosure. When analyzing those
variables with Asian students and Western students separately, there was a positive association
between their Japanese ability and assertiveness only for Asian students. The results might be use-
ful for educational institutions accepting students from different countries to prepare appropriate
care for those having trouble developing interpersonal relationships with host nationals. While these
findings do not capture the whole picture of the association between culture-specific skills that in-
ternational students obtain and their intercultural interaction, they pave the way for future research
that will bring a better understanding of international students acculturation experience.

*This research was supported by Nanzan University [Pache I-A-2 grant, 2014]

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