English Language Teaching:

Approaches And Methodologies Navita

Arora
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English Language Teaching
Approaches and Methodologies
About the Author

Dr. Navita Arora, a teacher-educator, is actively engaged in innovative

methods and techniques in the teaching of English. She has completed her
Ph.D on the topic “An investigation into relationships between personal
values, teaching attitudes and socio-economic status of teacher trainees”. She
has presented many papers in national seminars and her articles have been
published in various national journals. She also acted as a resource person
for IGNOU. She already has one book on psychology titled, Development of
Learners and Teaching Learning Process, to her credit.
English Language Teaching
Approaches and Methodologies

Dr. Navita Arora

Assistant Professor
S.P. College of Education
Rewari, Haryana

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English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies

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Dedicated to my favourite teacher,
Prof. A.K. Nagar
 Foreword

“A true teacher helps a learner to discover his own personal philosophy or the invisible
sun within him.”
—Bhagawad Gita
Efficiency in teaching of English language will be reflected in the performance of the learner in
and outside the classroom. A mentor for efficient English teacher has its prime goal to serve as a
touchstone of successful English teaching. This book has been organised into four main sections.
The major themes of discussions are pedagogical analysis, different approaches and methods,
vocabulary items, various skills of language, language lab, instructional aids, evaluation, remedial
teaching and role of ICT in teaching of English. The author presented the contents with illustrations
and examples. The contents are systematically organised.
This book deserves to be recommended for all the students of B.Ed as well as teacher-educators.

Prof. A.K. Nagar

Ex-Principal,
S.P. College of Education,
Rewari
 Preface

I am pleased to present this book, English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies,
which has been designed and planned according to the latest syllabus of B.Ed. course.
English is a second language for Indian students and to teach it effectively requires dexterity as
well as selection of appropriate methods of teaching, which, undoubtedly, is a big challenge for
teachers. Every possible effort has been made to include latest in second language teaching, yet
suggestions from my learned colleagues for improvement by way of adding or deleting the contents
therein will be thankfully acknowledged. Nonetheless, efforts have also been made to write this
book in simple and lucid language to be easily comprehended by students. Wherever necessary,
the contents are amply supported by illustrations and examples. Besides this, web support has also
been provided for the readers to assess the proficiency achieved after reading the book. The readers
may head over to the URL given at the back to check for resources provided on ‘preparation of
achievement test’ and other helpful reading or practice material.
I am quite sure that the innovative techniques suggested in the book will inspire the students
towards language proficiency in this age of e-learning.

Dr. Navita Arora

 Acknowledgements

First, I salute lord Shiva for empowering me to update the ideas without any mental worries.
Second, I express my gratitude for my husband, Sunil Arora, and my kids, Sandra and Surucha,
for their constant motivation and support. I am obliged to Ashok Sangwan, Assistant Professor of
M.L.R.S. College of Education, Charki Dadri for his significant contribution in framing Chapter
19: Extracurricular Activities Related to English, Chapter 21: Evaluation and Chapter 22: Digital
Portfolio – Use of ICT in Learning.
I am also grateful to Amit Kumar, Atul Gupta and Sampurna Majumder from Tata McGraw Hill
Education for their support in bringing out this book in its present form.
With these words, I place the book in the hands of interested learners.

Dr. Navita Arora

 Contents

About the Author ii

Foreword vii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi

1. Nature of Language 1
Introduction 1
Meaning of Language 2
3
Characteristics of a Language 4
Scope of Language 10
Summary 11
Terms to Remember 12
Exercises 12

2. Importance and Functions of Language 13

Introduction 13
Importance of the English Language in India 14
Advantages of English as a Language 16
Functions of a Language 16
Summary 17
Terms to Remember 18
Exercises 18

3. Linguistic Principles 20
Introduction 20
General Principles Governing the Teaching of a Language 21
Summary 27
Terms to Remember 28
Exercises 28
xiv Contents

4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English 29

Introduction 29
Aims of Teaching English 30
Teaching English at Various Levels 32
Summary 34
Terms to Remember 34
Exercises 34

5. Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms 36

Introduction 36
Objectives 37
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 38
Summary 45
Terms to Remember 46
Exercises 46

6. Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan 47

Introduction 48
Pedagogical Analysis 50
Four Pillars of Pedagogical Analysis 52
Summary 53
Terms to Remember 54
Exercises 54

7. Teaching of Prose 55
Introduction 55
Objectives of Teaching Prose 56
Types of Prose Lessons 57
Model Lesson Plan on Prose 60
Summary 63
Terms to Remember 64
Exercises 65

8. Teaching of Poetry 66
Introduction 66
67
Teaching of Poetry in Schools 69
 Contents xv

Model Lesson Plan on Poetry 73

Summary 77
Terms to Remember 78
Exercises 78

9. Teaching of Composition 79
Introduction 79
80
Characteristics of Composition 82
Types of Compositions 84
Model Lesson Plan on Composition 91
Summary 95
Terms to Remember 96
Exercises 96

10. Teaching of Grammar 98

Introduction 98
Meaning of Grammar 99
Characteristics of Grammar 99
Present Position of Grammar in Indian Classrooms 99
Expected Role of Grammar 100
Objectives/Aims of Teaching Grammar 100
Types of Grammar 101
Methods of Teaching Grammar 102
Advantages and Disadvantages of Teaching Grammar 104
Suggestions for Teaching Grammar 104
Model Lesson Plan for Teaching Grammar 105
Summary 108
Terms to Remember 109
Exercises 109

11. Micro-Teaching 110

Introduction 110
111
Micro-Teaching Cycle 112
Time Duration of Micro-Teaching 113
Teaching Skill 113
xvi Contents

Questioning 114
116
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Questioning 116
Skill of Introduction 118
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Introduction 119
Skill of Explaining 121
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Explaning 122
Skill of Illustration 124
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Illustrating with Examples 125
Skill of Stimulus Variation 128
Components of Stimulus Variation 128
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Stimulus Variation 129
Skill of Reinforcement 133
Components of the Skill Reinforcement 133
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Reinforcement 135
Summary 137
Exercises 138

12. Methods of Teaching English 139

Introduction 139
140
Processes of Teaching 141
Approaches of Teaching-Learning 142
Methods of Teaching English 143
Which Method is the Best? 152
Summary 153
Terms to Remember 153
Exercises 153

13. Learner Centered Approaches 154

Introduction 154
Types of Approaches 155
Structural Approach 155
Communicative Approach 164
Summary 168
Terms to Remember 168
Exercises 169
 Contents xvii

14. Instructional Material 170

Introduction 170
Meaning 171
172
Objectives of Audio-Visual Aids 172
173
Characteristics of Good Audio-Visual Aids 175
Principles of Audio-Visual Aids 176
Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids 176
Precautions for the use of Audio-Visual Aids 178
Different Types of Aids 179
The System Console 185
Summary 187
Terms to Remember 187
Exercises 188

15. Development of Listening Skills 189

Introduction 189
Sub-Skills of Language 190
Developing Listening Skills in Classrooms 192
Different Ways of Conducting Oral Work 192
Improvement of Listening Skills 193
Summary 194
Terms to Remember 195
Exercises 195

16. Development of Speaking Skills 196

Introduction 196
Acquiring Speaking Skills 196
Drilling 198
Pronunciation 203
Organs of Speech 203
The Sounds of English 206
Exceptions 217
Summary 221
Terms to Remember 221
Exercises 222
xviii Contents

17. Development of Reading Skills 223

Introduction 223
Mechanics of Reading 224
Summary 235
Terms to Remember 235
Exercises 236

18. Development of Writing Skills 237

Introduction 237
Development of Writing Abilities 238
Conventions of Writing 239
Handwriting 244
Teaching Handwriting 247
Summary 249
Terms to Remember 250
Exercises 250

19. Extracurricular Activities Related to English 251

Introduction 251
Extracurricular Activities Related to English 252
Language Games 253
Debate 264
Group Discussion Skills 265
Summary 269
Terms to Remember 270
Exercises 270

20. Remedial Teaching in English 271

Introduction 271
Diagnostic Testing 272
Remedial Teaching 273
English as a Second Language in India 276
Common Errors Committed by Learners 276
Summary 278
Terms to Remember 278
Exercises 278
 Contents xix

21. Evaluation 280

Introduction 280
Test 281
Measurement 281
Examination 283
Evaluation 283
294
Development of Good Test Items in English 295
Measurement of Achievement in Spoken English 300
Measurement of Achievement in Vocabulary 303
Measurement of Achievement in Structures 304
Summary 306
Terms to Remember 306
Exercises 307

22. Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for

Language Competency 308
Introduction 309
Digital Portfolio 309
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 313
Summary 316
Terms to Remember 317
Exercises 317
References 318
Index 321
 1 Nature of Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.

— Bloch and Trager

Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Meaning of Language
This chapter will enable the reader to:

Nature of Language
Scope of Language
Dialect

INTRODUCTION
Language is one of the most significant possessions of human
beings. In fact, no other species have developed such a complex
system of communication as the humans. We tend to express our
thoughts effectively with the help of language and this ability
of ours distinctly differentiates us from all other living beings.
Preservation, enrichment, propagation and advancement of our
civilization have been possible largely because of this skill we
possess.
Language is considered a systematic arrangement of words
that help us in communicating our thoughts. People use different
sounds and words to express different ideas or thoughts. To
communicate a language, may be used in more than one form,
viz., verbal communication, written communication and non-
verbal communication, i.e. through body language.
2 English Language Teaching

According to H.E. Palmer, “language is a habit-forming process”. Argue for or against

Think! the statement. Give reasons for your argument.

Though English is spoken across the globe, it has several dialects depending upon the geographical
locations. The dialects vary from one region to another, primarily because of differences in culture,
beliefs, attitudes, environment and way of life. Taken together, these factors contribute to the
evolution of dialects of a particular language. English as a language is no exception. Even though
English is primarily spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and New Zealand,
people of these regions speak different dialects, have different accents and even use different words.
Even within a country, there can be various dialects. For example, the United Kingdom itself has
more than a dozen dialects, like northern, southern, east midlands, west midlands and so on. These
dialects have further sub-dialects such as Yorkshire dialect (northern), Cockney dialect (southern)
and so on.

MEANING OF LANGUAGE
The word ‘language’ seems to have been derived from the Latin word, lingua, which means tongue.
French terms langue and parole also bear impression of language (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 Origin of the word ‘language’

Learning a language requires four basic skills—listening, speaking, reading and writing
(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 Basic skills of a language

 Nature of Language 3

Language is both verbal as well as non-verbal. Non-verbal language largely implies body
language. The verbal language is well-developed which can be used both orally and in written form
(Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 Verbal and non-verbal language

DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
Some well-known definitions of language are given below.

Ideas and feelings are the realizations but when these are related through mouth is known as language.
— Plato

A type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words.
— Malinowski

Language may be defined as the words and the methods of combining them for the expression of
thought.
— The Oxford English Dictionary

Language most shows a man, speak that I may thee.

— Ben Johnson

Language is a means of communicating thoughts.

— Allen

Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires
by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.
— Edward Sapir
4 English Language Teaching

Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings.
— O. Jespersen

Each community is formed by the activity of language.

— Leonard Bloomfield

Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words
are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answering to ideas and thoughts.
— Sweet

Language is the entire complex of phenomenon associated with human vocal and auditory communication
of emotions and ideas.
— Gray

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.
— Bloch and Trager
From the above definitions, it becomes clear that language is a set of commonly used symbols
and sounds used to express thoughts and feelings within a social group. It is purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating by means of a system of voluntarily produced sounds
and symbols. These symbols are, in the first instance, auditory and they are produced by our speech
organs.

Language is a great source of socialization. Discuss how language helps you in the
Think! process of socialization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE
A language has the following characteristics:
1. Wherever human beings exist, language exists.
2. There are no ‘primitive’ languages; all languages are equally complex and equally capable of
expressing any idea. The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words
to express newer concepts.
3. All languages evolve with the passage of time.
4. All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds or gestures that are combined
to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible
sentences.
5. English grammar contains rules for the formation of words and sentences of similar kind.
6. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which can be defined
by a finite set of sound properties or features. Every spoken language has a class of vowels
and consonants.
7. Similar grammatical categories (for example, noun and verb) are found in all languages.
 Nature of Language 5

8. There are semantic universals, such as ‘male’ or ‘female’, ‘animate’ or ‘human’, found in
every language in the world.
9. Every language has a way of referring to the past, negating, forming questions issuing
commands and so on.
10. Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending infinite set of
sentences.
11. Any child, born anywhere in the world, within any racial, geographical, social, or economic
heritage, is capable of learning whichever language he or she is exposed to.

Nature of Language
Language is an arbitrary system of vocal symbols by means of which human beings interact and
communicate in terms of their common cultural experience.

Language is Learnt
Language is a form of behaviour which is essentially learnt. The infant knows no language. He or
she is exposed to sounds around him or her. A child begins to learn a language by making babbling
sounds and later on develops speech sounds of his or her group (Fig. 1.4). Gradually, meaningful
words in the native language are learnt. This helps the child to communicate their immediate needs
to the parents.

Fig. 1.4 Development of language in a child

Thus, language is learnt largely through the process of imitation.

Language is a System
A language system is complex and at the same time everything is well-structured in a language.
The system of language functions through three major elements, viz., sounds, words and structures
(Fig. 1.5). Human beings have vocal organs through which sounds are produced to form words.

Fig. 1.5 Essentials of a language

6 English Language Teaching

Language is a System of Symbols

The system of language works through symbols, the symbols
being the words. Symbols represent things and are not the thing
themselves. The word ‘chair’ is not a chair; it stands for or rather
represents a chair. Thus, the symbols of language have a two-fold
aspect. They have the following components (Fig. 1.6):
Fig. 1.6 Language as a system
Sounds
of symbols
Meaning
For communication, it is necessary that a meaning should be attached to the sound. Language
functions effectively when its meaning of the words are known to all parties in a conversation.

Symbols of Language are Arbitrary

The symbols of language are arbitrary and not based on any logic. A chair is called a chair not
because there is any logical or natural relationship between the word ‘chair’ and the physical reality
which we denote by it but because it is so called by tradition and convention. Similarly, in English,
a certain animal is called horse, in French cheyal, and in Hindi ghora. None of these words is better
related than any other to the reality of the animal. Hence, the symbols used in a language have
meaning, but by themselves they do not convey any meaning. In English, three important steps are
used to convey meaning:
Order of words
Forms of words
Functions of words
Let us take an example:
Naresh gave me pens.
In the above sentence, it is the order of the words that indicates that Naresh was the giver and I was
receiver. The second form of the verb indicates that the action was performed and completed in the
past, which the speaker is narrating. The suffix ‘s’ in the word ‘pens’ indicates the plurality of pen.

Language is for Communication

Ben Johnson once said, “Speech is the instrument of society.” One of the most fundamental acts of
society is the communication between the members of the group. In the pre-historic days, people
communicated with each other through sign language or visual signals made with their body
parts. With the passage of time, sound signals evolved taking the shape of standard recogonizable
structure. For example, if a man was attacked by a wild animal, he would make a particular sound
and others would come to his rescue. Gradually, speech sounds were developed and language came
into existence for the purpose of communication.
 Nature of Language 7

According to Sweet, “Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds
are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences give
answers to ideas and thoughts.” This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Expressing ideas through language

Communication by means of language may be done through speech or writing. Communication

through speech requires right pronunciation, vocabulary and intonation, while communication
through writing requires proper arrangement of words as per the rules laid down by the grammar of
the language to communicate correctly and effectively (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8 Communication by means of language

Language is Vocal
Language is also observed as speech. Speech is fundamental while learning a language; reading and
writing follow the former activity. There are many languages in the world that exist only in speech.
They neither have written symbols nor a script; but it is difficult to come across any language that
exists only in script and not in speech. This emphasizes the importance of speech. In our schools,
the speech aspect is neglected and that is why our students find it difficult to speak English fluently.
Language and its symbols are primarily meant for speaking. There are other types of symbols,
which cannot be called vocal symbols.
8 English Language Teaching

For example, gestures signal and flags are visual symbols and beatings of drum, singing of bells
are auditory symbols. They do not form language. Hence, all the sounds produced by the human
vocal organs cannot be included in linguistic symbols, for example sneeze and cough have no
symbolic value.

Language is Ever Changing

The old order changed yielding place to new.
— Lord Tennyson
Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of a living language. It is constantly changing and
evolving. The ever-evolving aspect of English language becomes clear if we take into consideration
some of the changes that have taken place. Some of these are as follows:
In the 16th century, the sound /k/ was pronounced in words like know, knife, knowledge.
However, this is no longer in use.
Some words become old and obsolete. For example, the word ‘whom’ is being replaced by
‘who’.
New words are coined according to the requirement of the people and changing patterns of
dialogue. For example, the word ‘weblog’ was coined a few years back to define a website
where a person writes regularly about events which interest them. ‘Web’ is derived from
World Wide Web and ‘log’ stands for regular record of incidents.
With the passage of time, the various new words were incorporated in the dictionary as
acceptable vocabulary.
Thus, we can conclude that language is an outcome of the socio-cultural environment where it
exists and it must develop along with the various environmental factors where it originated and
exists.

Language Reflects the Culture in which it Occurs

The only basis for ‘correctness’ in a language is the usage of its native speakers. No language can
stand in isolation. It exists with its users, who in turn exist within specific social groups and in
specific situations. The cultural and social influences are reflected in their language. Every language
has its own peculiar words, phrases, idioms and structures. Some languages have no parallel in
any other language and thus it becomes difficult to translate a literary work from one language to
another and yet retain its original essence.

Think! How is language the flesh and blood of our culture? Discuss.

Language is Made of Habits

When we speak we are not conscious of the positions of the tongue, lips or teeth. It is a matter
of habit for us to arrange the words in order and to utter them correctly with proper stress and
intonation.
 Nature of Language 9

Since habits are acquired through practice, therefore, a language is learnt primarily by its use and
not by rules. As Prof. H.A. Gleason said, “The native speaker uses this complex apparatus easily
and without thought of the process.”

Language is a Skill Subject

The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge, it is a power that
grows by exercise, not by knowing merely meanings or rules.
— Thompson and Wyatt
Any language cannot be learnt simply by memorizing words. Though words are important, but
they alone do not constitute the structure of the language. Words along with sounds and structures
constitute a language. Hence, language is a skill subject to multiple factors such as listening,
speaking, reading and writing (Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.9 Skills of a language

Implications of Nature of Language for Language Teacher

A language teacher must be well-versed with the finer intricacies of the language as it will enable
him or her to teach students about various characteristics and features of the language, as well as
subtle nuances such as dialects, syntax structure etc. Below are few suggestions for the language
teachers:
Language is learnt: It is a skill-enhancing subject so the teacher should provide ample
opportunities to a student to learn English through drill, practice and repetition.
Language is an arbitrary system: The teacher should try to teach the language in English
itself and proper attention should be paid to the correct pronunciation of various words.
Language is primarily meant for speaking: Writing is the representation of what is spoken.
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the fundamentals of learning any language.

If you want to learn a foreign language, is thinking in that language absolutely

Think! essential?

Language is a system in which sounds, words and structures are equally important: Teaching
English as a language in Indian classrooms has undergone vast changes. Study of phonetics,
morphology and other aspects of English language have been included in most curriculums.
Due importance has been given to the understanding of the basic elements of language, i.e.,
10 English Language Teaching

sound and structure. However, there is considerable influence of the mother tongue in the
students’ speech which is known as mother tongue influence, or MTI.
Language is dynamic: An English language teacher should use the following methods for
effective classroom teaching:
(i) Dynamic methods of teaching, e.g., structural approach
(ii) Descriptive grammar rather than prescriptive grammar
(iii) Flexible rules of language (as language keeps on changing)
No two languages are spoken alike: An English language teacher should avoid literal
translation from the vernacular to English while teaching. The speech habits acquired in the
vernacular should not be allowed to be carried onto English. An English language teacher
teaches us meanings of new words and structures by associating them with the situations in
which they are used.
Language is a system: An English language teacher should follow the steps given below:
(i) Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’.
(ii) Select and grade the study material.
(iii) Teach vocabulary and structures wisely.
There are no exact synonyms in a language: The teacher should explain the shades of
differences between the meanings of words as no two words are exact synonyms. For example,
the students should know the differences in the meanings of want, desire, longing and so on.

Conclusion
To acquire proficiency in a language, we require
Drill and repetition
Thinking in the same language
Regular conversation in English.
So, an English language teacher should
Have a thorough knowledge of linguistics, phonetics and language structure
Stress on oral practice during the early stages of learning
Students must follow the fundamental order of learning a language, i.e., listening—speaking—
reading—writing.

SCOPE OF LANGUAGE
A language has the following potentialities:
Language represents a fundamental expression of social identity.
Language delimits the influence of social groups.
Language helps to connect with the external world.
 Nature of Language 11

Dialect
A dialect is a social variety of language, distinguished by grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation,
especially in a variety of speech differing from the standard or speech pattern of the culture where
it exists. The term is applied often to regional speech patterns.
In popular usage, the word ‘dialect’ is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-known language, i.e.,
most commonly a regional language, especially one that is unwritten or not standardized.
The number of speakers and the geographical area covered by them can be of arbitrary size. A
dialect might contain several sub-dialects. It is a complete system of verbal communication; it can
be oral or signed, but not necessarily written, with its own vocabulary and grammar.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed as sociolect. A dialect is
distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and phonology, including prosody. The
term accent is used in cases where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation.

Register
Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. Groups of words which are
commonly used by people working in the same profession are called register. For example, people
in the teaching profession use words like books, students, blackboard and so on. Similarly, doctors
have their own register of language and farmers have their own.

Summary
Language is the best possession of mankind. It is unique in comparison to other forms
of communication used by the animal kingdom. The study of language and linguistics
developed into a science centuries ago. With the passage of time, specialized vocabularies
also evolved. Language is essential for communicating thought. Human beings can express
their feelings clearly and effectively with the help of language.
It is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words,
words into sentences and combination of sentences gives answers to ideas and thoughts.
All languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds (or gestures) that are combined to form
meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences.
Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of language. It is constantly changing and
developing.
While teaching English Language, a teacher should
Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’.
Select and grade the material.
Teach syntax and structures wisely.
12 English Language Teaching

A teacher should be well-versed in grammar and all other aspects of English language
to be able to teach English.
Thus, we can say that
Language makes existence of society possible.
Language makes it possible to understand the speaker.
Language delimits social groups.
Language connects with the external world.

Terms to Remember
Dialect A dialect is a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the
language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns.
Language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
co-operates.
Register Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. The group of
words which are commonly used by the people working in the same profession is called register.

Exercises
Short Answer Questions (word limit 150)
1. What is language? Explain in ten sentences.
2. Enumerate the distinctive features of the English language.
3. What are the misconceptions about language?
4. Give some suggestions for teachers regarding teaching the English language.
5. Differentiate between dialect and register.
Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000)
1. Write a detailed note on distinctive features of the English language.
2. Give a comprehensive definition of language. Discuss the linguistic principles explaining the
nature of the language.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

 2 Importance and
Functions of Language
English language is the greatest gift of goddess Saraswati to India.

— C. Rajagopalachari

Inside This Chapter

Introduction
Learning Objectives
Historical Background to English
Language This chapter will enable the reader to:
Position of the English Language after
Independence
Importance of the English Language in
India
Advantages of English as a Language
Functions of a Language

INTRODUCTION
Riding the crest of technology and globalization, English
dominates the world as no language ever has. It has acquired
the status of an international language and is officially used for
communication across the continents and India is no exception.
English, as a language for communication, continues to play a
significant role in India. In India, English is the lingua franca. It
is the language of higher education, of public administration, of
law courts and of Commerce.
Another random document with
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 Our visitors were really many of them very fine-looking fellows in
their long Tuareg bubus or mantles, with the red pocket on the
breast. Their naturally picturesque attitudes lent them a really regal
appearance, and they might very well have passed for proud, highly-
born nobles, when, leaning on their spears, they looked about them,
their great black eyes gleaming from the voluminous folds of their
veils. But when the distribution of presents began the glamour
disappeared, the haughty noble was gone, to be replaced by a
greedy, rapacious savage, until, his big pocket as full as it would
hold, he resumed his disdainful attitude.

OUR PALAVER AT SAKHIB’S CAMP.

All this is really very excusable. Imagine the effect in any

European country place, of the arrival of a wealthy nabob distributing
diamonds and other precious stones wherever he goes. I wager that
our own fellow-countrymen would not comport themselves in a more
worthy way than did these Tuaregs, and it must be borne in mind
that though our presents, such as pipes, small knives, bracelets and
rings, or white and coloured stuffs were of little intrinsic value, the
natives set as much store by them as we should by jewels.
Numerous as was the crowd, however, Sakhib was conspicuous
by his absence; neither did the women put in an appearance, a proof
that the Tuaregs were not quite sure of our good intentions. Only one
of the fair sex did we see, and she was a female blacksmith, who
said she was ill, and wanted the doctor to prescribe for her. Taburet
tried in vain to find out what was the matter with her, and my private
opinion is that her illness was only an excuse, that her motives in
visiting our camp were none of the best, and that she would be ready
to accept our hospitality for a night in return for a good fee.
We, however, with thoroughly British bashfulness, resisted the
blandishments of the siren, and when darkness fell all our visitors,
who had been less extortionate in their demands than Sakhaui’s
people, decided to withdraw.
Mohamed Uld Mbirikat alone remained on the beach with us, and
we talked together till far into the night. He really was a good fellow,
and it was no fault of his that we had not succeeded in seeing
Sakhib and Sakhaui, for he had put forth all his eloquence on our
behalf. His interests, moreover, are closely bound up with those of
the Igwadaren, amongst whom he lives without protection, buying
grain of them to sell it again in Timbuktu, so that any help he gave us
beyond a certain point would seriously compromise him. I gave him
a valuable present, and he in his turn presented me with a stock of
rice he owned at the village of Gungi on the islet of Autel Makhoren,
where we should be the next day.
After a quiet night we resumed our voyage, but the never-ceasing
enervating wind forced us to anchor soon, and we were presently
joined by a canoe in which was an unfortunate man in chains, a
brother of Sakhib, who had been out of his mind for five years. He is
quiet enough, they told me, when he is rendered powerless for harm
by being bound, but directly he is released he becomes furious, and
strikes and abuses every one about him. Taburet prescribed for him
as best he could, shower-baths and strait waistcoats being out of the
question in these parts. We passed the village of Agata, where lives
Hameit, a sheriff to whom we had a letter from Abiddin, and where
we saw some fifty canoes drawn up high and dry on the banks. In
the evening we halted near a little village on an islet, the chief of
which had had his arm broken by a blow from the spear of an
Igwadaren, whom he had refused to allow to carry off his store of
rice. There is no doubt that the natives on the right bank of the river
behave better than those on the left, and—which it is rather difficult
to understand—it is the negroes, that is to say the Songhay, who,
though more numerous and as well armed as their oppressors, allow
themselves to be ill-treated in this way without making any attempt at
defence. Their cowardice prevents me from feeling as much
sympathy as I otherwise should for their miserable condition.

THE VILLAGE OF GUNGI.

We started very early the next morning, but our guide got
confused, and did not know the way to Gungi. Some men in a canoe,
however, directed us, and we had to go up-stream again beyond
Agata, and get into another arm which we had passed on the left.
We then, though not without some difficulty, succeeded in reaching
the village, passing several artificial dykes, beyond which stretched
rice-fields now inundated. Gunga, a wretched little place, is peopled
by slaves taken in war by the sheriffs of Agata. Mohamed’s rice was
handed over to us, but it was all still in the husk, and it would take us
the whole of the next day to get it shelled.
During the night a Kel es Suk arrived, who, in a very important
manner, informed me that he had very serious news to
communicate. The whole of the tribes of the Sahara, he said, had
combined against the French, and were advancing upon Timbuktu.
Awellimiden, Hoggars and all the rest of them were up, and Madidu
himself was at Bamba at the head of his column. This was really too
big an invention, and the narrator overreached himself by going so
far. Without losing my sang-froid for a moment, I thanked my
informant, Father Hacquart acting as interpreter, for my visitor spoke
Arabic well, and begged him to take my best compliments to Madidu.
The old rogue then turned to the subject he really had most at heart,
and tried to make me give him a garment of some kind as a present,
but I was too deep for that, and sent him off empty-handed.
 OUR PEOPLE SHELLING OUR RICE AT GUNGI.

Directly we stopped we were inundated by visitors, all nearly as

worrying as the rain, which had been falling without ceasing since
the evening before. To begin with, on the morning of the 22nd came
messengers from Sakhaui to ask in his name for advice. The
Commandant of Timbuktu had sent him a letter announcing the
approaching arrival of Colonel de Trentinian, Governor of the French
Sudan. The Commandant ordered Sakhaui to go to Timbuktu, and
he was very much frightened. I did my best to reassure the
messenger, but I am very certain that Sakhaui does not mean to
budge. The message would, however, do us no end of harm, and
from my journal that day I perceive that I felt very indignant at the
policy pursued by our authorities in the Sudan. I find written there
—“We really are an extraordinary people, we seem to expect that the
Tuaregs will come and throw themselves into our arms of their own
accord, without our having employed any conciliatory or coercive
means to induce them to do so. But, good Heavens! if they could
send us to the Devil, from whom their marabouts tell them we come,
they would gladly do it. And really I don’t blame them, for I see well
enough what they have to lose by our presence in their land, though
I don’t quite see what they are to gain. Taking into account the
apathy with which commercial questions are treated, I do not yet
foresee the day when amends will be made for the imposts now
levied by force, by the granting of new rights of way, and the
supplying of new means of transport.”
Nor have I seen reason since to change my opinion, for to talk of
colonial questions in France is to preach in the desert. Nevertheless,
I am firmly convinced that then as now I wrote only the exact literal
truth.
It was now R’alli’s turn again. We had not seen the fellow for
some time, but I am willing to swear three times by Allah, that since
we treated him as we did at Zarhoi he had been our most faithful and
devoted adherent. He would never let us go anywhere without
preparing the way before us, so he had gone on in advance of our
barges now, and spread our fame amongst the sheriffs and other
idiots, who did not know us as he did, and who received his reports
by beating the tabala or war-drum; or, to speak with more strict
accuracy, he found the drum being beaten, and fearing that the
sound of that one instrument would lead to the beating of others, he
confiscated it at once. Then he, R’alli, having inquired what all the
noise meant, the owner of the drum replied that he was afraid the
white men were coming to take away his goods, his oxen, his sheep,
and so on. “Then,” added R’alli, with an air of extreme amiability, “to
show him he had nothing to fear, I took everything away from him.” I
began to shout at him—“And that is the way you make friends for
us!” “To give everything back when you have passed,” he went on
with a smile. If the story he told me is true, and I shouldn’t like to
swear that it was, I wouldn’t mind taking my oath that the poor sheriff
will not get all his property back. However, the unabashed R’alli
continued, “You ought to dress me now as you do your other
soldiers, for am not I now one of your troops?”
 SHERIFF’S HOUSE AT GUNGI.

I observed that I had already given him stuff enough to clothe his
whole family.
“But my bubu and breeches are dirty now!” he replied. “Well, go
and wash them, you wretch!” was the angry rejoinder. “What!” he
cried, “would you like a soldier under such a chief as you to demean
himself by such work as that?”
Sheriff Hameit, to whom I had sent Abiddin’s letter the evening
before, answered us very impolitely, declaring that his religion
forbade him to have anything to do with infidels.
I consoled myself for this fresh failure by having a chat with the
little Kunta Tahar, Mohamed’s companion, who had come on to
Gungi to see that the rice was duly handed over to us.
He told me of the death in 1890 near Saredina of Abiddin, the son
of Hamet Beckay, of whom he had been a faithful retainer when at
Gardio near Lake Debo.
 This Abiddin and his followers had come to make a pilgrimage to
the tomb of the great marabout, and also to try to win recruits against
the Toucouleurs of Massina, with whom Abiddin carried on the
struggle begun by his father. Two columns had marched forth
against them, one from Mopti, the other from Jenné, and surrounded
them. Abiddin was wounded and taken prisoner, but his faithful
Bambaras of Jenné, who had always followed his fortunes, rescued
him from the hands of the enemy. But, alas! no less than three
bullets hit the doomed man after this first escape, killing him on the
spot, and a great storm then arose which put an end to the battle,
only a few of those engaged in it escaping to tell the tale.
The wind, which was very violent and dry, whirled up such
quantities of sand that the corpse of Abiddin was buried beneath it,
and no one was ever able to discover the place where he lay, as if
Nature herself wished to protect his body from desecration and
insult.

WEAVERS AT GUNGI.
 Tornadoes play a great part in the histories of Kunta wars. Hamet
Beckay is supposed to have had the power of calling them up when
he liked, and to have by their means several times overwhelmed
armies sent to attack him, but that of Saredina came too late to save
his son.
Can it have been the story told to me by my friend the Kunta
which caused a tremendous tornado to sweep down upon us that
very evening, with thunder and lightning and torrents of rain all
complete, soaking everything and everybody on board?
Our rice shelled, put into bags, and stowed away in the hold, we
went on and anchored the next morning opposite Baruba to
breakfast there. The ancient town, the Kaaba of the Tuaregs, which
was still standing in the time of Barth, has since been destroyed, but
its site is marked by piles of rubbish such as are still characteristic of
the environs of Timbuktu, and from their vast extent prove that it was
a city of considerable importance.
The country round about is extremely picturesque. The
descendants of those who dwelt in the old city have moved a little
further down stream to a dune which is so completely surrounded
with water during inundations as to form an island. They bury their
dead beneath the shade of the thorny bush beyond their settlement.
At Baruba we saw some date trees which had reverted to the wild
state, and were very majestic looking. We visited the site of the old
town, and then anchored opposite its successor. Now that the waters
of the Niger were beginning to subside, and the island was becoming
a peninsula only, the inhabitants were losing their sense of security,
and talking of migrating to an islet in the river itself opposite their
present home. A few huts had already been put up on it, making
white spots amongst the dense green verdure.
There we received envoys from the chief named Abder Rhaman,
who brought us a letter in which we were informed that the reason
the writer did not come to see us was, that he was afraid we should
not understand each other, and bad results might ensue.
Then came a band of Kel-Owi, serfs of the Igwadaren, bringing
ten, twenty, or thirty sheep, which they informed us they meant to
give us. The number of animals seemed increasing at every
moment, and I at once feared there was some sinister intention
behind this unusual generosity. But no, I was wrong. They were
really good fellows these Kel-Owi, though the merit of their
munificence rather melts away when you examine closely into
motives. It was present for present, as of course they knew I should
not take their beasts without giving them something in exchange. I
had the greatest difficulty in making our visitors understand that our
boats were not sheep-pens, and that all I could do was to choose out
the five finest animals.

FATHER HACQUART AND HIS LITTLE

FRIEND.

All the imrads or serfs with whom I came in contact seemed to me

quiet, inoffensive folk, when one does not pick a quarrel with them, in
which they differ entirely from the Tuaregs of Algeria. They are of
much paler complexion than the nobles or Ihaggaren.
 In spite of what Abder Rhaman said in his letter, he decided to
come and see us. He was an Arma, or descendant of the old
conquerors from Morocco, with a proud, dignified bearing, and
seemed to be a good and energetic ruler.
We had a very friendly conversation with him, during which the
halt and lame, with all the sick people of the village, came to ask for
medical advice. The doctor really multiplied himself in an
extraordinary way, working miracles of healing.
During the night of the 23rd to the 24th of May we were roused by
a great commotion in the village, and prepared for every
contingency, but in the morning Abder Rhaman came to explain the
mystery, telling us that the Hoggars had made a raid on the
Igwadaren settlements. Sakhaui had sent ten men to reconnoitre,
one of whom was his brother. They had met the enemy, whose force
was superior to theirs, and had had to beat a retreat, with two of their
number wounded. Sakhaui’s brother had had his horse killed under
him.
On the rumour of the approach of the Hoggars, which had
reached Baruba, during the night, the village was deserted, every
one carrying off all the property he could, and the noise we had
heard was that made by the canoes taking over the wretched goods
and chattels of the poor people and the materials of their huts to the
point called Ansel Makkoren. They had not dared to warn us for fear
of being fired on by our sentry.
I greatly regret that I was not at Zarhoi when the news came of
the arrival of the Hoggars. We might have given Sakhaui timely aid
in repulsing them, and thus have aided to avenge the murder of
Flatters, whilst the danger he was in would very likely have driven
the Igwadaren chief into our arms.
Later, however, I had the satisfaction of hearing that the column of
Hoggars who had advanced towards Timbuktu had been surprised
and partly destroyed by the spahis of Captain Laperrine.
 LITTLE NEGROES AT EGUEDECHE.

A short march in the afternoon brought us to Eguedeche, where

we cast anchor opposite a little slave village on the very edge of the
river. At first the negroes all ran away, and when we landed we found
nothing but empty huts. Presently, however, a wail went up from
amongst the fugitives, for Father Hacquart made a sudden dash at
them, and emerged carrying a little boy of about a year old in his
arms, who screamed in terror, but was soon reassured by the
caresses of the father, and began playing with his long beard.
The little fellow’s parents were not far off, and they watched what
was going on from behind some dwarf palms, where they had taken
refuge with the rest of the villagers, and, their fears allayed, they now
came out followed by their comrades.
The large village of Eguedeche is some little distance from the
river, and is hidden behind a dune. The inhabitants, who are the
masters of the slaves in the little village near which we had
anchored, are Kuntas. They showed us the ruins of an earthen hut
which had belonged to Sidi el Amin, one of Hamet Beckay’s
brothers. The chief of Eguedeche came to meet us in person,
accompanied by one of his relations, who belonged to that part of
the tribe which was under the rule of Baba Hamet, a son of El
Beckay. I persuaded him to go back and tell his chief of our
approach, that I was the nephew of Abdul Kerim, and anxious to see
Baba Hamet and his brother Baye.
The news of the Hoggar raid was confirmed by the people here.
Though we were able to remain on pretty good terms with the
inhabitants of the left bank of the Niger, we felt that an obstinate
hostility to us was growing on the other side, and during the day of
the 25th an adventure occurred which proved that we were right.
We had to halt about 8 o’clock. The Aube was already anchored
at the base of a dune, and the Davoust was amongst the grass near
a village, the inhabitants of which had come to barter their eggs and
poultry for our glass beads. The wind had fallen, and I had already
given the signal to start, when from amongst a group of Tuaregs who
had been posted on the dune watching our boats without
approaching, a negro was sent to say they wished to speak to us.
In his hand the envoy held a red woollen coverlet which I had sent
from Rhergo to Mohamed Uld Mbirikat, and which he told me had
been taken from him partly by persuasion and partly by force by Abu,
a brother of Sakhib.
This coverlet, the messenger explained, was sent to prove that he
came from Abu, who exhorted us to keep away from the right bank
of the river, to go down stream if we liked, but to refrain from landing.
The Aube had already started, and on account of the tiresome
wind, which made us lose the best hours every day, we had very
little time to push on, so I resisted my desire to remain where I was
and see what Abu would do. I sent him an answer, however, to the
effect that I was going on, not because he ordered me to, but
because I wished to do so, as I had already made an arrangement
with his elder brother. I added, I had nothing at all to do with Abu,
and did not recognize him as having any authority whatever in the
country.
 In the evening we tried in vain to anchor near the village of
Moyadikoira, the weeds quite prevented our getting in, and we had
to content ourselves by stopping near a little island opposite to it. We
tried without success to attract the natives. They came, it is true, in
their canoes as far as the boundary of weeds and rushes, but they
would not land on our island. I was very anxious, however, to find out
what was in the wind among the Tuaregs, and also to buy some
wood for burning. In these parts, where weeds and grass often make
it impossible to land, the question of how to get fuel for cooking
purposes is often a very serious one, and we had to be very
economical with what we did succeed in obtaining. It is not that there
is not plenty of wood to be had, if there were not steam navigation
would be indeed difficult here; but in order to procure it, it is
necessary to go to the first line of dunes beyond the highest point of
the great inundations. There are plenty of gum trees there, and all
we have to do is to get the natives to cut them down, and carry the
wood to the boats. It throws out a great heat when burning.
On the 26th a canoe passed us in which were some people from
Bamba, who told us that the Tademeket Kel Burrum had met at
Dongoe with the intention of attacking us.
On hearing these tidings Sidi Hamet burst into tears, and in the
end he entreated me to let him leave us at Tosaye to go back to
Timbuktu.
Since we had passed through the Igwadaren districts, the
character of our guide had undergone a complete transformation,
which was anything but an improvement. I knew he had had a letter
from Timbuktu, but I did not know what was in it. I do know, however,
that the silly fellow is a great fool, and very jealous about his wife.
“She is such a beautiful woman,” he informed us one day, “and so
beautifully dressed. She carries the value of at least four bars of salt
on her back.” Is he afraid of the fate of the husband described by
Molière? Is his fear real or feigned? Anyhow he is, or pretends to be,
a constant prey to the greatest terrors. He who, till we reached
Kardieba, was always so gay and so bold, ready to carry out every
enterprise I entrusted to him, he, who had always expressed such
immovable confidence in the success of all our schemes of alliance
with the Awellimiden, could now only dwell on the melancholy fate
which awaited him and us: we should be murdered, he too of course,
and he should never see his dear wife again who has the value of
four bars of salt on her back, etc. I had tried by kindness and by
scolding to restore his moral tone, but it was no good, and feeling
how foolish it would be to place confidence in such a coward, who
was quite ready to deceive us if he could thus prevent us from going
further, I gave him the permission he asked for, seasoning my
compliance, however, with a few pretty severe remarks. This quieted
him for a bit, but he very soon recommenced his jeremiads on the
dangers he would incur on his way back to Timbuktu. To cut the
matter short, however, I at last forbid him ever to mention the matter
to me.
There was, however, some truth in all that Sidi Hamet said. The
natives we met grew more and more hostile. On the morning of the
27th we crossed the rocky pass known as Tinalschiden, and then
Dongoe, where rumour said we were to be attacked. We were, in
fact, followed on either bank by troops of mounted Tuaregs, some
thirty altogether, I should say, but this was not a very formidable
force, and after all they abstained from any hostile manifestation.
The wind compelled us to halt for a few minutes opposite Dongoe on
the left bank, and a horseman rode forward and hailed the Davoust. I
exchanged greetings with him, a necessary prelude to every
conversation, even if that conversation is to lead to a quarrel. I asked
him to give me the news of the country, and he told me I should get
them at Tosaye from Sala Uld Kara.
At about two o’clock we perceived in front of us two great masses
of rock. These were the Baror and Chalor mentioned by Barth, which
form land, or rather water-marks at the defile of Tosaye. A canoe at
once put out from the left bank, in which was a relation of Sala, who
came to offer his services as guide. The numbers of the Tuaregs on
the right bank now increased, and I wished to parley with them, but
our pilot prevented it. A few strokes of the oar soon brought us
opposite Sala’s town, known as Sala Koira or Tosaye. We landed.
TAKING ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
TOSAYE, WITH THE BAROR AND CHABAR ROCKS.
 CHAPTER IV

FROM TOSAYE TO FAFA

Tosaye is a village of sheriffs. They are as pacific and timid a set

of people as can possibly be imagined, but for all that, they gathered
on the beach on our arrival in warlike array, trying to make up for the
courage they lacked by being armed to the teeth. Each marabout
was really a walking arsenal. This made us feel inclined to laugh; but
what was a far more serious matter, was the fact that groups of
Tuaregs, who seemed to be waiting for us, had gathered behind the
village. Our guide, who had sprung ashore directly we landed, had
disappeared, and no one seemed anxious to enter into conversation
with us. I told Sidi Hamet to come down and take me to Chief Sala,
or to one of his representatives; but our political agent at first stoutly
refused to do so. We had to drag him from the boat almost by force,
and then he went up to one of the groups which appeared the least
hostile, entered a hut, and kept us waiting outside for his return for
half-an-hour.
He came at last, with a brother of Sala, bearing very bad news.
Sala by an unlucky chance had gone on a journey, and the people of
the village, fearing that we were going to fight with the Tuaregs,
would be very glad if we did not land here at all. This was succeeded
by a whole rigmarole of information—much of it contradictory, but all
alarming. A great gathering of Awellimiden, Tademeket Kuntas, etc.,
was massed at the Tosaye defile to oppose our passage, etc. Sala
himself was amongst the rest of our enemies.
What was to be done? We were in need of provisions, our reserve
stores were beginning to give out, and I wanted to lay in a stock of
grain, for who could tell what we might expect further down the river?
 I also wanted guides. Ever since we had left Timbuktu the
narrowness and difficulties of the Tosaye defile had been dinned into
our ears. Even Dr. Barth is not very reassuring in what he says about
it, for he asserts that a stone could be flung by a vigorous hand from
one bank to the other, and speaks of the probable existence of very
strong currents, perhaps even of rapids.
We were told that some twelve years ago an army of Toucouleurs
had tried to descend the Niger in canoes. They were, however,
completely annihilated at Tosaye, crushed beneath masses of rocks
which the natives rolled down on them from the top of the cliffs. Of
course I knew that allowance must be made for exaggeration, but for
all that I feared that we should be at very great disadvantage in the
narrow pass if we did have a conflict with the natives. We must
therefore put out all our diplomacy to avoid a struggle.
Without seeming to give any credence to the alarmist reports of
Sidi Hamet, or to be in the least disconcerted by them, I entered into
conversation with Sala’s brother, and very soon managed to
introduce the subject of Abdul Kerim.
I revealed my relationship to him, and as usual it produced the
anticipated effect. Sala was not aware that I was the nephew of
Barth; he must at once be told. As a mark of gratitude and a token
that I really was speaking the truth, I gave him the name of the cook
of his former leader, El Beckay. Her name was Diko.
No doubt when Barth, with his usual German precision, registered
the name of that humble but useful personage, the information did
not seem likely to be of very great importance to future generations.
He little knew the service he would render nearly half-a-century
afterwards to his pretended nephew.
With such a proof as this who could fail to believe that I really was
the nephew of my “uncle,” especially as Diko was not yet dead, but
was living at a camp in the interior? The result of my news was that
Sala had not, after all, gone on a journey, and would perhaps visit
us. His brother at once hastened to land to take the tidings to him,
his whole manner and expression completely transformed.
 He soon came back to report that Sala was not gone, but still in
the village, and when his brother had told him who I was he had
wept, for he saw in my arrival the fulfilment of a prophecy made by
his leader.
The fact was, that when Barth, accompanied by El Beckay,
arrived at Tosaye, the German explorer had no doubt been in more
danger than at any other time during his adventurous expedition.
The Tademeket Kel Burrum had resolved on his death, and all the
eloquence, all the religious influence of his protector could not soften
their feelings of animosity towards him.
At this crisis, and seeing that a terrible outbreak of hatred and
fanaticism was imminent, El Beckay, in the interests of his friend,
came to a weighty resolution. He told the Tuaregs that neither they
nor he were powerful enough to decide a matter so important as the
fate of Barth, and that El Khotab, head of the great confederation of
the Awellimiden, alone had the right to final judgment.
Leaving the banks of the river, El Beckay then went alone to El
Khotab, and persuaded him to give a safe-conduct to Barth, whom
he looked upon as his own protégé.
Barth never knew the danger he had run. In his book he merely
mentions that El Beckay was away for four days to fetch fresh
camels to take the place of their weary animals, which was of course
a mere pretext on the part of his protector, and is a fresh proof of the
delicate tact and consideration for the doctor shown by the great
Kunta marabout.
Now it so happened, that whilst he was discussing the matter with
the Tademeket, El Beckay was seized with one of his attacks of
prophetic delirium, and prophesied that some day the son of Abdul
Kerim would return with three boats.
We had three boats. I claimed, giving irrefragable proofs, to be the
nephew of Barth; it was impossible to deny that the prophecy was
fulfilled. We must add, to round off the story, that Madidu is the son
of the very El Khotab who saved my “uncle.”