Determination of mesh stiffness of involute gear

Jan Flek* 1
1 Czech Tecnical University in Prague, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Designing and Machine Components,
Technická 4, 166 07 Praha 6, Czech Republic

Abstract
Dynamic analysis of transmission systems involving gears requires the acquisition of input excitation parameters for
the calculation. In particular the course of the mesh stiness, which is the main source of internal excitation. This
contribution focuses on modeling the time-varying mesh stiness of spur gearings, which in dynamic models of trans-
mission systems acts as an important element of the internal excitation of the dynamic system and thus contributes
to the frequency response of the system. Here are introduced the most casual ways to approach the modeling of mesh
stiness using analytical calculations, which allow modeling the course of mesh stiness depending on its rotation.
These mentioned models are compared here in terms of quality and relevance of the provided output stiness curves,
which serve as a direct input to the dynamic analysis of transmission systems.

Key-words: Mesh stiness; Analytical model; Spur gear; KISSsoft

1. Introduction this measurement, it is possible to obtain an accurate

In the development of transmission systems, among
other things, it is necessary to take into account the
dynamic properties of gears or complete gearboxes
when designing the gearbox. Properly designed gear
geometry has a positive eect on the dynamic re-
sponse of the system, which can be observed on the
frequency spectrum of the investigated dynamic sys-
tem. This geometry has a noticeable eect on the
reduced emission of noise in around. What is man-
ifested in the frequency spectrum of gears is mainly
the eect of internal excitation caused by the mesh
stiness, which changes during the meshing and thus
interferes with the course of torsional dynamic pro-
cesses of the gear systems.
It is therefore necessary to take into account the
mesh stiness when designing the gearbox and to in-
corporate its course into the dynamic equations of
motion. There are various ways to visualize, sim-
ulate, and calculate the course of mesh stiness of
gearing. There are dierent variants of analytical cal-
culations. One of the variants of analytical modeling
is the possibility of calculating the mesh stiness by
calculating the deformation energy of individual teeth
of the gear, [1]. In this method, it is possible to take
into account a large number of additional calculation
conditions. This is, for example, taking into account
defects occurring on the involute side of the tooth,
it can also be modeling cracks that are in the root
of the tooth, [1]. These mechanical defects signi-
cantly aect mesh stiness. Another way to improve
the analytical model based on deformation energy is
to include the eect of a lubricating layer between
the functional sides of the teeth [2], etc. Another
possibility is the calculation using empirical analyti-
cal relationships, which are based on testing of real
gears. This variant is elaborated, for example, in the
publication of ƒ. ’alamoun [3] and V. Moravec [4].
With today's possibilities, the mesh stiness can also
be determined by means of nite element simulation,
on the basis of which we are able to determine the
stiness of the respective gear very precisely. The
last way to determine the mesh stiness of the gears
is to perform an experimental measurement. Due to
∗
Kontakt na autora: Jan.Flek@fs.cvut.cz
value of the stiness of the examined gearing. From
the point of view of the accuracy of the determined
stiness, the best option for obtaining the stiness
course is experimental measurements. However, the
test equipment is necessarily needed and its produc-
tion is expensive, and it is not always possible to im-
plement this measurement. Due to the expansion of
FEM and computer technology, it is very favorable
to use stiness simulation with software that allows
FEM analysis. Unfortunately, even FEM analysis is
nancially expensive and also very time-consuming.
Today's analytical models are constantly being im-
proved to be more in line and comparable with the
results of the FEM analysis. As a result, they are still
attractive to many research and development sites, as
they are not time-consuming to calculate and do not
require high nancial costs.
The main goal of this article is to present three
possible analytical models (ISO standard model, de-
formation model and computational model by KISS-
soft) that have dierent approaches to determining
the mesh stiness of gears. The graphical representa-
tion of mesh stiness obtained by the analytical mod-
els are compared here. By means of this comparison,
the usability and suitability of the stiness modeling
methods used are determined and the limitations of
the analytical method are emphasized.
2. Analytical models of mesh stiffness
In this chapter, three dierent possibilities of how to
model the course of mesh stiness can be analytically
approached. The mesh stiness is based on the geo-
metric and material properties of the gear teeth and
is time-varying due to the meshing of the gears. This
is the relationship between the load of the tooth and
its deformation, while the tooth is considered as a
cantilever beam with a variable cross-section, where
a force acts in the direction of the line of action. The
mesh stiness of single pair of teeth and double pairs
of teeth in engagement alternates during the mesh-
ing of the gears (in this case, it is a spur gear with
straight teeth).
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In general, the stiness of single pair of teeth can

be described by eq. 1:

w
c= , (1)
δ
where c is the stiness of single pair of teeth in
engagement, w denotes the load along the face width
in the direction of the line of action and δ is the de-
formation of one pair of teeth, which corresponds to
the load w.
Similarly, the stiness of double pairs of teeth can
be dened by eq.1, with the load w being the sum of
the load of the teeth of the rst pair w1 and the load
of the teeth of the second pair w2 , which corresponds
to the deformation δ .

2.1. Analytical model by ISO standard
The analytical calculation model (AM1), which is
given by ISO standard a is described in this para-
graph, is based on the publications of the authors
ƒestmír ’alamoun [3] and Vladimír Moravec [4].
This is a model that is not universally applicable and
is very approximate. It was derived from the test-
ing of many gear samples and can be described as
a computational model based on empirical relation-
ships. It is useable when it is not absolutely neces-
sary to create perfectly accurate dynamic models of
transmission systems and we are only interested in
approximate values of the stiness of single pair of
teeth and double pair of teeth in engagement.
The stiness of single pair in contact was deter-
mined by eq. 2:
1 C2 C3 x1
= C1 + + − C4 · x1 − C5 · −
c0 z1 z2 z1
x2
− C6 · x2 − C7 · + C8 · x1 + C9 · x22 ,
2
(2)
z2
where z1 , z2 denote the number of teeth of pinion
and gear, x1 , x2 are prole shift coecients of the
pinion and gear. The individual empirical constants
C1 - C9 are listed in the Table 1.
From the point of view of the simplicity of the
stiness calculation of double pair of teeth, the cal-
culation relation for determining the stiness of two
pairs of teeth is convenient as well. In publications
[3, 4], this stiness is called the engagement stiness
and is again the approximate value of the stiness of
two pairs of teeth in engagement.
This engagement stiness implies from the eq. 3:
cγ = c0 · (0.75 ·  + 0.25), (3)
Fig. 1. The course of the total stiness of spur gear-
ing. [3]
Figure 1 shows the theoretical course of mesh
stiness of gearing during an engagement. From the
calculation of eqs. 2 and 3, the constant values of
the stiness of single and double pairs of teeth are
obtained. In order to obtain a similar course of mesh
stiness as in Fig. 1, it is necessary to use the pre-
scription of the Fourier series, which allows plotting
the course of mesh stiness with periodic alternation
of the stiness of single and double pairs of teeth in
engagement.
The Fourier series has the form 4 [5]:
k(τ ) = c0 + (cγ − c0 ) · ( − m)+
∞
X 2 · (cγ − c0 )
+ · sin πn · ( − m)] · cos nτ ,
n=1
πn
(4)
where  is contact ratio of gearing, m is equal to 1
for the case of calculating the course of stiness of the
gearing with staight teeth, τ is dimensionless time.
When using this analytical approach, it is necessary
to keep in mind its limitations. Since this analytical
model is determined on the basis of test samples and
is given by empirical relationships, it has its natural
initial conditions for its use. Gears must meet the
following conditions:
1. the gear must have external gearing,
2. the gearing must be straight teethed, helix an-
gle of reference circle β = 0,

cγ denotes the stiness of double pair of teeth or 3. gears must have a standard basic prole:
engagement stiness, c0 is the stiness of single pair of
teeth in engagement given by the computational rela- ˆ pressure angle α = 20◦
tion eq. 2 and  is the designation of the engagement ˆ addendum coecient ha0 = 1.2
factor or contact ratio of gear.
Using eqs. 2 and 3, there are obtained two approx- ˆ dedendum coecient hf 0 = 1.0
imate values that correspond to the stiness of single ˆ tooth root radius ρ0 = 0.2
and double pairs of teeth in the engagement. The
values related to the face width are given as a result
of its calculation. These values have unit N/mm2 . To 4. The following must apply to the prole shift co-
obtain real values that correspond to the time-varying ecients of gearing:
mesh stiness with the unit N/m, we must multiply
the stiness c0 and cγ by the actual face width in ˆ x1 ≥ x2
millimeters and then convert N/mm to N/m. ˆ −0.5 ≤ xΣ ≤ 2.0
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Table 1. Constants for calculating the stiness of single pair of teeth. [3, 4]

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

0.04723 0.15551 0.25791 0.00635 0.11654 0.00193 0.24188 0.00529 0.00182

2.2. Analytical model in terms of deformation en-

ergy
d
(x cos α1 − h sin α1 )2
Z
1
The second analytical model (AM2) for obtaining = dx,
the course of mesh stiness of gear is the model Kb 0 EIx
recorded in the publication of Zaigang Chen and 1
Z d
1.2 cos2 α1
Yimin Shao [1]. In this case, it is not an empirical = dx, (8)
model, which was created on the basis of experimen- Ks 0 GAx
tal testing of gear samples, but is directly based on d
sin2 α1
Z
1
the theory of elasticity. The individual teeth are con- Ka
=
EAx
dx,
sidered as cantilever beams placed in the dendum cir- 0
cle with a variable cross-section, where a force acts in
the direction of the pressure line. The deformation The related sheme of loaded tooth is shown in
energy accumulated in the tooth is calculated indi- Figure 2.
vidually for each tooth coming into an engagement.
The potential energies that contribute to the calcu-
lation of gear stiness are: bending energy Ub , shear
energy Us , and axial compressive energy Ua . They
can be determined using eqs. 5.

F2
Ub = ,
2Kb
F2
Us = , (5)
2Ks
F2
Ua =
2Ka

Kb ,Ks and Ka denote the bending, shear and axial

compressive stiness. F is the force in direction of
line of action.
By means of beam theory, the calculation of the
potential energy for a gear tooth can be dened using
these eqs. 6
Fig. 2. Geometrical parameters for mesh stiness calcu-
lation. [1]
d
M2
Z
Ub = dx,
0 2EIx The contact stiness is also reected in the overall
Z d
1.2Fb2 mesh stiness of the gearing. This stiness is referred
Us = dx, (6) to a Hertzian contact stiness Kh . This stiness is
0 2GAx calculated as follows:
d
Fa2
Z
Ua = dx,
0 2EAx
1 4(1 − ν 2 )
= , (9)
where E is Young modulus, G denotes shear mod- Kh πEW
ulus and Ax ,Ix represent the area of cross-section and
moment area of inertia where the distance between where ν is Poisson's ratio, W is face width.
the section and the acting point of the applied force The last thing that aects the mesh stiness of
is x which is from interval < 0; d > which shows Fig- gearing is called llet-foundation stiness Kf . It is
ure 2, [1]. an expression of stiness that takes into account the
Fb ,Fa and M can be calculated from the following llet radius, which is given by eq. 10.
eqs. 7.
1 δf
Fb = F cos α1 , = (10)
Kf F
Fa = F sin α1 , (7)
M = Fb · x − Fa · h, There is δf in eq. 10. This expresses the defor-
mation of the tooth at its llet radius and a special
The required stinesses given by eqs. 8 can be calcu- relation eq. 11 using empirical constants is used to
lated from equations 5, 6, 7. calculate it.
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2.3. KISSsoft deformation model of mesh stiff-

ness
F cos2 αm

 u 2 u 
f f
δf = L∗ + M∗ +
WE Sf Sf
 KISSsoft is a calculation software for the design, op-
+ P ∗ (1 + Q∗ tan2 αm ) , (11) timization, and verication of machine elements ac-
cording to international standards. This software can
also be used for calculations associated with various
The coecients L∗ , M ∗ , P ∗ , Q∗ are given by a types of gears. It is possible to create designs of gear
general polynomial function, where X ∗ represents the geometry, but also to perform calculations that are
individual coecients. related to the topic of this article and it is possible to
generate the course of mesh stiness. All calculation
relationships mentioned below are obtained from the
Ai Ci hf i KISSsoft software manual [7].
Xi∗ (hf i , θf ) = + Bi h2f i + +
2
θf θf The theory of mesh stiness of gears used by the
Di
KISSsoft calculation software is also based on the
+ + Ei hf i + Fi , (12) deformation model of the teeth in engagement, simi-
θf larly to the AM2 mentioned here. Tooth deformation
can be split into three parts - gear body deformation,
Empirical values of Ai , Bi , Ci , Di , Ei , Fi are given bending, and Hertzian attening.
in the Table 2. In eq. 12, hf i is equal to rf /rint . The
unmentioned members of eqs. 11 and 12 are shown Gear body deformation is given by the eq. 15:
in the Figure 3 for complete information.

Ftbi 1 − ν2
δRK = cos2 αF y ·
b E
  2
18 yp 2(1 − 2ν) yp
· + +
π sf 20 1 − ν sf 20
 
4.8 1−ν
+ 1+ tan2 αF y (15)
π 2.4

It can be seen that the relationship given by eq.15 is

almost identical to the relationship given by eq.11.

Figure 4 shows the geometric parameters for cal-

culating the δRK .

Fig. 3. Geometrical parameters for llet-foundation sti-

ness calculation [1]

The total stiness of single pair of teeth in the

engagement is calculated as:
1
K1 = 1 1 1 1 +
Kb1 + Ks1 + Ka1 + Kf 1
1
+ 1 1 1 1 1 , (13)
Kb2 + Ks2 + Ka2 + Kf 2 + Kh

The total stiness of double pairs of teeth in en-

gagement is determined by the eqs. 14 [6]:
2
X 1
K2 = 1 1 1 1 +
i=1 Kb1,i
+ Ks1,i + Ka1,i + Kf 1,i
2
1
, (14)
X
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1 Fig. 4. Gear body deformation scheme. [7]
i=1 Kb2,i Ks2,i Ka2,i Kf 2,i Kh,i
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Table 2. Constants for calculating the deformation of llet-foundation. [1]

Ai Bi Ci Di Ei Fi

L∗ −5.574 · 10−5 −1.9986·10−3 −2.3015·10−4 4.7702 · 10−3 0.0271 6.8045

M∗ 60.111 · 10−5 28.100 · 10−3 −83.431·10−4 −9.9256·10−3 0.1624 0.9086
P∗ −50.952·10−5 185.50 · 10−3 0.0538 · 10−4 53.3 · 10−3 0.2895 0.9236
Q∗ −6.2042·10−5 9.0889 · 10−3 −4.0964·10−4 7.8297 · 10−3 −0.1472 0.6904

Bending deformation is given by the eq. 16:

Ftbi 1 − ν2
δB = cos2 αF y ·
 bZ yp E
(yp − y)2
· 12 dy+
(2x0 )3
 0  Z yp 
2.4 dy
+ 2
+ tan αF y (16)
1−ν 0 2x0

In the Figure 5 are shown the geometric parame-

ters for calculating the δB .

Fig. 6. Hertzian attening scheme. [7]

The total deformation δ has the eect that the

contact point is displaced along the path of contact
and the theoretical length of path of contact is elon-
gated, in comparison to the actual length of path of
contact. The spring equation F = δ · C can be ap-
plied to calculate the components of the single contact
stiness from the individual deformation components
and the normal force. The following applies for the
tooth pair spring stiness in a meshing gear pair:

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + (18)
C CB1 CR1 CB2 CR2 CH1,2

3. Computational model of gearing

To compare the above-mentioned analytical simula-

tion models, the gearing described in the Table 3
Fig. 5. Bending deformation scheme. [7] was selected.
It is a spur gear with straight teeth, which was de-
signed in the CAD software Autodesk Inventor. For
the calculation of the gearing, a standard tooth pro-
Hertzian attening is described by the eq. 17: le was chosen, that the designed gearbox complied
with the AM1 calculation model in accordance with
" the ISO standard. In such a case, it is ensured the
1 − ν12 acquisition of relevant data that are comparable with
 2 
Ftbi bH ν1 (1 + ν1 )
δH1,2 = ln + +
πbg E1 4t21 E1 the results of other computational models (AM2 and
KISSsoft model), which were described in paragraphs
2.2. and 2.3.. Finally, the suitability of the resulting
#
1 − ν22
 2 
bH ν2 (1 + ν2 )
+ ln + (17) waveforms of mesh stiness, which were determined
E2 4t22 E2 by the above-mentioned computational models, for
dynamic calculation will be investigated. The Figure
7 shows the geometry of the designed teeth accord-
The geometric parameters are shown in the Fig. ing to Table 3 and respecting the standard prole of
6. teeth.
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Table 3. The basic parameters of designed gearing

mn [mm] z1 [−] z2 [−] x1 [−] x2 [−] b[mm] α n [◦ ] β[◦ ]

0.85 47 47 0.0296 0.0295 16 20 0

Table 4. Values of mesh stiness (·108 N/m) - comparison of methods

Single-pair mesh stiness

AM1 AM2 KISSsoft AM1 vs. AM2 AM1 vs. KISSsoft AM2 vs. KISSsoft
2, 89 2, 46 2, 47 14, 9% 14, 5% 0, 41%

Double-pair mesh stiness

AM1 AM2 KISSsoft AM1 vs. AM2 AM1 vs. KISSsoft AM2 vs. KISSsoft
4, 47 4, 29 4, 31 4, 03% 3, 58% 0, 46%

and KISSsoft model of stiness single pair of teeth

dier by 14,53% and the AM2 and KISSsoft model of
this stiness dier by 0,41%.
The AM1 and AM2 stiness of double pairs of
teeth dier by 4,03%. The AM1 and KISSsoft model
of stiness double pairs of teeth dier by 3.58% and
the AM2 and KISSsoft model of this stiness dier
by 0,46%.
There is a clear large agreement in the results of
the AM2 and KISSsoft model because these compu-
tational models are very similar..
Therefore the applicability of the AM1 can be ac-
cepted, with consideration of its application. If a 15%
dierence in values is accepted, this theoretical model
can be considered satisfactory.

108 Comparison of analytical models of stiffness

5

4.5

4
The geometry of the designed teeth
Mesh stiffness [N/m]

Fig. 7.
3.5

3
4. Results and discussion
2.5

For the proposed gearing (Table 3), the course of gear

stiness was determined according to the AM1, to
2

the AM2, and KISSsoft model of mesh stiness. The 1.5

ISO standard model AM1

AM1 was chosen because it is limited by conditions Deformation model AM2

KISSsoft model
of use that limit the range of suitable gearing for cal- 1
culating mesh stiness of gear and it is recomended 0 5 10
[1]
15 20 25

to test this method. The gearing designed for this us-

age meets the initial conditions of the AM1. Compu-
tational models AM2 and KISSsoft model are more
complex in terms of computational complexity, but
can provide more accurate data.
The total results of mesh stiness obtained by
theoretical calculation using analytical models AM1,
AM2 and KISSsoft model are summarized in the sum-
mary Table 4 of results. The Figure 8 shows the dif-
ference between ISO standard model - AM1 and the
other two computational models AM2 and the KISS-
soft computational model.
As can be seen from the Figure 8 and summary
Table 4 the results of the AM2 computation and
KISsoft model computation dier from the AM1 val-
ues. The AM1 represents individual gears stier com-
pared to the FEM method. The AM1 and AM2 sti-
ness of single pair of teeth dier by 14,89%. The AM1
Fig. 8. The comparison of analytical models of mesh
stiness
5. Conclusion
This article dealt with the topic of modeling the mesh
stiness of gear teeth. Three dierent methods of the
analytical approach to modeling the course of mesh
stiness were presented on this issue. The analytical
model (AM1), which is given by the ISO standard,
provides a relatively easy interpretation of mesh sti-
ness but is rather approximate. To gain an insight
into AM1, two additional mesh stiness models (AM2
and KISSsoft model) were used, which are based on
the calculation of mesh stiness using deformation
energy.
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From the comparative graph in Figure 8, and θ The angle between the llet-foundation and the
the comparative Table 4, it can be seen that AM1 tooth axis (◦ )
supposes the gearing mesh stiness to be higher than Ix Moment of inertia of cross-section of tooth
in stiness calculation by AM2 and KISSsoft model. (m4 )
There are these factors that may cause this fact: K1 Mesh stiness of single pair of teeth (N m−1 )
K2 Mesh stiness of double pairs of teeth (N m−1 )
1. The theoretical approach of AM1 is based on Ka Axial compressive stiness (N m−1 )
empirical relationships based on the tested sam- Kb Bending compressive stiness (N m−1 )
ples. Although the proposed gearing meets the
initial conditions of the analytical calculation, Kf Fillet-foundation stiness (N m−1 )
the theory of AM1 itself allows the possibility Kh Hertzian contact stiness (N m−1 )
of up to a 20% dierence in values, which is Ks Shear stiness (N m−1 )
fullled here. M Bending moment acting on the tooth (N · m)
ν Poisson's ratio (1)
2. The AM1 model is designed to be as simple as rint Bore radius for shaft (m)
possible to calculate. However, this makes it rf Dendum radius (m)
more approximate and does not include the ac- Sf Length of the root arch of the tooth (m)
tual shape of llet radius - tooth root, which is uf Force arm (m)
not only given by the prole shift coecients, Ua Axial compressive energy (N · m)
but also by the shape of the production tool. Ub Bending energy (N · m)
This fact is neglected here and the model does Us Shear energy (N · m)
not include the actual shape of the tooth root.
w Tooth load related to the face width (N m−1 )
Analytical model AM1 uses prole shift coe- W Face width (m)
cients to determine the force arm. The prole shift co- x1 Prole shift coecient of pinion (1)
ecients are not intended to aect the exact shape of x2 Prole shift coecient of gear (1)
the llet-foundation, therefore this analytical method z1 No. of teeth of pinion (1)
is also distorting. For approximate calculations of z2 No. of teeth of gear (1)
mesh stiness of gear with a standard prole, AM1 is
a sucient tool for determining mesh stiness. How-
ever, for more accurate dynamic calculations, it would
be more appropriate to use more precise analytical References
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c0
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.07.034.
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Fa Force acting on the tooth in axial direction (N) [7] KISSsoft. KISSsoft Release 2020 - User manual.
Fb Force acting on the tooth in transversal direc- Available at: https : / / old . kisssoft . ag / Manual / en /

tion (N) index.htm.