machines
Article
Investigation on Dynamic Characteristics of Spur Gear
Transmission System with Crack Fault
Fei Ren 1, *, Dexi Wang 1 , Guiqin Shi 2 and Xiaoling Wu 3,4
Citation: Ren, F.; Wang, D.; Shi, G.;
Wu, X. Investigation on Dynamic
Characteristics of Spur Gear
Transmission System with Crack
Fault. Machines 2022, 10, 664.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
machines10080664
Academic Editor: Jan Awrejcewicz
Received: 14 July 2022
Accepted: 3 August 2022
Published: 6 August 2022
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Machines 2022, 10, 664. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10080664
1 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering & Henan Key Laboratory of Intelligent Manufacturing of
Mechanical Equipment, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou 450002, China
2 School of Food and Bioengineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou 450002, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
4 School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
* Correspondence: renfei2010phd@163.com; Tel.: +86-158-9068-0910
Abstract: To study the dynamic characteristics of spur gears with crack faults, it is essential to
establish the meshing stiffness model accurately. In this paper, the time-varying meshing stiffness
(TVMS) model and load-sharing ratio (LSR) model of spur gears were established by the potential
energy method, and the correctness of the TVMS model was verified by KISSsoft. The influence
of gear crack depth and crack angle on TVMS and LSR was analyzed by introducing gear crack
into the TVMS model. The multi-degree of freedom dynamics model of spur gears with centralized
parameters was established. The time-domain characteristics of vibration of different crack fault
systems were discussed, and statistical indicators were introduced to quantitatively evaluate the
gear crack faults. The results show that TVMS decreases due to crack propagation, and the vibration
impact increases with crack propagation. The sensitivity of crack depth propagation to gear fault
characteristics is higher than that of crack angles; the statistical indicators can be used to monitor
the propagation of early crack faults. The research results can provide a reference for the research of
gearbox dynamic characteristics and fault diagnosis.
Keywords: dynamic characteristics; time-varying meshing stiffness; load-sharing ratio; potential
energy method; crack fault; statistical indicators
1. Introduction
Spur gears are widely used in automobile gearboxes, wind power energy, aviation
equipment, and other precision instruments [1,2]. Due to gear overload and poor working
conditions, the gearbox will fail. The gear faults mainly include tooth fracture, tooth surface
pitting, tooth-root crack [3–9], and tooth surface wear [10–12]. In recent years, gearbox fault
diagnosis has become a hot research area.
The TVMS is the main internal excitation of the gearbox. It can be combined with the
gear lumped parameter model or finite element model to estimate the vibration response
to judge the fault characteristics of the gearbox [13]. The approach to calculating TVMS
can be divided into three categories: the experimental method [14–17], the finite element
method (FEM) [18–21], and the analytical method (AM) [22]. The experimental method
is accurate, but it has not become popular because it requires sophisticated experimental
tables and equipment and it is relatively expensive. Compared with the AM, the FEM is
time-consuming and has stricter requirements in terms of hardware, but the calculation
results of this method are more accurate. The FEM is the most effective method to calculate
meshing stiffness. It considers both the influence of the tooth profile error and the influence
of gear flexibility. It has been used by many people in the study of the TVMS of gears [22].
The finite element model is divided into 2D and 3D models, but the error of the 2D model
is significant. Timo Kiekbusch et al. [18] established 2D and 3D spur gear models using
APDL language to solve the torsional meshing stiffness of a pair of gears and found that the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines
Machines 2022, 10, 664 2 of 16

3D model was the most advantageous in predicting gear TVMS. Zhan et al. [19] proposed
a new method for computing TVMS based on NX, ANSYS Workbench, and the quasi-
static algorithm (QSA). Then, the authors analyzed the influence of tip radius and gear
pair misalignment on gears. Liang et al. [20] proposed three finite element models and
improved the second and third models on the basis of the first model. This method assumes
that the surface of the gear hole is rigid, limits the driven gear of all degrees of freedom,
and keeps only the drive gear of a rotational degree of freedom, and constant torque is
used to solve the TVMS problem of spur gears. The simulation verifies the accuracy of this
method. Wu et al. [21] referred to the method of Liang [20], introduced strain measurement
technology, modified the finite element model parameters, and obtained the actual stiffness
result. Yogesh Pandya et al. [14] used a 2D fracture analysis code finite element program
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics to conduct a numerical simulation of single tooth
crack growth in spur gear roots.
Chaari et al. [5] proposed a gear crack analysis model to quantify the gear meshing
stiffness caused by tooth cracks and compared it with the finite element model to verify the
correctness of the analysis formula. However, they did not consider the axial compression
stiffness of the tooth. Chen [4] and Liang [6] both established analytical models of gear
TVMS when gear cracks occur, but their specific work and models are different. Their
studies complement Chaari [5]; in their work, the sheer energy, axial compression energy,
and fillet stiffness were taken into account to make the model more accurate. In Chen’s
work, he established the crack as a parabolic function related to the crack depth and solved
the TVMS of spur gears [4]. The TVMS model with cracks established by Liang [6] did not
consider the transition fillet stiffness of the root circle. In Refs. [9,23], the TVMS was taken
as the main time-varying parameter, and the stiffness change and dynamic response under
different types of pitting failure were analyzed. Liu et al. [7] derived the equation of the
fracture curve by analytic geometry. The meshing stiffness of the faulty gear was deduced
by the potential energy method. Some researchers have studied the effect of gear wear
on the time-varying mesh stiffness. Chen et al. [10] considered the gear wear evolution
process and used the potential energy method to calculate the mesh stiffness of gears with
grinding wheel faults. Liu et al. [11] proposed a dynamic wear prediction method to study
the coupling effect between surface wear and spur gear system dynamics. Shen et al. [12]
used the Archard wear equation to calculate the tooth surface wear depth and theoretically
deduced an analytical expression for the modified mesh stiffness considering tooth wear.
The remaining work of this paper is as follows: in part 2, the TVMS model and LSR
model of spur gears without faults and with cracks are established. In part 3, the influence
of crack depth and crack angle on TVMS and LSR is investigated. In part 4, the gear
dynamics model is established, the vibration response of the gear is solved, and the crack
fault is quantitatively analyzed by introducing statistical indicators. Finally, the work
is summarized.

2. TVMS Model Based on the Potential Energy Method

TVMS is one of the indispensable excitation sources in the gear transmission system,
and it is the most typical characteristic. The research on natural characteristics and dynamic
characteristics is based on TVMS [24,25]. Especially in gear fault diagnosis, TVMS plays a
crucial guiding role, so it is necessary to study on gear TVMS.

2.1. TVMS Model of Health Gears

The TVMS model was established by referring to elasticity, material mechanics, and
Timoshenko beam theory. The transition fillet was taken into account, and the gear tooth is
seen as an uneven cantilever beam with a variable cross section, so the TVMS of the gear
was calculated and predicted. The geometric structure and parameters of gear teeth are
shown in Figure 1, where the tooth profile is composed of a tip curve AB, involute curve
BC, and transition circle curve CD. Here, Figure 1 and other notational explanations of the
paper can be found in Appendix A.
 The TVMS model was established by referring to elasticity, material mechanics, and
Timoshenko beam theory. The transition fillet was taken into account, and the gear tooth
is seen as an uneven cantilever beam with a variable cross section, so the TVMS of the
gear was calculated and predicted. The geometric structure and parameters of gear teeth
Machines 2022, 10, 664 are shown in Figure 1, where the tooth profile is composed of a tip curve AB, involute
3 of 16
curve BC, and transition circle curve CD. Here, Figure 1 and other notational explana-
tions of the paper can be found in Appendix A.

Figure1.1. Geometric
Figure Geometricdiagram
diagramof
ofaagear
geartooth
toothprofile.
profile.

The transition curve is formed by the tip of the gear cutter when machining the gear.
The transition curve is formed by the tip of the gear cutter when machining the
Its shape depends on the condition of the direction of the gear cutter. The size of the
gear. Its shape depends on the condition of the direction of the gear cutter. The size of
transition curve has a great relationship with the tip shape. When the cutter tip shape is an
the transition curve has a great relationship with the tip shape. When the cutter tip
ordinary rounded corner, it is assumed that the actual transition circle curve is a central
shape is an ordinary rounded corner, it is assumed that the actual transition circle curve
curve with a long involute, and the corresponding parameter equation of the transition
is a central curve with a long involute, and the corresponding parameter equation of the
circle curve CD is:
transition circle curve CD is:

x = Rd sin φ − ( a1 / sin γ + Rρ ) cos(γ − φ)
x  R sin   (a / sin   R )cos(   ) (1)
y =Rd cosd φ − ( a1 /1 sin γ + Rρ) sin(γ − φ) (1)

 y  Rd cos   (a1 / sin   R )sin(   )
c∗ m
Rρ = (2)
c * mα0
1 − sin
R  (2)
a1 = (h∗a +1c∗ )sin
m−  0rρ (3)
b1 = πm/4a+ h∗a(h
m* tan
 c*α)m
0+ rRρ cos α0 (4)
(3)
1 a 
φ = ( a1 / tan γ + b1 )/r (5)
b1   m/ 4  ha* mtan0  R cos0 (4)
where Rd is the radius of the pitch circle, a1 is the length between the tip fillet and center
line, Rρ is the radius of the tip fillet, b1 is the
( a1 /length
tan  between
b1 ) / r the center of the cutter tip fillet (5)
and the centerline of the cutter groove, γ is the variable parameter, α0 ≤ γ ≤ π/2, α0 is
the gearRpressure
where angle, of
is the radius is the
α1 the rotation
pitch circle,angle, α2 islength
a1 is the the half tooth angle
between the tiponfillet
the base circle,
and center
d
α3 is the approximated half tooth angle on the root circle, h is the distance from the tooth
line, R is the radius of the tip fillet, b1 is the length between the center of the cutter tip
central line to the gear contact point,h = Rb [(α1 + α2 ) cos α1 − sin α1 ], d is the distance from
fillet
the androot
gear thetocenterline of the cutter
the gear contact point, groove,
and d = γRbis[(theα1 +variable 1 + cos α1 −cos
α2 ) sin αparameter, 0
 α 2].  / 2 ,
0 isAccording to the elastic
the gear pressure theory,
angle, 1 isthethe
relationship between
rotation angle,  2 the bending
is the stiffness
half tooth angleKb ,on shear
the
stiffness Ks , axial compression stiffness Ka , hertz contact stiffness Kh , transition circular
base circle,  is the approximated half tooth angle on the root circle, h is the distance
angle stiffness3 Kf and bending energy Ub , shear energy Us , axial compression energy Ua ,
from energy
hertz the toothUh ,central line toangle
and circular the gear contactenergy
foundation point, U h fcan 1 expressed
Rb [(be   2 )cos as sin 1 ] , d is
1  follows:

F2 F2 F2 F2 F2
Ub = , Us = , Ua = , Uh = , Uf = (6)
2Kb 2Ks 2Ka 2Kh 2K f

where F is the total force acting on the gear tooth contact.

The bending stiffness Kb , shear stiffness Ks , axial compression stiffness Ka , and hertz
contact stiffness Kh can be calculated as follows:

((d − x ) cos α1 − h sin α1 )2

Z d
1
= dx (7)
Kb 0 EIx
 shear stiffness Ks, axial compression stiffness Ka, hertz contact stiffness Kh, transition cir-
cular angle stiffness Kf and bending energy Ub, shear energy Us, axial compression ener-
gy Ua, hertz energy Uh, and circular angle foundation energy Uf can be expressed as fol-
lows:
Machines 2022, 10, 664 4 of 16
F2 F2 F2 F2 F2
Ub  ,Us  ,Ua  ,Uh  ,U f  (6)
2Kb 2Ks 2Ka 2Kh 2K f

where F is the total force acting on1the=gear1.2

d cos2contact.
Z
tooth α1
dx (8)
The bending stiffness Kb, shear Ks stiffness 0 KGAs, axial
x compression stiffness Ka, and hertz
contact stiffness Kh can be calculated1as follows: Z d
sin2 α1
= dx (9)
1 K a d  x)0cos
d ((
EA  1x h sin  1 )2
 dx
Kb 0 1
2 (7)
4(1 − EIυx )
= (10)
Kh πEL
2
1 d 1.2 cos 
When gear meshing, the tooth body  will be deformed 1
dx [1]. Assuming that there are
(8)
linear and persistent stress changes at the K s
0 GA
root circle x caused by the deformation of the gear

body tooth deflection, the analytical formula can2be derived as:

1 d sin 
1
 !2  dx  (9)
K 0 EA
!
2
F cos α1  u f a u x
f
δf = L∗ + M∗ + (1 + Q∗ tan2 α1 ) P∗  (11)
EL Sf 1 S4(1 f  2 )
 (10)
Kh  EL
The values of L*, M*, P*, and Q* can be obtained from the following formula:
When gear meshing, the tooth body will be deformed [1]. Assuming that there are
X ∗ (hstress
linear and persistent f , θf ) = A/θ 2f +atBh
changes 2
f +
the root /θ f +caused
Ch fcircle D/θ f +by f + deformation
Ehthe F of(12)
the
gear body tooth deflection, the analytical formula can be derived as:
The coefficients in Formula (12) can be obtained from Table 1, and the remaining
2
parameters are shown inFFigure  
cos 2  12. u f  *  u f  *
f    L    M  (1  Q * tan 2  1 ) P *  (11)
EL  S f   Sf  
  formula
Table 1. Coefficient values of the analytical  for  gear deflection (Reprinted/adapted
 with
permission from Ref. [5], 2009, Chaari, F.)
The values of L*, M*, P*, and Q* can be obtained from the following formula:
A B C D E F
L* −5.574 ×
X* (hf −,1.9956
10−5 f
)A /  2  Bh−2f 2.3105
× 10−f 3
 Chf ×/ 10f −4 D / 4.77021
f
 Eh×f 10F−3
0.0271
(12)
6.8045
M* 60.11 1 × 10−5 28.1 × 10−3 −8.3431 × 10−4 −9.9256 × 10−3 0.1624 0.9086
P*The coefficients
−50.95 2 × 10in−5 Formula
188.50 12 can
× 10 −3 be obtained
0.0538 × 10from
−4 Table
53.3001,×and
10−3 the 0.2895
remaining pa-
0.9236
Q* − × −5 × −3 −4.0964 × 10−4 7.8297 × 10−3 −0.1472 0.6904
rameters are shown in Figure 2.
6.204 2 10 9.0889 10

Figure 2. Geometric parameters of fillet

fillet foundation
foundation deflection.
deflection.

The fillet stiffness Kf of the gear can be calculated as:

F
Kf = (13)
δf
 !2 ! 
1 cos2 α1  u f uf
= L∗ + M∗ + (1 + Q∗ tan2 α1 ) P∗  (14)
Kf EL Sf Sf

In the above formula, E is the Young’s modulus, G is the shear modulus, υ is the
Poisson’s ratio, α1 is the gear rotation angle, Ix is the moment of inertia of the gear section
 Machines 2022, 10, 664 5 of 16

at the tooth surface and the tooth root point x, and Ax is the corresponding cross-sectional
area.
The shear modulus can be calculated by the formula:

E
G= (15)
2(1 + υ )

The calculation formula of the gear tooth surface area and the moment of inertia is:

A x = 2h x L (16)

Ix = (2h x )3 L/12 (17)

where hx is the length from a point x on the tooth profile line to the tooth center line. The
tooth surface curve is composed of the involute function of the BC section and the transition
circle curve of the CD section. The value of hx of the CD section can be obtained by the
x-axis coordinate of the parameter equation of the transition circle curve, and the value
of hx of the BC section can be obtained by the involute function, so the value of hx can be
expressed by the piecewise function:

Rd sin φ − ( a1 / sin γ + Rρ ) cos(γ − φ) 0 ≤ x ≤ d1
hx = (18)
Rb [(α2 − α) cos α + sin α] d1 ≤ x ≤ d

2.2. TVMS Model of Gears with Cracks

Gear crack fault is one of the most common faults in gear transmission. Because of
the influence of the gear’s overload, the gear tooth root is prone to crack. In Ref. [26], the
author approximated the crack to a straight line, this research will continue to adopt the
conclusion.
Suppose the crack is a straight line and that the crack is distributed uniformly along
with the crack depth within the tooth width, as shown in Figure 3, where qc is the crack
depth and c is the crack angle. When the gear has a crack fault, the bending stiffness and
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
shear stiffness will vary. This research only studies the fault in which the crack depth qc is
at the initial stage of the crack and the crack does not exceed the gear midline, which can
be divided into two cases.

Figure3.3.Geometric
Figure Geometricdiagram of gear
diagram teethteeth
of gear withwith
cracks.
cracks.

Case 1: ha ≥ h, α1 > αc,

 ha  hx  L ( x  dv )
Ax   (19
 2 hx L ( x＞dv )
 Machines 2022, 10, 664 6 of 16

Case 1: ha ≥ h, α1 > αc ,

(ha + hx ) L ( x ≤ dv )
Ax = (19)
2h x L ( x>dv )

(h a + h x )3 L/12

( x ≤ dv )
Ix = (20)
(2h x )3 L/12 ( x>dv )
Case 2: ha ≥ h, α1 ≤ αc ,
Ax = (ha + hx ) L (21)
Ix = (h a + h x )3 L/12 (22)
where h a = Rb sin α2 − qc sin c.

2.3. Calculation of TVMS and LSR

2.3.1. Calculation of TVMS
The meshing stiffness of a single tooth of the gear pair can be calculated as the sum of
the axial compression stiffness, fillet stiffness, shear stiffness, bending stiffness, and hertz
stiffness. The calculation formula is as follows:
1
K= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(23)
Kb1 + Ks1 + Ka1 + Kf1 + Kb2 + Ks2 + Ka2 + Kf2 + Kh

As shown in Figure 4, Kijn represents the stiffness of each gear tooth, and i = (b, s, a, f, h)
represents the bending stiffness, shear stiffness, axial compression stiffness, fillet stiffness,
and hertz contact stiffness of each gear tooth. j = (1,2) represents the driving and driven
gear; n = (1,2) represents the single tooth meshing and double tooth meshing. The total
TVMS of the gear pair in the meshing cycle with a contact ratio of 1–2 is:

j
K12 = ∑ Ki , ( j = 1, 2) (24)
i =1
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
where K12 is the total TVMS of gears in the meshing period, and j is the number of teeth
engaged simultaneously.

Figure4.4.Time-varying
Figure Time-varying
meshmesh stiffness
stiffness model ofmodel ofgear.
the spur the spur gear.
2.3.2. Calculation of Gear LSR
2.3.2. Calculation of Gear LSR
The LSR represents the stress of the contact teeth of a pair of gears and is calculated
on theThe
basisLSR represents
of TVMS. Figure 5the stress
is the loadof the contact
sharing model, andteeth
Ki of
(i =a1,2)
pair of gears
is the TVMS and
of is ca
the
on gear pair. Assuming
the basis of TVMS.that Ki is not
Figure 5 related to force
is the load F, the LSR
sharing can beand
model, calculated
Ki (i =by theis the T
1,2)
following formula:
the gear pair. Assuming that K i is not related to force F, the LSR can be calculated
1
following formula:

LSRi = Ki F4x = nKi 4x = nKi (25)
 ∑ Ki 4 x ∑ Ki
 i =1 i =1
1

K △ K i △x Ki
LSR i =  i x  
n n
 F △
 
i 1
K i x 
i 1
Ki
 K △ K i △x K
LSR i =  i x   n i (25)
n
 F K i △x  K i
 
i 1 i 1

Machines 2022, 10, 664 When the gear pairs engage with one tooth, the LSR is 1. When two teeth
7 of 16 engage,
the formula is used to calculate.

Figure 5.Load
Figure 5. Loadsharing
sharing model
model of the
of the geargear
pair.pair.

When theand
2.4. Solution gear pairs engage
Verification with one tooth, the LSR is 1. When two teeth engage, the
of TVMS
formula is used to calculate.
The parameters of the spur gear are shown in Table 2. According to the solution
2.4. Solution
model and Verification
developed in Partof2.1,
TVMSthe TVMS and the LSR of a pair of spur gears are solved,
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
and theThe TVMS curve
parameters andspur
of the LSRgear
curve
are are obtained,
shown in Table as shown in to
2. According Figure 6.
the solution model
developed in Part 2.1, the TVMS and the LSR of a pair of spur gears are solved, and the
TVMS2.curve
Table andparameters
Design LSR curve for arethe
obtained,
pinion as shown
and gear. in Figure 6.
As the FEM has high requirements on computer hardware, a long calculation time,
and a low
Table fault tolerance
2. Design Parameter
parameters when
for thesolving thegear.
pinion and TVMS, this paper proposes a way toGear
Pinion verify
the TVMS by using the commercial software KISSsoft. This study found that KISSsoft
Module (mm) 2 2
calculated TVMSParameter
more quickly than the FEM. The Pinion TVMS results obtained byGear the analyti-
Number of teeth 25 30
cal method are Module
shown (mm)in Figure 6a, with an average2 mesh stiffness of 3.65 ×2 108 N/m.
Figure 6b shows Teeth width
of teeth(mm)
the TVMS
Number solved by KISSsoft, with 25 an20average stiffness of303.7720 × 108
N/m, and the Teeth Pressure
error width
between angle
(mm) 20 20°proves the accuracy
the two results is 3.3%, which 20° es-
20 of the
◦ ◦
TVMSPressure
tablished Young’ angle
modulus E (N/mm )
model. Then, the parameters
2 in 20
Ref. 2 × 10
[4] and5 Ref. [27] are 20 2 × 105to
introduced
Young’ modulus E (N/mm2 ) 2 × 105 2 × 105
the stiffness model in this paper
Poisson’s for calculation. Compared with the references results,
Poisson’s ratioratio 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
the obtained results have
Mass
Mass similar
(kg)(kg) rules and trends, which
0.31 0.31demonstrates the 0.44 0.44 of
precision
the established TVMS model again.
Radial stiffness in x, y direction (N/m) 6.7 × 10 8 6.7 × 108
Radial stiffness in x, y direction (N/m) 6.7 × 10 8 6.7 × 10 8
Radial damping in x, y direction N/(m/s) 1.8 × 103 1.8 × 103
Radial damping in x, y direction N/(m/s) 1.8 × 103 1.8 × 103

(a) (b)
Figure 6. 6.
Figure TVMS of of
TVMS gears: (a)(a)
gears: The result
The of of
result thethe
current method;
current (b)(b)
method; KISSsoft result.
KISSsoft result.

As theof
3. Influence FEM hasCrack
Gear high requirements
on TVMS and onLSR
computer hardware, a long calculation time, and
a low
Based on the analytical model of TVMS,this
fault tolerance when solving the TVMS, fourpaper proposes
different a way
crack to verify
depths were the TVMS
respec-
by using the commercial software KISSsoft. This study found that KISSsoft calculated
tively chosen, four different crack angle stiffnesses were calculated, and the TVMS and
TVMS more quickly than the FEM. The TVMS results obtained by the analytical method
LSR were calculated. In comparison to the results of the health gear,8 the results are
are shown in Figure 6a, with an average mesh stiffness of 3.65 × 10 N/m. Figure 6b
shown in Figures 7 and 8.

3.1. Different Crack Depths

Figure 7a shows the TVMS of gears with four kinds of crack depths (qc =0.5 mm, 1.0
mm, 1.5 mm, 2.0 mm) and the healthy state, the crack depth changes; the crack angle c is
Machines 2022, 10, 664 8 of 16

shows the TVMS solved by KISSsoft, with an average stiffness of 3.77 × 108 N/m, and the
error between the two results is 3.3%, which proves the accuracy of the established
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
TVMS
model. Then, the parameters in Ref. [4] and Ref. [27] are introduced to the stiffness model
in this paper for calculation. Compared with the references results, the obtained results
have similar rules and trends, which demonstrates the precision of the established TVMS
model again.

3. Influence of Gear Crack on TVMS and LSR

Based on the analytical model of TVMS, four different crack depths were respectively
chosen,
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW four different crack angle stiffnesses were calculated, and the TVMS
9 of 17and LSR
were calculated. In comparison to the results of the health gear, the results are shown
in Figures 7 and 8.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. TVMS and LSR with different crack depths: (a) TVMS; (b) LSR.

3.2. Different Crack Angles

Figure 8a,b respectively shows the TVMS curve and LSR curve when the gear is
healthy, and there are four crack angles (c = 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°). The crack depth is set as
1.0 mm. It can be seen that when the crack angle increases, the characteristics are the
same as those of the crack depth. The comprehensive TVMS decreases and the LSR in-
(a)impact on the stiffness and LSR is not as significant
creases, but the overall (b) as that for the
crack depth.
Figure
Figure7.7.
TVMS and
TVMS LSRLSR
and with different
with crackcrack
different depths: (a) TVMS;
depths: (b) LSR.
(a) TVMS; (b) LSR.

3.2. Different Crack Angles

Figure 8a,b respectively shows the TVMS curve and LSR curve when the gear is
healthy, and there are four crack angles (c = 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°). The crack depth is set as
1.0 mm. It can be seen that when the crack angle increases, the characteristics are the
same as those of the crack depth. The comprehensive TVMS decreases and the LSR in-
creases, but the overall impact on the stiffness and LSR is not as significant as that for the
crack depth.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. TVMS
Figure andand
8. TVMS LSRLSR
withwith
different crackcrack
different angles: (a) TVMS;
angles: (b) LSR.(b) LSR.
(a) TVMS;

4. 3.1. Different
Analysis Crack
of the DepthsResponse Characteristics of Gears with Crack Faults
Dynamic
4.1. Gear Dynamics
Figure Model the TVMS of gears with four kinds of crack depths (qc =0.5 mm,
7a shows
1.0The
mm,centralized
1.5 mm, 2.0 mm) and
parameter the healthy
model state, multi-DOF
of the system the crack depth changes;
spur gear the crack angle
transmission
system ◦
c is 50is .established,
As the crack depth increases,
as shown in Figure 9.the TVMS
This modeldecreases.
has been used Thetofirst
solvetime
theoccurred
vibra- at the
tion response
position whereof spur the gears [1]. The the
gear entered power is inputbut
meshing, by thethe decreasing
driving gearamplitude
p and output by stiffness
of the
(a) (b)
the
wasdriven gear g. In theThe
not significant. figure,
secondω, m,time
I, and T respectively
happened at therepresent
place wherethe angular velocity,
the single gear meshed
Figure
gear 8.
mass, TVMS
gear and
momentLSR with
of different
inertia, crack
and angles:
torque. k(a) , TVMS;
k , k ,(b)
and
and the double gear meshed, and the decreasing value of the stiffness was more noticeable
px py gx LSR.
k gy respectively represent
the support
this time. Thestiffness
thirdoftime the driving
occurred gear andmeshing
at the the driven place gearofinthethegear
x direction
at the endandofthe
they meshing,
4. Analysis
direction. pxof the Dynamic gy Response Characteristics of Gears with Crack Faults
and the decreasing value of the stiffness was the largest. However, qc does not yinfluence
c , c py , c gx , and c respectively represent the support damping in the x and
directions of the driving
4.1.
theGear Dynamics
meshing period Model ofgear and the driven gear. km and cm represent TVMS and mesh-
single and double meshing. Figure 7b shows the gear health status
ing damping. The specific
The centralized parameter model parameters areofshown in Table
the system 2.
multi-DOF spur gear transmission
and the existing four kinds of crack depths of the LSR. With the increase in crack depth, the
system is established,
LSR changes obviouslyas shown
and isinmainly
Figure 9. This model
focused hassingle
on the been used
toothtoand
solve
thethe vibra-
tooth out of the
tion response of spur gears [1]. The power is input by the driving gear p and output by
the driven gear g. In the figure, ω, m, I, and T respectively represent the angular velocity,
gear mass, gear moment of inertia, and torque. kpx, kpy, kgx, and kgy respectively represent
the support stiffness of the driving gear and the driven gear in the x direction and the y
direction. cpx, cpy, cgx, and cgy respectively represent the support damping in the x and y
directions of the driving gear and the driven gear. km and cm represent TVMS and mesh-
 Machines 2022, 10, 664 9 of 16

meshing position. The change is evident in the single meshing place; as the crack depth
increases, the LSR increases most at the single tooth meshing position.

3.2. Different Crack Angles

Figure 8a,b respectively shows the TVMS curve and LSR curve when the gear is
healthy, and there are four crack angles (c = 20◦ , 30◦ , 40◦ , 50◦ ). The crack depth is set as
1.0 mm. It can be seen that when the crack angle increases, the characteristics are the same
as those of the crack depth. The comprehensive TVMS decreases and the LSR increases, but
the overall impact on the stiffness and LSR is not as significant as that for the crack depth.

4. Analysis of the Dynamic Response Characteristics of Gears with Crack Faults

4.1. Gear Dynamics Model
The centralized parameter model of the system multi-DOF spur gear transmission
system is established, as shown in Figure 9. This model has been used to solve the vibration
response of spur gears [1]. The power is input by the driving gear p and output by the
driven gear g. In the figure, ω, m, I, and T respectively represent the angular velocity,
gear mass, gear moment of inertia, and torque. kpx , kpy , kgx , and kgy respectively represent
the support stiffness of the driving gear and the driven gear in the x direction and the y
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWdirection. c , c , c , and c respectively represent the support damping in the 10xofand
17 y
px py gx gy
directions of the driving gear and the driven gear. km and cm represent TVMS and meshing
damping. The specific parameters are shown in Table 2.

Figure
Figure 9. Dynamic
9. Dynamic model
model of the
of the spur
spur gear
gear transmission
transmission system.
system.

The model ignores the transmission error and other nonlinear factors, introduces the
The model ignores the transmission error and other nonlinear factors, introduces
friction coefficient f, and considers the friction force. Considering the degree of freedom of
the friction coefficient f, and considers the friction force. Considering the degree of free-
the gear translation in the x direction and y direction and the torsion in the θ direction, the
dom of the gear translation in the x direction and y direction and the torsion in the θ di-
centralized parameter model of the gear system can be established as follows:
rection, the centralized parameter model of the gear system can be established as fol-
lows:
 .. .
 m p x p + c px x p + k px x p = − Ff
 .. . .
−k m y − cm y



 mm py 
x p+ cc pyxy p+k k pyx yp = F
 m g x.. g + c gx x. g + k gx x g = − F
p p px p px p f


m y p  c py y.p  k py y p   km y f cm y .
mp .. (26)
  .. g + c gy y g + k gy y. g = k m y + cm y
 g y
Imp θg 
xg−rc gx(kx g y+k gxc xgy)− FMf = T


p p m m p p

.. (26)

 
 m   .

y  c y  k y  k y  c y

I θ − r
 g g g g ggy mg ( k y + c
gym gy ) − M
m g = −
m Tg
 I   r ( k y  c y )  M  T
 p p p m m p p

 I   r ( k y  c y )  M  T
 g g g m m g g

where Ff is the tooth surface friction force, Mp and Mg are the moments generated by the
Machines 2022, 10, 664 10 of 16

where Ff is the tooth surface friction force, Mp and Mg are the moments generated by the
friction force, rp and rg are the radii of the indexing circle of the main driving gear and the
driven gear, and y is the relative slip of the tooth surface, which can be expressed as:

y = y p − yg + r p θ p − rg θg (27)

where yp and yg represent the vibration displacement of the driving gear and the driven
gear in the y direction and θ p and θ g represent the angular displacement [28,29].
The formula for calculating the friction force Ff is:

Ff = f · Fpg (28)
. . . .
Fpg = k m [(y p − y g ) − (r p θ p − r g θ g )] + cm [(y p − y g ) − (r p θ p − r g θ g )] (29)
s
k m r2p r2g I p Ig
cm = 2ξ (30)
r2p I p + r2g Ig
where f is the friction coefficient, the driving gear and the driven gear mesh with each
other, and the sliding directions are opposite. In Ref. [1], the friction coefficient is regarded
as a certain value, and its method will continue to be used in this study. Take the friction
coefficient as 0.03. Fpg is the gear tooth meshing force, km is the TVMS, cm is the meshing
damping and is in the form of proportional damping [30], and ξ is the meshing damping
ratio of the gear pair. In general, the value range is from 0.03 to 0.1.

4.2. Dynamic Model Solution

The calculated TVMS of the driving gear with different crack depths and angles was
loaded into the centralized parameter solution model, and the Newmark numerical solution
method was used to solve the model. It is assumed that a tooth of the driving gear has a
crack and runs two revolutions at a specific time. The vibration response results obtained
are shown in Figures 10–12. It can be seen that when there is a crack fault in the gear,
the periodic impact amplitude appears in the vibration signal, and the period is about
0.025 s, corresponding to the rotation period of the driving gear. As the crack expands, the
vibration impact increases. There are 50 vibration signal amplitudes in the time domain
signal corresponding to the engagement between the driving gear teeth and the driven
gear for 50 times, and the driving gear works twice.
When the crack depth is 0.5 mm and the crack angle is 20◦ , the fault characteristics
of the vibration signal are not obvious, indicating that the fault characteristics of the gear
crack are very weak at the initial stage. When the crack angle is unchanged and the crack
depth is 0.5 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.28 × 10−7 m; when the crack
depth is 1 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.32 × 10−7 m; when the crack
depth is 1.5 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.36 × 10−7 m and the crack
depth is 2 mm. The maximum vibration displacement is 1.45 × 10−7 m. When the crack
depth increases from 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm, the maximum vibration displacement increases
by about 13.3%. When the crack depth is 1 mm and the crack angle is 20◦ , the maximum
vibration displacement is 1.27 × 10−7 m; when the crack angle is 30◦ , the maximum
vibration displacement is 1.29 × 10−7 m; when the crack angle is 40◦ , the maximum
vibration displacement is 1.31 × 10−7 m; when the crack angle is 50◦ , the maximum
vibration displacement is 1.33 × 10−7 m. When the crack angle increases from 20◦ to 50◦ ,
the maximum vibration displacement increases by about 4.7%.
It can be seen that the vibration impact caused by the crack angle propagation is
less obvious than that caused by the crack depth propagation, indicating that the damage
caused by the crack depth propagation is more serious than that caused by the crack angle
propagation. This is consistent with the law of TVMS reduction caused by cracks. By
comparing it with the vibration signal of the gear without fault, the propagation degree of
the gear crack can be identified, and the working state of the gear box can be monitored and
 where f is the friction coefficient, the driving gear and the driven gear mesh with each
other, and the sliding directions are opposite. In Ref. [1], the friction coefficient is re-
garded as a certain value, and its method will continue to be used in this study. Take the
friction coefficient as 0.03. Fpg is the gear tooth meshing force, km is the TVMS, cm is the
meshing damping and is in the form of proportional damping [30], and  is the mesh-
ing damping ratio of the gear pair. In general, the value range is from 0.03 to 0.1.
Machines 2022, 10, 664 11 of 16
4.2. Dynamic Model Solution
The calculated TVMS of the driving gear with different crack depths and angles
was loaded into the centralized parameter solution model, and the Newmark numerical
solution method was used to solve the model. It is assumed that a tooth of the driving
warned. The
gear has a crack anddynamic response
runs two revolutions results
at a specific time.obtained
The vibration are similar
response re- to those in Ref. [1]. Compared
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17
sults obtained
with are shownin
the results in Figures 10–12.
Ref. [1], It can
the be seen that response
dynamic when there is aobtained
crack fault by this model has more obvious
in the gear, the periodic impact amplitude appears in the vibration signal, and the peri-
pulse characteristics,
od is about 0.025 s, correspondingwhich is more
to the rotation period ofconvenient
the driving gear. for tooth
As the crack crack fault diagnosis. The fault
expands, the vibration impact increases. There are 50 vibration signal amplitudes in the
signal of the gear vibration response based on
time domain signal corresponding to the engagement between the driving gear teeth
the TVMS is relatively obvious, so it is
feasible
and the driventogear
diagnose
for 50 times,and predict
and the the
driving gear gear
works fault from the vibration signal time domain.
twice.

Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Figure 10. Time domain diagram of fault-free vibration.
Figure 10. Time domain diagram of fault-free vibration.
When the crack depth is 0.5 mm and the crack angle is 20°, the fault characteristics
of the vibration signal are not obvious, indicating that the fault characteristics of the gear
crack are very weak at the initial stage. When the crack angle is unchanged and the crack
depth is 0.5 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.28 × 10−7 m; when the crack
depth is 1 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.32 × 10−7 m; when the crack
depth is 1.5 mm, the maximum vibration displacement is 1.36 × 10−7 m and the crack
depth is 2 mm. The maximum vibration displacement is 1.45 × 10−7 m. When the crack
depth increases from 0.5 mm to 2.0 mm, the maximum vibration displacement increases
by about 13.3%. When the crack depth is 1 mm and the crack angle is 20°, the maximum
vibration displacement isFigure
1.27 × 1011. Vibration
−7 m; response
when the crack angle is with
30°, thedifferent
maximum crack
vibra- depths. (a) Crack depth 0.5 mm. (b) Crack
tion displacement is 1.29depth 1.0when
× 10−7 m; mm.the(c)crack
Crackangledepth
is 40°, 1.5 mm. (d) vibration
the maximum Crack depth 2.0 mm.
displacement is 1.31 × 10−7 m; when the crack angle is 50°, the maximum vibration dis-
placement is 1.33 × 10−7 m. When the crack angle increases from 20° to 50°, the maximum
vibration displacement increases It bycan be4.7%.
about seen that the vibration impact caused by the
crack angle propagation is
less obvious than that caused by the crack depth propagation, indicating that the dam-
age caused by the crack depth propagation is more serious than that caused by the crack
angle propagation. This is consistent with the law of TVMS reduction caused by cracks.
By comparing it with the vibration signal of the gear without fault, the propagation de-
gree of the gear crack can be identified, and the working state of the gear box can be
monitored and warned. The dynamic response results obtained are similar to those in
Ref. [1]. Compared with the results in Ref. [1], the dynamic response obtained by this
model has more obvious pulse characteristics, which is more convenient for tooth crack
fault diagnosis. The fault signal of the gear vibration response based on the TVMS is rel-
atively
Figure
Figure 11. Vibration obvious,
11.
response withsodifferent
Vibration it is feasible
response with to diagnose
crackdifferent
depths. crackand predict
depths.
(a) Crack the mm.
(a) Crack
depth 0.5 gear
depthfault
(b)0.5 fromdepth
mm.
Crack the
(b) vibration
Crack
depth
signal1.0 mm.
time (c) Crack
domain. depth 1.5 mm.
1.0 mm. (c) Crack depth 1.5 mm. (d) Crack depth 2.0 mm. (d) Crack depth 2.0 mm.

It can be seen that the vibration impact caused by the crack angle propagation is
less obvious than that caused by the crack depth propagation, indicating that the dam-
age caused by the crack depth propagation is more serious than that caused by the crack
angle propagation. This is consistent with the law of TVMS reduction caused by cracks.
By comparing it with the vibration signal of the gear without fault, the propagation de-
gree of the gear crack can be identified, and the working state of the gear box can be
monitored and warned. The dynamic response results obtained are similar to those in
Ref. [1]. Compared with the results in Ref. [1], the dynamic response obtained by this
model has more obvious pulse characteristics, which is more convenient for tooth crack
fault diagnosis. The fault signal of the gear vibration response based on the TVMS is rel-
atively obvious, so it is feasible to diagnose and predict the gear fault from the vibration
signal time domain.

Figure
Figure 12. Vibration 12. Vibration
response response with
with different crackdifferent
angles.crack angles.
(a) Crack angle 20◦ . angle
(a) Crack 20°. (b)
(b) Crack 30◦angle
Crack
angle . 30°.
(c)
◦ Crack angle 40°. (d)
(c) Crack angle 40 . (d) Crack angle 50 . Crack
◦ angle 50°.
Machines 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Machines 2022, 10, 664 12 of 16

4.3. Discussions
Based on the mesh stiffness calculation methods and the dynamic model of spur
4.3. Discussions
gear transmissions, the effect of the tooth root crack on the dynamic response can be re-
vealed.Based
To on the mesh stiffness
summarize, it can becalculation
seen that the methodscrack and faultthehasdynamic
a certain model of spur
influence ongear
the
transmissions, the effect of the tooth root crack on the dynamic
time-varying mesh stiffness and vibration response of the gear, and the crack fault will response can be revealed.
To summarize,
reduce it can be seen
the time-varying mesh thatstiffness
the crack and fault has a certain
increase influence
the vibration on the time-varying
amplitude. However,
mesh stiffness and vibration response of the gear, and
when the crack depth and crack angle are small, these failure characteristics the crack fault will reduce
arethenottime-
ob-
varying mesh stiffness and increase the vibration amplitude.
vious. Therefore, it is necessary to find a method to highlight the fault characteristics However, when the crackof
depth
minor and crack angle are small, these failure characteristics are not obvious. Therefore, it
faults.
is necessary
In ordertotofind a method
further to highlight
investigate the tooththe fault
crackcharacteristics of minor faults.
effect, some statistical indicators are
oftenInused
ordertoto further the
evaluate investigate
vibration thelevel
tooth and crackfault effect, some statistical
characteristics. indicators
This method is are
ex-
often used to evaluate the vibration level and fault characteristics. This method is extremely
tremely effective for monitoring tiny gear cracks. The original signals obtained in
effective for monitoring tiny gear cracks. The original signals obtained in healthy condi-
healthy conditions were regarded as regular signals, and the regular signals were re-
tions were regarded as regular signals, and the regular signals were removed from the
moved from the original signals in fault conditions to remove the influence of regular
original signals in fault conditions to remove the influence of regular vibration. The signal
vibration. The signal component generated by crack propagation is highlighted. In this
component generated by crack propagation is highlighted. In this study, residual signals
study, residual signals are generated by this method, and five statistical indicators—
are generated by this method, and five statistical indicators—namely, Max value, Min value,
namely, Max value, Min value, Peak value, RMS, and Variance—are used to assess the
Peak value, RMS, and Variance—are used to assess the sensitivity of different crack faults
sensitivity of different crack faults to fault characteristics.
to fault characteristics.
The crack depth and crack angle propagation were divided into five grades, with
The crack depth and crack angle propagation were divided into five grades, with
grade 0 representing the absence of faults in the system and grades 1–4 representing the
grade 0 representing the absence of faults in the system and grades 1–4 representing the
propagation of the crack depth or angle. The statistical indicators of gears with different
propagation of the crack depth or angle. The statistical indicators of gears with different
crack faults
crack faults were
werecalculated
calculatedrespectively,
respectively,and andthe the calculation
calculation results
results areare shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 13.
13. It can be seen that the variation of statistical indicators with
It can be seen that the variation of statistical indicators with the crack angle and crack the crack angle and crack
depth has
depth hasaasimilar
similarregularity.
regularity. AsAs cancanbe be
seen seenfrom from
FigureFigure
13a, 13a,
as the ascrack
the crack
depthdepth
expands,ex-
pands,
all all statistical
statistical indexesindexes
except for except for the minimum
the minimum value decrease
value decrease continuously
continuously and change and
significantly until the third crack level is reached. During the transition from level 3lev-
change significantly until the third crack level is reached. During the transition from to
el 3 to4,level
level 4, all statistical
all statistical indicators
indicators exceptexcept
for thefor the minimum
minimum showed showed an upward
an upward trend.trend.
The
The variation
variation rulesrules
of theof statistical
the statistical indexes
indexes in Figure
in Figure 13b13bare are basically
basically thethe
samesame as those
as those in
in Figure 13a, but the variation regularity of the statistical
Figure 13a, but the variation regularity of the statistical indexes with the crack depth indexes with the crack depth is
is more
more obvious
obvious than than
thatthat
withwith the crack
the crack angle. angle. The results
The results showshow thatMax,
that the the Min,
Max, Peak,
Min,
Peak, and
RMS, RMS, and Variance
Variance values are values
moreare more sensitive
sensitive to the early to the early
failure failure
of gear of gear
cracks, whichcracks,
can
which can be used to detect the early propagation of gear cracks
be used to detect the early propagation of gear cracks and prevent the further deterioration and prevent the further
deterioration
of of the
the crack fault. crack
These fault.are
results These results
expected to are
provideexpected
sometotheoretical
provide some theoretical
guidance on the
guidance on the monitoring and
monitoring and diagnosis of gear tooth faults.diagnosis of gear tooth faults.

(a) (b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Statistical
Statistical indicator
indicator curves.
curves. (a)
(a) Different
Different crack
crack depths.
depths. (b)
(b) Different
Different crack
crack angles.
angles.
Machines 2022, 10, 664 13 of 16

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the time-varying mesh stiffness model of spur gears is established by
the potential energy method, and then a lumped parameter model is established. By
introducing gear cracks into the model, the effects of gear crack depth and crack angle
propagation on the time-varying mesh stiffness and vibration response are analyzed. Finally,
statistical indexes are introduced to quantitatively evaluate the gear crack failure. The main
conclusions are as follows:
(1) The TVMS of gears is periodic, and the load sharing among healthy gears is uniform.
It is feasible to use KISSsoft to verify the TVMS of gears.
(2) As the crack expands, the TVMS of the gear reductions and the single tooth stiffness
on both sides of the cracked region are also affected, increasing the gear LSR. The
increase in crack depth has a more significant effect on the TVMS and LSR than on
the crack angle. The most obvious reduction in stiffness occurs at the end of tooth
engagement, and the LSR increases in the single tooth meshing area.
(3) The fault characteristics of cracks highlighted by time-domain vibration signals are
obvious, and the vibration impact of gears increases along with the increase in the
crack depth and angle. The sensitivity of crack angle propagation to gear fault
characteristics is lower than that of crack depth propagation. The fault signals of gear
vibration responses based on TVMS are obvious, and it is feasible to diagnose and
predict gear faults from time domain vibration signals.
(4) The Max value, Min value, Peak value, and other statistical indicators are sensitive to
the crack fault. These statistical indicators can be used to track the early development
of gear cracks and prevent the further deterioration of the crack fault.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.R. and D.W.; Methodology, G.S.; Software, D.W.; Formal
Analysis, D.W.; Writing—Original Draft, D.W. and F.R.; Writing—Review & Editing, F.R., G.S. and
X.W.; Language Revision and Polishing, G.S.; Data Curation and Visualization, D.W.; Supervision,
F.R., G.S. and X.W.; Funding Acquisition, F.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science and Technology Research Project of Henan
Province (Grant Nos. 202102210085, 172102210056), the Open Funding of Henan Key Laboratory of
Intelligent Manufacturing of Mechanical Equipment (Grant No. IM201912), and the Doctoral Science
Research Foundation of Zhengzhou University of Light Industry (Grant No. 2015BSJJ030).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the editors and reviewers for their comments and help. All
authors agree to submit for publication.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Machines 2022, 10, 664 14 of 16

Appendix A
TVMS the time-varying meshing stiffness
LSR the load-sharing ratio
FEM the finite element method
AM the analytical method
a1 the length between the tip fillet and center line
h the distance from the tooth central line to the gear contact point
hx the height of the section of which the distance from the tooth root is x
d the distance from the gear root to the gear contact point
L the tooth width
Rρ the radius of the tip fillet
Rr the radius of the root circle
Rb > the radius of the base circle
Rd the radius of the pitch circle
the length between the center of the cutter tip fillet and the centerline of the
b1
cutter groove
γ the variable parameter
α0 the pressure angle
α1 the rotation angle
α2 the half tooth angle on the base circle
α3 the approximated half tooth angle on the root circle
Kb the bending stiffness
Ks the shear stiffness
Ka the axial compression stiffness
Kh the hertz contact stiffness
Kf the transition circular angle stiffness
Ub the bending energy
Us the shear energy
Ua the axial compression energy
Uh the hertz energy
Uf the circular angle foundation energy
E the Young’s modulus
G the Shear modulus
υ the Poisson’s ratio
Ix the moment of inertia of the gear section
Ax the cross-sectional area
qc the initial stage of the crack
c the crack angle
Kijn the stiffness of each gear tooth
f the friction coefficient
Ff the tooth surface friction force
rp , rg the radius of the indexing circle of the main driving and driven gear
y the relative slip of the tooth surface
Fpg the meshing force
km the TVMS
cm the meshing damping
ξ the meshing damping ratio of the gear pair
Mp , Mg the moments generated by the friction force
ω the angular velocity
m the gear mass
I the gear moment of inertia
T the torque
kpx , kpy , kgx , kgy the support stiffness
cpx , cpy , cgx , cgy the support damping
Machines 2022, 10, 664 15 of 16

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