Current Electricity. Byju's

S 1 : Introduction to current electricity
What you already know What you will learn
➢ Charge ➢ What is current?

➢ Induction of charges ➢ Current density and drift velocity
➢ Electrostatics ➢ Ohm’s law and its vector form
➢ Capacitor ➢ Electrical resistance
Current Electricity
0600 BC 1801 AD
From the knowledge of electrostatics, we know The Italian physicist
that when two bodies come in contact and get “Alessandro Voltas” invented
rubbed with each other, the transfer of charges first electrical battery called
happens. The electricity produced by this method “Voltaic pile” which made up
is known as frictional electricity. by stacking several pairs of
But to store this charges we need something by alternating copper (or silver)
which we can use this charges in recent future. and zinc discs (electrodes) ALESSANDRO VOLTAS
separated by cloth or
cardboard soaked in brine
(electrolyte) to increase the
electrolyte conductivity.
This battery could continuously

provide an electric current.
Current Electricity
Alessandro Voltas also observed that when the copper and zinc plates were sink in an
acid solution more electricity got produced.
Electric Current
The net amount of charge flowing across the area in the time interval ∆𝑡, is defined to be the
current across the area.
If ∆𝑄 amount of charge (free electrons) is passing
through a hypothetical cross-sectional area of a
conducting wire in time ∆𝑡, then the current is defined
as follows:
∆𝑄
𝐼=
∆𝑡
If 1 C charge is flowing through a cross-sectional area of 𝒆 𝒆

the wire in 1 s, then that current is called 1 Ampere (A) Δ𝑄
𝒆 𝒆
current.
1𝐶 Δ𝑡
𝐼= =1𝐴
1𝑠
Electric Current
❖ Electric current (I) is a fundamental quantity.
Length Current
Dimensional Formula − [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]
Mass Time
Unit of current – Ampere (𝐴)

Question
A flow of 107 electrons per second in a conducting wire constitutes a current of
A 1.6 × 10−12 𝐴 B 1.6 × 1026 𝐴 C 1.6 × 10−26 𝐴 D 1.6 × 1012 𝐴
Solution
If n number of electrons flow through the conducting wire per second, then net charge will be given by,
∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝑒
Therefore, the current is, Hence,
∆𝑄 𝑛𝑒 107 × 1.6 × 10−19
𝐼= = 𝐼=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 1
The following data are given:
𝐼 = 1.6 × 10−12 𝐴
𝑛 = 107 , 𝑡 = 1 𝑠, 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.
Direction of Conventional current
➢ Current flows from one end of conductor to other end only because of
potential difference between two ends.
electron flow
➢ Under electrostatic conditions, we know that the electric field inside an
isolated conductor is zero and all the free electrons are in random 𝐸
motion so that there is no velocity gradient exists. But when this
isolated conductor is connected to the battery, positive and negative
charges are induced on that sides of the conductor which are
connected to the positive and negative terminal of the battery,
respectively, as shown in the figure. Since the conductor is no longer in Current
electrostatic condition, a net electric field 𝐸 is produced inside the
conductor.
➢ The electrons feels an attractive force 𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸 and hence, the + −
electrons flow from negative terminal to positive terminal of the
battery whereas the holes (i.e., positive charges) experiences a
repulsive force 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑒𝐸 and it flows in opposite direction of the flow of
electrons.
➢ The direction of electric current is taken from positive (high potential) to the negative (low potential) terminal,
opposite to the flow of electrons to maintain the methodology that any physical quantity flows from high to low.
Example: Gas flows from high pressure region to low pressure region.
Current
Is current a scalar or a vector quantity ?
Since current has both magnitude and direction, it may seem to us that this
is a vector quantity. But, if it is a vector quantity is has to obey at least the 𝐼 =5𝐴
law of vector addition.
Magnitude & Direction
In all three following cases it is seen that although the angle between the
direction of flow of current is different, the current 𝑥 = 6 𝐴. Therefore, it
obeys simple algebraic addition. Hence, the conclusion is:
Electric current is a treated as a Scalar Quantity.
3𝐴 3𝐴 3𝐴
It does not follow the law of vector addition. 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
60° 150° 180°
3𝐴 3𝐴
3𝐴
𝑥=6𝐴
Current density
❖ The vector quantity that can be associated with the current is current density.
❖ The amount of electric current traveling per unit cross-section area is known as current density and its
direction is always along the direction of current.
❖ If current I is flowing through an area A perpendicular to
the direction current, then mathematically, the current 𝐼 𝐴Ԧ
density is defined as follows:
𝐽
𝐼 𝐴𝑚𝑝 𝐽Ԧ → direction same as 𝐼
𝐽 = −
𝐴 𝑚2 𝐴 → ⊥ to the current flow +
❖ If current I is flowing through an area A, and the angle

between the direction of flow of the current and the 𝐼
direction of the area vector is θ , as shown in the figure, 𝜃
then mathematically, the current density is defined as 𝐴Ԧ
follows: 𝐽
𝐼
|𝐽|= + −
𝐴 cos 𝜃
Current density
Therefore, if the current density and the area is known to us, then the current can be found out as follows:
𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ 𝐴Ԧ
For any three dimensional surface, this current can also be represented as follows:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑗Ԧ. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
Notes
Dimensional Formula − [𝑀0 𝐿−2 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]

More the current in a conductor, the higher will be the current density.
Current density is a vector quantity having both a direction and a scalar magnitude.
Current density is important in the designing of electrical and electronic systems.
Average thermal velocity
Consider that the temperature of an isolated iron rod is
333 𝐾
increased up to a certain level. As the temperature of 𝑢ത 2 323 𝐾
the rod is increased, the thermal agitation of the free 𝑢ത 4 𝑢ത 𝑛 313 𝐾
electrons in the rod will be increasing gradually and 𝑢ത1 𝑢ത 3 303 𝐾
this in turn will increase the thermal energy of the
293 𝐾
electrons. Hence, the electrons will be in random
283 𝐾
motions.
273 𝐾
Since the electrons are in random motion, it is possible
that the velocity of all electrons due to this thermal
agitation points at different directions and hence, the
average thermal velocity (not speed) becomes zero.
If 𝑢ത1 , 𝑢ത 2 , 𝑢ത 3 , ….., 𝑢ത 𝑛 are the individual thermal velocities of n number of electrons, then the average thermal
velocity is given by,
ഥ1 +ഥ
𝑢 𝑢2 +ഥ ഥ4 +ഥ
𝑢3 + 𝑢 𝑢5 +⋯+ഥ
𝑢𝑛
𝑢ത 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = Average thermal velocity = =0
𝑛
Current Electricity
When the electrons are in random motion due to the thermal agitation if we imagine a hypothetical cross-
sectional area as shown in the figure, the net number of electrons crossing this area will be zero during a
certain time interval . This is because during that time internal the number of electrons crossing the area
from right to left is equal to the number of electrons crossing the area from left to right.
Since no net charge is crossed the hypothetical area, it can be said that the net current through this area
will be zero. That’s why an isolated conductor doesn’t give us electric shock.
Net current through this area

is Zero
Acceleration of 𝒆 −
If the thermally heated iron rod is connected with a
battery, then along with the random motion due to 𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸
thermal agitation the electrons also move from
negative terminal to positive terminal of the battery 𝐸
because of the created electric field inside the rod.
𝐼
Because of the electric field, the force on one + −
electron is given by,
𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸
Due to this force on the electron, let the electron starts drifting with acceleration 𝑎.
Ԧ If the mass of the
electron is m, then the acceleration of the electron will be given by,
Drift Velocity
➢ The average velocity attained by charged particles in a material due to an electric field is called as drift
velocity.
➢ If 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ,𝑣3 ,..…..,𝑣𝑛 are the individual velocities of n number of electrons due to the electric field, then
the average velocity is given by,
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
ҧ =
𝑛
+ −
Drift Velocity
Let the electric field is acting towards the left. Thus, the force on
the electrons will act towards right. A C
Drift
Assume that an electron starts moving with thermal velocity 𝑢1
from point A and gets collided with an atom of the material at 𝑢1
point B. At point B, the velocity of the electron changes to 𝑣1 𝑣2
because of the force due to the electric field. In between point A 𝜆1 𝜆2
and B, the electron doesn’t suffer any collision. 𝜏1 B 𝜏2
The path between two successive collisions suffered by an
𝑣1 𝑢2
electron is known as the free path(λ).
If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 ,..….., λ𝑛 are the individual free path of n number of
electrons, then the mean free path is defined as,
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛
𝜆𝑚 =
𝑛
The time between two successive collisions is known as “Relaxation time”. It is denoted by “τ”.
Drift Velocity
We know that the acceleration of the electron due to the
𝑒𝐸
electron electric field is, |𝑎| =
𝑚 Drift
Since this acceleration is constant, the velocity 𝑣1 can be written
as, 𝑢1
𝑣2
𝜆1 𝜆2
𝜏1 𝜏2
Now, the average velocity of all electrons is defined as,
𝑣1 𝑢2
𝑒𝐸
⇒ 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
ҧ = − 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑚
The negative sign refers the fact that the
Therefore, the drift velocity of the electrons is defined as, direction of the drift velocity is always
ҧ = 𝑎𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 opposite to the electric field
Relation between (𝒗 𝒅 ) & 𝑽
We know that the magnitude of drift velocity is, 𝑙
𝑒𝐸
ҧ = 𝜏
𝑚 𝑎𝑣𝑔
Since a small change in potential difference is defined as 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐸
− 𝐸. 𝑑𝑥, thus, the magnitude of any potential difference can be
written as,
∆𝑉 = 𝐸. ∆𝑥 + −
Now, in this case, since the potential difference between two
ends of the rod is V and the length of the rod is l, the electric
field will be,
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑙
Hence, the expression of the magnitude of drift velocity becomes,
𝑒𝑉
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑚𝑙
Relation between 𝑰 & (𝒗 𝒅 )
Let two cross-sections of area A, as shown in the figure.
We know that due to the electric field the average 𝐴 𝑑𝑞

velocity of the electrons is the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 .
If n be the number of electrons per unit volume of 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
the rod and dq amount of charge travels the distance
between two cross-sections in time dt, then,
+ −
𝑑𝑞 = [No. of free 𝑒 − in the volume contained by two cross-sections] × [charge of one electron]
⇒ 𝑑𝑞 = [(Number of electrons per unit volume) × (The volume of the portion contained by those two
cross-sections)] × [Charge of one electron]
⇒ 𝑑𝑞 = (𝑛 × 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 × 𝐴) × 𝑒
⇒ 𝑑𝑞 = (𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴)𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
Now since the current is defined as 𝐼 = , therefore,
𝑑𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
Mobility
The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field :
+ −
𝑣𝑑
𝜇 =
𝐸 𝑒𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝜇 =
𝑚
𝑒𝐸
𝑚
S 2: Ohm’s law and electrical resistance
➢ Current ➢ Ohm’s law and its vector form

➢ Current density ➢ Electrical resistance and resistivity
➢ Drift velocity ➢ Effect of temperature on electrical
resistance and resistivity
Recap
Electric current:
The net amount of charge flowing across the area in the time interval ∆𝑡, is defined to be the current across
the area.
∆𝑄
𝐼=
∆𝑡
Current density:
The amount of electric current flowing per unit cross-section area is known as current density.
𝐼
Ԧ =
|𝐽| 𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ 𝐴Ԧ 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝐴Ԧ
𝐴 cos 𝜃
Dimensional Formula: [𝑀0 𝐿−2 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]

Recap
Drift velocity :
The average velocity attained by charged particles in a material due to an electric field is known as
drift velocity.
𝑒𝐸
ҧ = − 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑚
Mean free Path:
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 + ⋯ + 𝜆𝑛
𝜆𝑚 =
𝑛
Relation between 𝑣 𝑑 and 𝑉 :

𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑙
Recap
Relation between 𝑣 𝑑 and 𝐼 :
Mobility :
The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.
𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝜇 = 𝜇 =
𝐸 𝑚
Relation between 𝑰 & (𝑽)
We know that the expression of drift velocity is given by,
𝑒𝑉 𝐴 𝑑𝑞
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
We also know that the current can be written in terms of
drift velocity as, + −
By combining these two relations, we get,

𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑒𝑉𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐼=
𝑚𝑙
𝑚𝑙
⇒𝑉= 𝐼
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴
Since all the terms in parenthesis are constants in a given physical condition, thus,
𝑉∝𝐼
Ohm’s Law
This law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain constant.
∆𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 or ∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Voltage (∆𝑉)
𝑅 = Resistance of the conductor
𝜃
The above relation is of y = mx type and hence the
plot of ∆𝑉 vs 𝐼 will be a straight line passing through
∆𝑉
origin with slope 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = = 𝑅 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) Current (𝐼)
𝐼
Electrical Resistance: Georg Ohm

Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow Resistor Symbol:
of electric current through it.
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑅= 𝑜𝑟 Ω (Ohm)
𝐼 𝐴𝑚𝑝
Question
From the graph between current (𝐼) and voltage (𝑉) shown below, identify the portion
corresponding to negative resistance
A 𝐶𝐷 𝐸
𝐵 𝐶
Current (𝐼)
B 𝐷𝐸 𝐷
C 𝐴𝐵
𝐴 Voltage (𝑉)
D 𝐵𝐶
Discussion
Negative resistance corresponds to decreasing current with increase in voltage and in the given
graph only 𝐶𝐷 portion represents this. Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.
𝐸
𝐶
Current (𝐼) 𝐵
Slope is
𝐷 Negative
𝐴 Voltage (𝑉)
Vector form of Ohm’s Law
We know that the expression of drift velocity is Resistivity 𝜌
given by,
𝑉 𝑚 𝐼
⟹ = ×
𝑒𝑉 𝑙 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
Since the magnitude of electric field and the current
We also know that the current can be written in 𝑉 𝐼
density are defined as 𝐸 = and 𝐽 = , respectively,
terms of drift velocity as, 𝑙 𝐴
𝑚
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 we get, 𝐸 = 𝜌 𝐽Ԧ Where 𝜌 = = Resistivity
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
By combining these two relations, we get, This relation can also be rearranged as follows:
1
𝑒𝑉 Ԧ𝐽 = 𝐸 ×
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝜏 𝜌
𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔 1
𝑉 𝑚𝐼 Since = 𝜎 (Conductivity)
𝜌
⟹ = 2
𝑙 𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸 S.I unit = Siemens/metre = 𝑆/𝑚
Electrical Resistance
We know that,
𝑚𝑙
𝑚 = mass of 𝑒 −
𝑉= 2
𝐼
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝐴 𝑙 = length of the conductor
𝑉 𝑚𝑙 𝑛 = No. of free 𝑒 − per unit volume
⇒ =
𝐼 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴
𝑒 = charge on 𝑒 −
Now, we also know that,
𝑉 𝜏 = Avg. Relaxation Time
𝑅=
𝐼
𝐴 = Area of cross-section
𝑚𝑙
𝑅=
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴
By assuming temperature to be constant, all the quantities at

the R.H.S. of this expression except 𝑙 and 𝐴 are constants.
1
Therefore, 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 and 𝑅 ∝ .
𝐴
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by the material per unit length for unit
cross-section.
We have seen that the resistance can be expressed as,
𝑚 𝑙
𝑅=
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝐴
The term in the parenthesis is mathematically defined as the resistivity. Thus,
𝑚
𝜌= = Resistivity = 𝑜ℎ𝑚. 𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Therefore, the expression of resistance becomes,

𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Note: Resistivity depends on temperature and the material itself

Effect of temperature on Resistance & Resistivity
I) Conductors
When the temperature of a conductor increases, more electrons
become free and hence, the number density of the free electrons
(i.e., n) increases. Now, due to thermal agitation, the collision of the
free electrons with other electrons and with the atoms of the
material of the conductor also increases. Therefore, the relaxation
time (i.e., τ) decreases.
The resistance is defined as,
𝑚𝑙 𝑚
𝑅= where, = 𝜌 (resistivity)
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝐴 2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
As n increases, R will decrease which in turn decreases the resistivity and as τ decreases, R will increase which
in turn increases the resistivity.
𝑛↑ 𝑅 ↓, 𝜌 ↓ (Since the conductor has plenty of free 𝑒 − per unit volume, so
the increase in n doesn’t have much effect on 𝑅 & 𝜌)
𝑇↑
𝜏↓ 𝑅 ↑, 𝜌 ↑
Effect of temperature on Resistance & Resistivity
The graphical representation of the resistivity with temperature for conductors and alloys are shown below.
I) Conductors II) For alloys
Resistivity (𝜌)
Resistivity (𝜌)
Temperature (𝐾) Temperature (𝐾)
For copper (Manganin, Nichrome, Constantan)

Question
The resistance of a wire is ‘𝑅’ ohm. If it is melted and stretched to ‘𝑛’ times of its original
length, its new resistance will be :
𝑅
A
𝑛
B 𝑛2 𝑅
𝑅
C
𝑛2
D 𝑛𝑅
Discussion
Assume that initially the rod has length l and cross-sectional area
A, Therefore, The resistance of the rod is, 𝐴
𝜌𝑙 𝑙
𝑅 = … (𝑖)
𝐴
𝐴2
If it is melted and stretched to ‘𝑛’ times of its original length, let its
𝑛𝑙
cross-sectional area becomes 𝐴2 . Since the volume of the rod remains
same, we get the following:
𝑉 = 𝐴 × 𝑙 = 𝐴2 × 𝑛𝑙
𝐴
∴ 𝐴2 =
𝑛
Hence, the new resistance of the rod becomes,
𝜌𝑛𝑙
𝑅2 = ⇒ 𝑅2 = 𝑅 × 𝑛2
𝐴2
𝜌𝑛𝑙
⇒ 𝑅2 =
𝐴/𝑛 𝑅2 = 𝑛2 𝑅
𝜌𝑙
⇒ 𝑅2 = × 𝑛2 Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
𝐴
Question
A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten percent. Its new resistance and
specific resistance become respectively
A both remain the same
B 1.1 times, 1.1 times
C 1.2 times, 1.1 times
D 1.21 times, same

Discussion
In the previous problem, we have seen that when the length of the wire
increases n times, the cross-sectional area of the rod decreases n times 𝑙
and hence, the resistance increases 𝑛2 times.
Therefore, If old resistance is R, then the new resistance will be,
𝑅 ′ = 𝑛2 𝑅 𝑙′
In this problem, the length of the rod is increased by 10 %. Therefore, if
the old length of the rod is l, then the new length of the rod will be,
𝑙 ′ = 𝑙 ′ = 𝑙 + 10 % 𝑙
10
⇒ 𝑙′ = 𝑙 + 𝑙 = 𝑙 + 0.1𝑙
100
∴ 𝑙 = 1.1 𝑙
Therefore, in this case, the length of the rod increases by 𝑛 = 1.1 times.
Hence, the new resistance will be,
𝑅′ = 1.1 2 𝑅 = 1.21 𝑅
Since the resistivity (or specific resistance) only depends on the material and the temperature, and in this
problem both remains same, the specific resistance remains same.
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.
Question
The masses of the wires of copper are in the ratio 1: 3: 5 and their lengths are in the
ratio 5: 3: 1. The ratio of their electrical resistance is:
A 1: 3: 5
B 1: 25: 125
C 5: 3: 1
D 125: 15: 1
Discussion
It is given that the masses of the wires of copper are in the ratio 1: 3: 5 and their
lengths are in the ratio 5: 3: 1.
𝑀1 : 𝑀2 : 𝑀3 = 1: 3: 5
𝑙1 : 𝑙2 : 𝑙3 = 5: 3: 1
If the length and the cross-section of a rod are l and A, then the resistance of
the rod is given by,
𝜌𝑙 Therefore, the ratio of resistance of the of the
𝑅= rods is given by,
𝐴
If the density a rod is d, the mass of the rod is given by, 𝑙12 𝑙22 𝑙32
𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 = : :
𝑀 = Volume × Density = 𝐴𝑙 × 𝑑 𝑀 1 𝑀2 𝑀3
𝑀 52 32 12
∴𝐴= ⇒ 𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 = : :
𝑙𝑑 1 3 5
1
Therefore, the expression of resistance is given by, ⇒ 𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 = 25 ∶ 3 ∶
5
𝜌𝑙 2 𝑑 𝑙2
𝑅= ⇒𝑅 ∝ ∴ 𝑅1 ∶ 𝑅2 ∶ 𝑅3 = 125 ∶ 15 ∶ 1
𝑀 𝑀
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.
Question
The current density in a wire is 10 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 and the electric field in the wire is 5 𝑉/𝑐𝑚. If
𝜎 = conductivity of the material, then find 𝜎 (in 𝑆/𝑚).
A 200 𝑆/𝑚
B 400 𝑆/𝑚
C 100 𝑆/𝑚
D 80 𝑆/𝑚
Discussion
From Ohm’s law, we get,
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐽
⇒𝜎=
𝐸
The current density of the wire is,
𝐽 = 10 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 = 10 𝐴/(10−4 𝑚2 ) = 105 𝐴/𝑚2
The electric field in the wire is,
𝐸 = 5 𝑉/𝑐𝑚 = 5 𝑉/(10−2 𝑚) = 500 𝑉/𝑚
Therefore, the conductivity will be,
105
𝜎=
500
𝑆
𝜎 = 200
𝑚
Temperature coefficient of Resistance
Consider a conducting wire with initial temperature 𝑇0 and initial resistance 𝑇0 , 𝑅0
𝑅0 . Let the temperature of the rod is increased by 𝑑𝑇 and hence, the
resistance of the rod is increased by 𝑑𝑅.
Conducting Wire
This increase in resistance is directly proportional to the increase in
temperature and the initial resistance of the rod. Thus, we can write the
following:
𝑑𝑅 ∝ 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑅 ∝ 𝑅0
By combining these two proportionality relations, we get,
𝑑𝑅 = 𝛼𝑅0 𝑑𝑇
𝑅0 = Resistance at any reference temperature 𝑇0

𝛼 = The proportionality constant known as “Co-efficient of thermal resistance”
𝑑𝑅 = 𝛼𝑅0 𝑑𝑇
If the resistance of the rod becomes 𝑅𝑓 at any final temperature 𝑇𝑓 , then by doing integration of the above
equation, we get
𝑅𝑓 𝑇𝑓
න 𝑑𝑅 = 𝛼𝑅0 න 𝑑𝑇
𝑅0 𝑇0
⇒ 𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼𝑅0 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 )
⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 + 𝛼𝑅0 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 )
Therefore, if the temperature difference is defined as ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇0 , then,
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
𝜌𝑙
Since 𝑅 = , and if the initial and final resistivity are 𝜌0 and 𝜌𝑓 , then,
𝐴
𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
Therefore, the resistance of a material changes with temperature as,
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
Hence, the “Co-efficient of thermal resistance” is given by,
𝑅𝑓 − 𝑅0
𝛼=
𝑅0 ∆𝑇
I) For Conductors: 𝛼 = +𝑣𝑒
II) For alloys like (Nichrome): 𝛼 = 0

S 3 : Kirchhoff’s Laws
➢ Ohm’s law and its vector form ➢ Color coding of carbon resistors
➢ Electrical resistance and resistivity ➢ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
➢ Effect of temperature of electrical ➢ Sign convention
resistance and resistivity ➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
Recap
Relation between 𝐼 and 𝑉 :
𝑒𝑉 𝐴 𝑑𝑞
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑚𝑙 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑒𝑉𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 + −
𝐼=
𝑚𝑙
𝑚𝑙
𝑉= 2
𝐼
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴
𝑉∝𝐼
Recap
Ohm’s Law:
This law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain constant.
∆𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 or ∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Electrical resistance( R ):
Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow of electric current
through it.
𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑅= 𝑜𝑟 Ω (Ohm)
𝐼 𝐴𝑚𝑝
Recap
Vector form of ohm’s Law:
𝐸 = 𝜌 𝐽Ԧ 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸
Electrical resistivity:
It is defined as the resistance offered by the material per unit length for unit cross-section.
𝑚
𝜌= = Resistivity = 𝑜ℎ𝑚. 𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Recap
Effect of temperature on resistance :
i) Conductors ii) For alloys
Resistivity (𝜌)
Resistivity (𝜌)
Temperature (𝐾) Temperature (𝐾)
For copper (Manganin, Nichrome, Constantan)
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) 𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)
𝑅0 = Resistance at reference temperature 𝑇0

𝛼 = Co-efficient of thermal resistance
Colour coding of carbon resistors
Carbon resistors 4 co-axial colour bands (rings)
4𝑡ℎ band → It stands for tolerance or possible variation in

percentage about the indicated values.
1 2 3 4
3𝑟𝑑 band → Indicates the decimal multiplier
1st and 2nd band → Indicate the first two significant

figures of the resistance in ohms.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODES
Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 1(100 )
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103 1 2 3 4
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105 Trick:
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 ± 5%
BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very
Silver 10−2 ± 10%
No colour ± 20%
Good Wife
Blue Brown No ring
Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance Green
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
1 2 3 4
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 ± 5%
Silver 10−2 ± 10%
No colour ± 20%
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Node or Junction : It is a point in a circuit at which more than two conductors meet.
𝐼1 , 𝑅1
At a node or junction net current
coming in is equal to net current Node/Junction
going out. There’s no accumulation of
current at the junction.
𝐼2 , 𝑅2
𝐼
The law states that the amount of current 𝐼
flowing into a node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of it.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Incoming current= Outgoing current 𝐼1 , 𝑅1
10
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼
𝐼1 𝐼 − 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 𝐼2 , 𝑅2
𝐼
20 𝐼
10 Σ𝐼 = 0
𝐼2
Net current at a junction is zero.

Junction
Δ𝑄 Δ𝑄1 Δ𝑄2
− − =0 Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑄1 + Δ𝑄2
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
Sum of charges = Sum of charges
entering the node leaving the node
Law of conservation
of Charge
Question
In given circuit, find the value of 𝐼
4A
A −2 A
B 8A
C 5A 2A 8A
D 2A 𝐼
Discussion
4A Method-1:
Incoming current = Outgoing current
4𝐴+2𝐴 =8𝐴+𝐼
⇒ 𝐼 = −2 𝐴
2A 8A
Method-2:
𝐼 Assuming the incoming current towards the junction to
be positive and outgoing current from the junction to be
negative, we can write,
−𝑣𝑒 sign implies actual direction of current is opposite to the assumed direction of
current. That means the current I will be towards the junction.
In the case of car driving on a hill, when the car reaches
the top it’s potential energy increases and it decreases
Change In Potential E nergy
as it moves down.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Suppose charge of +1𝐶 is flowing through the circuit

at any particular instant. As the charge pass through
the resistances, its potential energy decreases.
Work done in carrying a +1𝐶 charge once around the
circuit = 1𝐶 𝑉 + 1𝐶 −𝑉1 + 1𝐶 −𝑉2 + 1𝐶(−𝑉3 ) 𝑄 = +1𝐶
Since the starting point and ending point of the
charge is same, the total work done will be zero.
Hence, energy will be conserved.
Therefore, KVL is based upon Law of conservation of Energy

In a closed loop/mesh, the algebraic sum of all the 𝐴 𝐵
potential differences is zero − 𝑉 ++ 𝑉1 − + 𝑉2 − + 𝑉3 −
𝐷 𝐶
Sign Convention
L = Lower Potential
H = Higher Potential
𝐼 + − 𝐼 + − If the direction in which sum is taken
is same as the direction of current
then take potential difference as
negative.
If they are in opposite direction then
− V + − V + take potential difference as positive.
In a closed loop/mesh, the algebraic sum of all the 𝐴 𝐵
potential differences is zero − 𝑉 ++ 𝑉1 − + 𝑉2 − + 𝑉3 −
𝐷 𝐶
In loop ABCDA,
𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
Σ𝑉 = 0
Question
In given circuit, find 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 respectively
𝑖1 , 10 Ω 𝑖2 , 10 Ω
𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
A 1 𝐴 ,2 𝐴
1 2
B 𝐴, 𝐴
3 3 10 Ω
20 𝑉 20 𝑉
1 1
C 𝐴, 𝐴 10 𝑉
3 3
D 5 𝐴 ,2 𝐴
𝐴 𝐹 𝐸
Draw current from source 𝑖1 , 10 Ω 𝑖2 , 10 Ω
𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
Distribute current using KCL 10 Ω

20 𝑉 20 𝑉
10 𝑉
Choose loops with direction

Clockwise / Anticlockwise 𝐴 𝐹 𝐸
Apply KVL over selected loop

Discussion
𝑖1 , 10 Ω 𝑖2 , 10 Ω In loop
𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑖1 𝑖2
In loop
10 Ω
20 𝑉 20 𝑉
10 𝑉
𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝐴 𝑖1 𝐹 𝑖2 𝐸
By solving equation (1) and (2), we get,
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

Question
The potential difference (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given figure is
A +9 𝑉
𝑉𝐴 2Ω 1Ω 𝑉𝐵
B −3 𝑉 + −
𝐴 𝐼 =2𝐴 𝐵
3𝑉
C +3 𝑉
D +6 𝑉
Discussion
Using KVL,
𝑉𝐴 − 2 × 𝐼 − 3 − 1 × 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐴 2Ω 1Ω 𝑉𝐵
⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2𝐼 + 3 + 𝐼
⇒ 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 9 𝑉 + −
𝐴 𝐼 =2𝐴 𝐵
3𝑉

Question
In the circuit shown in the figure, if the potential at point 𝐴 is taken to be zero, the potential
at point 𝐵 is 𝑅1 𝐷 𝐵
A −2 𝑉
2𝑉
1𝐴
B −1 𝑉
𝑅2 2𝐴
2Ω
C +1 𝑉
D +2 𝑉
𝐴 𝐶
1𝑉
Discussion
Applying KCL at node D, we get,
𝑅1 𝐷 𝐵 𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐴 − 1 𝐴 = 1 𝐴
Therefore, the potential difference between point
2𝑉
1𝐴 𝑖𝐷𝐶 𝐷 and 𝐶 is given by,
2𝐴 𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 × 2 Ω = 2 𝑉
𝑅2 2Ω
⇒ 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 2 𝑉
⇒ 𝑉𝐷 = 3 𝑉 [since 𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑉]
𝐴 𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐵 = 2 𝑉
1𝑉
⇒ 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = −1 𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉𝐵 = 1 𝑉 [since 𝑉𝐷 = 3 𝑉]
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = −1 𝑉
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑉 [since 𝑉𝐴 = 0 𝑉]
S 4 : Combination of Resistors
➢ Color coding of carbon resistors ➢ Examples on KCL and KVL

➢ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) ➢ Series combination of resistors
➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) ➢ Parallel combination of resistors
Recap
Colour coding of carbon resistors:
BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4𝑡ℎ band → stands for

tolerance or possible
variation in percentage
about the indicated values.
1 2 3 4
3𝑟𝑑 band→Indicates the
decimal multiplier
1,2 band → Indicate the

first two significant figures
of the resistance in ohms.
Recap
Sign convention:
Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒
𝐼 + − 𝐼 + − If the direction in which sum is taken is same

as the direction of current then take the
potential difference as negative.
Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒 If they are in opposite direction then take

potential difference as positive.
− V + − V +
Recap
Kirchhoff’s current law :
Node or Junction : It is a point in a circuit at which more than two conductors meet.
At junction,
Incoming current = Outgoing current
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
Σ𝐼 = 0
Δ𝑄 Δ𝑄1 Δ𝑄2
− − =0
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
Law of conservation
of Charge
Recap
Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
In a closed loop/mesh, the

algebraic sum of all the
potential differences is zero
𝑉 − 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
Σ𝑉 = 0
Law of conservation of Energy

Question
In the circuit shown in the figure, if the potential at point 𝐴 is taken to be zero, the potential
at point 𝐵 is
𝑅1 𝐷 𝐵
a −2 𝑉 2𝑉
1𝐴
b −1 𝑉 𝑅2 2Ω
2𝐴
c +1 𝑉
d +2 𝑉 𝐴 𝐶
1𝑉
Discussion
𝑅1 𝐷 𝐵
2𝑉
1𝐴
𝑅2 2𝐴
2Ω
𝐴 𝐶
1𝑉
Summary
Applying KCL ,
𝑅1 𝐷 𝐵
𝑖𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐴 − 1 𝐴 = 1 𝐴
2𝑉
1𝐴 𝑖𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑖𝐷𝐶 × 2 Ω = 2 𝑉
𝑅2 2𝐴
2Ω
𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑉
𝑉𝐷 = 3 𝑉
𝐴 𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐵 = 2 𝑉
1𝑉
𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝐵 = 2 𝑉
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = −1 𝑉
𝑉𝐵 = 1 𝑉
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = −1 𝑉
𝑉𝐴 = 0 𝑉 Thus, option (c) is the correct answer.
𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑉
Combination of Resistors
Series combination: Voltage
Series combination: Equivalent resistance
𝐼
𝑅1
𝑉1 𝐼
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼 𝑉
𝑅2
𝑉2
𝐼
𝑅3
𝑉3
Series combination: Many resistors 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅1 , 𝑉1 𝑅2 , 𝑉2 𝑅3 , 𝑉3 𝑅𝑛 , 𝑉𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … … … + 𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅 Equal resistance

Parallel combination: Votage and current
𝐼1 , 𝑅1 , 𝑉
𝐼2 , 𝑅2 , 𝑉
𝐵
𝐼 𝐼3 , 𝑅3 , 𝑉
𝑉
Parallel combination: Equivalent resistance
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝐼1 , 𝑅1 , 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼2 , 𝑅2 , 𝑉 = + +
𝐵 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐼
𝐼 𝐼3 , 𝑅3 , 𝑉 𝑅𝑒𝑞
1 1 1 1
𝐼 𝑉 𝐼 = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉
𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (For 𝑛 equal resistances)
𝑛
Question
When a wire of uniform cross-section 𝐴, length 𝑙 and resistance 𝑅 is bent into a
complete circle, resistance between any two of diametrically opposite points will be
𝑙
a 𝑅/4
b 4𝑅
𝐴 𝐵
c 𝑅/8
d 𝑅/2
Discussion
𝐴 𝐵
Here, the wire can be considered as

parallel combination as shown in the
adjacent figure.
Thus, option (a) is the correct answer.

Question
The current (𝑖) in the given circuit is
𝑖
a 4.9 𝐴
b 6.8 𝐴 𝑅𝐴 = 3 Ω 𝑅𝐵 = 6 Ω
4.8 𝑉
c 8.3 𝐴
𝑅𝐶 = 6 Ω
d 2.0 𝐴 𝑖
Discussion
The given circuit can be replaced in form of single equivalent resistor as shown below.
𝑅𝐴 = 3 Ω 𝑅𝐵 = 6 Ω
4.8 𝑉
𝑅𝐶 = 6 Ω
4.8 × 5
= =2𝐴
12
Thus, option (d) is the correct answer.

Question
A wire of resistance 𝑅 is divided in 10 equal parts. Two pieces each are connected in
parallel and then such five such combinations are connected in series. The total
resistance of the system will be
a 𝑅
𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10
b 𝑅/4
c 𝑅/10
𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10
d 𝑅/20
Discussion
𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10
𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10
Here, equivalent resistance

of each parallel loop is:
(𝑅/10)×(𝑅/10)
= 𝑅 𝑅
10
+)× 10
𝑅
= Ω Thus, option (b) is the correct answer.
20
Question
Equivalent resistance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 will be
3Ω 3Ω
a 2Ω
b 18 Ω
6Ω 3Ω 3Ω
c 3Ω 3Ω
d 3.6 Ω
𝐴 𝐵
3Ω 3Ω
Discussion
The given circuit can be replaced in form of a simple loop as shown below.
3Ω 3Ω
3Ω 3Ω
3Ω 3Ω
𝐴 𝐵
3Ω 3Ω
= 3.6 Ω

Question
A ring is made of a wire having a resistance 𝑅0 = 12 Ω. Find the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 , as
shown in the figure, at which a current carrying conductor should be connected so that
the resistance 𝑅 of the sub circuit between these points is equal to 8/3 Ω.
𝑙1 5
a = 𝑙1
𝑙2 8
𝑙1 1 𝐵
b = 𝐴
𝑙2 3
𝑙1 3
c =
𝑙3 8
𝑙2
𝑙1 1
d =
𝑙2 2
Discussion
𝑙1
𝐵
𝐴
𝑙2
Discussion
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 12 Ω … . (1) 𝑅1 𝑅2 = 32 Ω … . (2) 𝑙1 𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑙1
𝐵
𝐴
𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑙2
𝑙2
𝑅1 𝑙1 1
= =
𝑅2 𝑙2 2
Question
The potential drop across the 3 Ω resistor is
a 1𝑉 3Ω
4Ω
b 1.5 𝑉
c 2𝑉 6Ω
d 3𝑉
3𝑉
Discussion
The potential drop across the 3 Ω resistor is
3Ω
4Ω
6Ω
3𝑉
Potential drop , 𝑉2 = 0.5 × 2 = 1 𝑉

S 5 : Combination of resistors-2
➢ Examples on KCL and KVL ➢ Infinite network of resistors

➢ Series combination of resistors ➢ Galvanometer
➢ Parallel combination of resistors ➢ Wheatstone bridge
➢ Examples on Wheatstone bridge
Recap
Series combination:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯
𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Recap
Parallel combination:
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
If only two resistances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are in parallel combination, then equivalent resistance will be
If there are n number of resistances of resistance 𝑅 are in parallel combination, then equivalent resistance
will be
Infinite network:
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 ⇒∞
𝐵
First identify the repeating pattern.

Then, by keeping one such pattern,
replace the rest of the network by an
equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 as shown.
After that, by solving a quadratic
equation of 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , we can find the
equivalent resistance.
Infinite network:
𝑅1 1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 +𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 2
⇒∞
𝐵
2 𝑅1 ± 𝑅12 + 4𝑅1 𝑅2
⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 1 2
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 1 − 1 + 4𝑅2 /𝑅1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 1 + 1 + 4𝑅2 /𝑅1
2
2
𝐵 (Not possible as resistance can’t
2 be negative)
Question
An infinite ladder network is arranged with resistances 𝑅 and 2𝑅 as shown. The effective
resistance between terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
a ∞ 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴
b 𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 ⇒∞
c 2𝑅
𝐵
d 3𝑅
Discussion
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 ⇒∞
𝐵
Discussion
𝑅
𝐴
2𝑅 𝑥
𝑅 ± 𝑅2 + 8𝑅2 4𝑅 2𝑅
𝑥= = 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2 2
𝑥 = 2𝑅
Thus, option (c) is the correct answer.

Potential method
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴 𝐵 𝑉 0
𝐴 𝐵
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅/3
𝑉
Potential across the connecting wires does not change as we assume the wires are of
negligible resistance.
Question
The total current supplied to the circuit by the battery is
a 1𝐴
2Ω
b 2𝐴 6Ω
6𝑉 3Ω
c 4𝐴
1.5 Ω
d 6𝐴
Discussion
3Ω 4
Using potential method
1
2Ω
𝑥 𝑥 1.5 Ω
1 𝑥 2
𝑦 0 3Ω
𝑖 =? 2Ω 6Ω 1.5 Ω
𝑥 6Ω ⇒ 3 ⇒𝑥
6𝑉 2 3Ω 1.5 Ω 3Ω 0
𝑦 4
0
1.5 Ω
0 3 6𝑉
𝑉 6
𝑖= = =4𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 1.5

Galvanometer
A device used to detect the presence of current, the direction of flow and compare the
magnitudes of two currents.
𝑖=0
𝑖 𝑖
G G G
Angle of deflection (𝜃) ∝ Amount of current (𝑖) flowing through it

Wheatstone Bridge
𝑅1
𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅4
Charles Wheatstone
(1802-1875)
The Wheatstone bridge and its balance condition provide a practical method for
determination of an unknown resistance
Wheatstone Bridge
𝐵
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝐴 G 𝑖𝑔 𝐶
𝑅2 𝑅4
In the case of balanced Wheatstone bridge current through the galvanometer will be zero. Consider two loops
ABDA and BCDB to apply Kirchhoff’s laws.
Wheatstone Bridge
𝐵 𝐵
𝑖3
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑖1 𝑖𝑔
𝑖𝑔
𝐴 G Applying Kirchhoff’s Rule G 𝐶
𝑖2
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑖4
𝐷 𝐷
(𝐺 = Resistance of the galvanometer)

Wheatstone Bridge
𝐵 𝐺 = Resistance of the galvanometer
Applying 𝐾𝐶𝐿 at 𝐵 :
𝑖3
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑔 + 𝑖3 … … . . (1)
𝑖1
Applying 𝐾𝐶𝐿 at 𝐷 :
𝑖2 𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑔 = 𝑖4 … … … (2)
𝑅2 𝑅4 Applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿 to 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐴
𝑖 𝑖4 𝑖
𝐷
−𝑖1 𝑅1 − 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 + 𝑖2 𝑅2 = 0 … … . (3)
Applying 𝐾𝑉𝐿 to 𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐵
−𝑖3 𝑅3 + 𝑖4 𝑅4 + 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 = 0 … … … (4)
When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced,

Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced Bridge: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rule
𝑖1 = 𝑖3 𝑖𝑔 = 0 𝑖2 = 𝑖4 𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 𝑖3
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑖3
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑖1
𝑖1 𝐴 G G 𝐶
𝑖2
𝑖2 𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑖4
For loop 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐴 For loop 𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐵
𝑖4 𝐷 𝐷
−𝑖1 𝑅1 − 0 + 𝑖2 𝑅2 = 0 (𝑖𝑔 = 0) −𝑖3 𝑅3 + 𝑖4 𝑅4 − 0 = 0
𝐷
𝑖1 𝑅2 𝑖3 𝑖1 𝑅4
= = =
𝑖2 𝑅1 𝑖4 𝑖2 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅4
=
𝑅1 𝑅3
Wheatstone Bridge
𝐵
𝐵
𝑖3
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑖1
𝐴 𝐶
𝑖2 𝑖𝑔 = 0
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑖4
𝐷
𝐷
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Conditionon of Balanced Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone Bridge
𝐵
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝐴 𝐶
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝐴
𝐷 𝐵
𝐵
Question
In a Wheatstone’s bridge all the four arms have equal resistance 𝑅. If the resistance of
the galvanometer arm is also 𝑅, the equivalent resistance of the combination as seen by
the battery is
a 𝑅/4
b 𝑅/2
c 𝑅
d 2𝑅
Discussion
𝐵
𝑅 𝑅
=
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Balanced
Wheatstone
𝐴 G 𝑅 𝐶 bridge
𝑅 𝑅
Equivalent resistance:
𝐷 1 1 1 2 1
= + = = ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅

Question
In the network shown in the figure, each of the resistance is equal to 2 Ω. The resistance
between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is
a 1Ω
b 4Ω
c 3Ω
𝐴
d 2Ω 𝐵
Summary
𝑦
𝑥
2Ω 2Ω
4Ω
2Ω 2Ω
2Ω 𝐴 2Ω 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝑉 0
𝑉
𝐴 2Ω 2Ω 4Ω
2Ω 𝐵
0
𝑦 2Ω 𝑥
Circuit is a balanced Wheatstone bridge.

1 1 1 1
= + =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 4 4 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2 Ω
Question
Three resistance 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 each of 2 Ω and an unknown resistance 𝑆 form the four arms of
a Wheatstone bridge circuit. When a resistance of 6 Ω is connected in parallel to 𝑆 the
bridge gets balanced. What is the value of 𝑆?
a 3Ω
𝑅𝑃 = 2 Ω 𝑅𝑅 = 2 Ω
b 6Ω
c 1Ω
𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝑄 = 2 Ω
d 2Ω
6Ω
Discussion
𝑅𝑃 = 2 Ω 𝑅𝑅 = 2 Ω
Since 𝑅𝑆 and 6 Ω resistances are in parallel combination,

𝑅𝑆 thus,
𝑅𝑄 = 2 Ω
6Ω

Question
For the network shown in figure, the value of the current 𝑖 is
2Ω
9𝑉
a
35 4Ω
4Ω 3Ω
5𝑉
b
18
6Ω
5𝑉
c 𝑖
9
18𝑉 𝑉
d
5
Discussion
2Ω
4 2
= 6Ω
6 3
4Ω 4Ω 3Ω Balanced
Wheatstone
bridge
6Ω ⇒ 9Ω
𝑖 𝑖
𝑉
𝑉
Thus, option (b) is the correct answer.

S 6 : Introduction to cells
➢ Infinite network of resistors ➢ Symmetry of circuits:

➢ Wheatstone bridge (a) Mirror symmetry
➢ Examples on Wheatstone bridge (b) Folding symmetry
➢ Working of Galvanic cell
Recap
A ssu me t h e e nt ire n et wo rk a s R e q .
Infinite network: F i n d a p a tte r n w i t h t h e re s i s t o rs .
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 ⇒∞
𝐵
𝑅1 ± 𝑅12 + 4𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 1 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
2
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 1 − 1 + 4𝑅2 /𝑅1
𝑅1 1 + 1 + 4𝑅2 /𝑅1
2
𝐵 2
2
(Not possible as resistance
can’t be negative)
Recap
Galvanometer: Wheatstone bridge:
A device used to detect the presence of current, Condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge
the direction of flow and compare the
magnitudes of two currents.
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Angle of deflection (𝜃) ∝ Amount of current (𝑖)
flowing through it
Symmetric Circuit
Mirror Symmetry /( Perpendicular axis of symmetry/line symmetry )
Perpendicular axis
4𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝐵
2𝑅 2𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅
Assume that point A and point B are connected to a battery.

Draw a line perpendicular to the line joining A and B such that the resistances are same in both the sides.
Since the resistances are same in both the sides of the perpendicular axis, current flowing through it will
also be same.
Symmetric Circuit
Mirror Symmetry/( Pe r p en di cul ar a xi s o f s y m metry / l ine s y m metry )
4𝑅 4𝑅 8𝑅
8𝑅 × 4𝑅 8
𝑖1 𝑖1 = 𝑅
8𝑅 + 4𝑅 3
𝐴 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝐵
4𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅
𝑅1 𝑅3 4𝑅 4𝑅 Balanced
= ⇒ =
𝑅2 𝑅4 2𝑅 2𝑅 Wheatstone Bridge
Symmetric Circuit
Folding Symmetry /( Parallel axis of symmetry/line symmetry )
𝑉𝑥
4𝑅 P
2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅
Parallel axis
𝐴 𝐵
Equipotential points
4𝑅 2𝑅 𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵
4𝑅 2𝑅
Q
𝑉𝑥
In this case, the figure is symmetric about the horizontal axis or, parallel axis.
The points above and below the parallel axis i.e., point P and Q have same potential as the symmetry of the
configuration is about the parallel axis. Hence, no current will flow through the resistance connected
between the point P and Q .
Symmetric Circuit
Folding Symmetry/( Pa r a l l el a xi s o f s y m metry / l i ne s y m met ry )
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥
4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵
4𝑅 2𝑅
𝑉𝑥
2𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅3 4𝑅 2𝑅 Balanced
= ⇒ =
⇒𝐴 𝑉𝑥 𝐵 ⇒𝐴 𝐵 𝑅2 𝑅4 4𝑅 2𝑅 Wheatstone Bridge
Question
Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit.
a 3𝑅/4 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
b 𝑅/4
𝑅 𝑅
𝐴 𝐵
c 𝑅/2 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
d 𝑅
Discussion
2𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝐴 3𝑅 𝐵
𝑖1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑖1 𝑖1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑖1
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴 𝑖2 𝑖2
𝐵⇒ 𝐴 𝑖2 𝑖2
𝐵
⇒
𝑖3 𝑅 𝑅 𝑖3 𝑖3 𝑅 𝑅 𝑖3
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐵
Perpendicular axis Perpendicular axis
The equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and

In this case we can see that the circuit is symmetrical about
𝐵 in the given circuit is,
the perpendicular axis. So, there will not be any current
flowing through the resistors that lie over this axis and we can 1 1 1 1
= + +
remove that. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 2𝑅 3𝑅 2𝑅
This circuit is also symmetrical about the parallel axis so if we ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑅/4
took the points of common potential and fold the circuit, we
will get the same resistance. Thus, option (a) is the correct answer.
Question
Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit. Consider all
resistances to be 𝑅.
𝐵
a 𝑅/4
𝐴
b 2𝑅/5
c 4𝑅/5
d 3𝑅/5
Discussion
Parallel axis 𝐵
𝐵
𝐵 𝑅
𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 𝐵
𝐴
⇒ ⇒ 3𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅 𝑅
𝐴
𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦
𝑅 𝑅 𝐴
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥
In this case the circuit is only symmetric 1 1 1 1
Equipotential points about the parallel axis i.e., the folding axis. = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 3𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅
Identify the equipotential points and fold
the circuit accordingly by removing the 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑅/5
resistances between the equipotential
points.
Question
Find the equivalent resistance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the given circuit. Consider all
resistances to be 𝑅.
a 𝑅/4
b 2𝑅/5
𝐴 𝐵
c 4𝑅/5
d 3𝑅/5
Discussion
Perpendicular axis
𝑅 𝑅
𝑖1 𝑖1 𝑅 𝑅
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝐴
𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑖2 ⇒ 𝐴
𝑖2 𝑅 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝑅
𝑖2
𝑖3 𝑖3 𝐵 𝑖3 𝑖3 𝐵
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
In this case the circuit is symmetric about both parallel axis and perpendicular axis. First, choose the case
of perpendicular axis.
The central junction will be of no use as there will not be any current flowing through it from the other
two arms.
Discussion
2𝑅/3
𝑅
8𝑅/3
𝑅 𝑅
2𝑅
2𝑅
⇒
𝐴
⇒ 𝐴 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 𝐵
2𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
8𝑅/3
𝑅
2𝑅/3
1 3 1 3
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 8𝑅 2𝑅 8𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4𝑅/5
Discussion
𝑅 𝑅/2
x z
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝐴 y 𝐴 𝐵
𝐵
𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
x 𝑅 z
To solve this circuit using parallel axis, first fold the circuit w.r.t the horizontal axis passing through AB and
overlap those equipotential points, and then find equivalent resistance of each parallel combination.
Then proceed further by using the mirror symmetry.

Symmetric Circuit
𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑃 𝑄
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
HOME ASSIGNMENT
(This circuit is symmetric about both the perpendicular and parallel axis.)
Cell
Any device which can continuously maintain the flow of charges (electrons) in a
closed circuit is called cell.
Cells use electrolytic reactions to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
A group of cells is called as a battery.

Cell
𝒁𝒏 𝒁𝒏
𝒁𝒏 𝒁𝒏
EMF (electromotive force) is the potential difference between the two terminals of a
battery or cell in an open circuit.
Working of a Cell
Whenever two dissimilar metals are immersed inside an electrolyte
solution, the more reactive metal will tend to dissolve in the electrolyte as
positive metal ions, leaving electrons behind on the metal plate. This
phenomenon makes the more reactive metal plate negatively charged. In
this case Zn is the most reactive metal. It reacts with negative 𝑆𝑂42 − ion of
the sulfuric acid solution (𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ) and forms zinc sulfate (ZnSO4). As the
copper is less reactive metal, the positive hydrogen ions of the sulfuric acid
solution tend to get deposited on the copper plate. More zinc ions coming
out in the solution means more number of electrons leave in the zinc plate.
These electrons then pass through the external conductor connected Direction of
current Anode
between zinc and copper plates. Cathode
𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
𝐻2
On reaching on the copper plate, these electrons then combine with the
hydrogen atoms deposited on the plate and form neutral hydrogen atoms. 𝐶𝑢 𝑍𝑛
These atoms then combine in pairs to form molecules of hydrogen gas and
the gas lastly comes up along the copper plate in form of hydrogen
bubbles.
Cell
At anode :
𝑍𝑛 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 −
𝑍𝑛2+ + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻 +
At cathode :
2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (𝑔)
Cell
Internal resistance:
The electrolyte through which a current flows has a finite resistance 𝑟, called internal
resistance. This resistance appears due to the hinderance between 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 atoms.
Cell
Terminals
❖ EMF is the potential difference between the two terminals of a

battery or cell in an open circuit.
❖ Voltage is the potential difference between the two terminals of a
battery or cell in an closed circuit.
In open circuit, emf of the battery is equal to the

potential difference between the terminals.
S 7 : Combination of Cells
➢ Symmetry of circuits: ➢ Charging and discharging of cell

(a) Mirror symmetry ➢ Examples on cells
(b) Folding symmetry ➢ Series combination of cells
➢ Working of Galvanic cell
Recap
Mirror Symmetry/( Pe r p en di cul ar a xi s o f s y m metry / l ine s y m metry )
Perpendicular axis
4𝑅 4𝑅 8𝑅
8𝑅 × 4𝑅 8
𝑖1 𝑖1 = 𝑅
8𝑅 + 4𝑅 3
𝐴 𝑖2 𝐵
⇒ 𝐴 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝐵
𝑖2
4𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅
Recap
Folding Symmetry/( Pa r a l l el a xi s o f s y m metry / l i ne s y m met ry )
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥
4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅
4𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵
⇒𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝐵
4𝑅 2𝑅
𝑉𝑥
2𝑅 𝑅 3𝑅
⇒ 𝐴 𝑉𝑥 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 𝐵
Recap
Internal resistance:
At anode
𝑍𝑛 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 −
𝑍𝑛2+ + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻+
At cathode The electrolyte through which a current flows has a finite
2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (𝑔) resistance 𝑟, called internal resistance.
Cell
Terminals
EMF of a cell is defined as work done by cell in moving unit positive

charge in the whole circuit including the cell once.
𝑊 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝐸= S.I Unit = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑞 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
EMF is independent of quantity of electrolyte, size of electrodes

and distance between the electrodes.
Cell
Relation b/w Emf and Voltage 𝑅
𝐼 𝐼
𝑉 = E − 𝐼𝑟
𝐸 𝑟
𝑉: Voltage across terminals of a cell
𝐸: Emf of a cell 𝐼
𝐼: Current flowing in the circuit 𝑟
𝑟: Internal resistance of a cell
EMF is the potential difference between the two terminals of a battery or cell in an open
circuit.
Voltage is the potential difference between the two terminals of a battery or cell in an
closed circuit.
Cell
Discharging of a cell :
𝐼 𝐼
𝐴 𝐸 𝑟 𝐵
𝐼 𝐼
On applying KVL from A to B,
𝐴 𝐸 𝑟 𝐵
The cell is getting discharged as it is driving the

current.
𝐸
𝐼= ⇒𝑉<𝐸
𝑅+𝑟
Cell
Discharging of a cell :
𝐸 𝑅
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐼 𝐼
𝐴 𝐸 𝑟 𝐵
𝐸𝑅 𝐸
𝑉= =
𝑅 + 𝑟 1 + 𝑟/𝑅
𝑉=𝐸
𝑟=0 𝐼=0 𝑅=∞

(ideal cell) (open circuit) (ideal case)
Cell
Charging of a cell : On applying KVL from A to B,
𝐼 𝐼
𝐴 𝐸 𝑟 𝐵
∴𝑉>𝐸
The cell is getting charged as the current is driven through the cell
Question
A set of ‘𝑛’ equal resistors, of value ‘𝑅’ each, are connected in series to a battery of e.m.f.
‘𝐸’ and internal resistance ‘𝑅’. The current drawn is 𝐼. Now the ‘𝑛’ resistors are connected
on parallel to the same battery. Then the current drawn from battery becomes 10𝐼. The
value of ‘𝑛’ is
a 10 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛
b 11 𝐼
𝐼
c 20
d 9 𝐼 𝐸, 𝑅 𝐼
Discussion
𝑅 1
𝑛𝑅
𝑅/𝑛
𝑛 𝐼
𝑅 2
𝐼 10 𝐼 10 𝐼
𝐼 𝐸, 𝑅 𝐼
10 𝐼
𝑅 𝑛 10 𝐼 10 𝐼
Current drawn when 𝐸, 𝑅
10 𝐼
resistors are in series,
Current drawn when resistors
are in parallel,
10 𝐼 10 𝐼
𝐸, 𝑅
Discussion
𝑛𝑅 𝑅/𝑛
𝐸
𝐼= …(1)
𝑛+1 𝑅 𝑛 𝐼
10 𝐼 10 𝐼
𝐼
𝐸
10 𝐼 = …(2)
1
+1 𝑅 𝐼 𝐸, 𝑅 𝐼
10 𝐼 10 𝐼
𝑛 𝐸, 𝑅
From equation (1) and equation (2),
⇒ 𝑛2 − 9𝑛 − 10 = 0
⇒ (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 − 10) = 0
⇒ 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 = 10
⇒
10
⇒ 𝑛− =9
𝑛
Question
The internal resistance of a 2.1 𝑉 cell which gives a current of 0.2 𝐴 through a
resistance of 10 Ω is:
0.2 𝐴 0.2 𝐴
a 0.2 Ω 2.1 𝑉, 𝑟
b 0.5 Ω
0.2 𝐴 0.2 𝐴
c 0.8 Ω 10Ω
d 1.0 Ω
Discussion
𝐸 0.2 𝐴 0.2 𝐴
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
2.1 𝑉, 𝑟
2.1
0.2 =
10 + 𝑟
0.2 𝐴 0.2 𝐴
2 + 0.2𝑟 = 2.1
10Ω
2.1 − 2
𝑟 =
0.2
𝑟 = 0.5 Ω

Question
For a cell, terminal potential difference is 2.2 𝑉 when circuit is open and reduce to 1.8 𝑉
when cell is connected to a resistance of 𝑅 = 5 Ω. Determine internal resistance of cell (𝑟).
10
a Ω 𝐼 𝐼
9
9 𝜀, 𝑟
b Ω
10 2.2 𝑉
11 𝐼 𝐼
c Ω
9
5 5Ω
d Ω
9
Discussion
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼
𝜀, 𝑟
2.2 𝑉 𝜀, 𝑟
1.8 𝑉
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼
5Ω
5Ω
For Closed circuit,
10
⇒ 𝑟= Ω
9
No 𝐸 𝐻
𝐹
battery
Single cell voltage (1.2 𝑉)
current (0.1 𝐴)
Operational
Needs
12 𝑉
1A
In many daily use cases we use combination of cells to cater our voltage
and current requirements.
Combination of Cells
Series combination:
One terminal of a cell joined with only one terminal of other cell.
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
Parallel combination:
One terminal of all cells should join together, Similarly other
terminals too should join together.
𝜀1 , 𝑟1
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀2 , 𝑟2
Series Combination of Cells
Polarity Same polarity
𝐴
𝐴 𝐵 𝑖
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝜀1 Same polarity
Same 𝑟1
polarity Same current flow
𝑅 𝑖 through all cells
𝜀2
𝐴 𝐵 𝑟2
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑖
Opposite
polarity
Apply KVL from 𝐴 to 𝐵 𝐴 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝐵
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑅
𝑛 non-identical cells are connected in series with same polarity
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀3 , 𝑟3 𝜀𝑛 , 𝑟𝑛 𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑛
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑛 non-identical cells are connected in series with same polarity
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑛 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀3 , 𝑟3 𝜀𝑛 , 𝑟𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
External resistance and cell resistances are in series connection
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑛
ε1 + ε2 + ε3 + ⋯ ε𝑛
𝑖=
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑛
𝐴 𝐵
6 𝑉, 1 Ω 4 𝑉, 2 Ω 2 𝑉, 1 Ω
𝐴 𝐵
12 𝑉, 4 Ω
S 8 : Combination of Cells
➢ Charging and discharging of cell ➢ Series combination of cell - Part 2

➢ Examples on cells ➢ Parallel combination of cells - Part 1
➢ Series combination of cells - Part 1
Recap
Emf of a cell
EMF of a cell is defined as work done by cell in moving

unit positive charge in the whole circuit including the
cell once.
𝐸= S.I Unit = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
Emf is independent of quantity of electrolyte, size of

electrodes and distance between the electrodes.
Recap
Relation b/w Emf and voltage
𝑉 = E − 𝐼𝑟
Discharging of a cell
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝑉<𝐸
Charging of a cell
𝑉>𝐸
Recap
Series combination of cells
Same polarity:
Same current flow through all cells
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
If 𝑛 non-identical cells are connected in series

with same polarity,
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 + ⋯ 𝜀𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ 𝑟𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝜀𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = ෍ 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 identical cells are connected in series with same polarity
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 3 𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟
𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 3 𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
𝑛𝜀
𝑖=
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
𝜀 No change in current than current

𝑖=
𝑟 in single cell
Operating voltage
Example:
12 𝑉
𝑛𝑟 ≫ 𝑅
𝜀 = 1.2 𝑉
𝑛 = 10
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 10 × 1.2 = 12 𝑉
𝐴
𝐴 𝑖
Opposite polarity
𝑖 𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑅
Same current flow through all cells
𝜀1
𝑟1 𝑖
𝐵
𝑅
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2
𝜀2
𝑟2
𝑖 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝐴 𝐵
6 𝑉, 1 Ω 4 𝑉, 2 Ω 2 𝑉, 1 Ω
𝑛 identical cells with same polarity and 𝑚 same cells with opposite polarity
𝐵
𝐴
𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟
𝑛 identical cells 𝑚 identical cells
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
ε𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑛 identical cells with same polarity and 𝑚 same cells with opposite
polarity
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝐵
𝐴
𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟
𝑛 identical cells 𝑚 identical cells
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 − 𝑚𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟

Question
Two cells, having the same e.m.f. are connected in series through an external resistance 𝑅.
Cells having internal resistances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 ) respectively. When the circuit is
closed, the potential difference across the first cell is zero. The value of 𝑅 is:
a 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝜀 𝑟1 𝜀 𝑟2
b 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
𝑉1 = 0
c 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑖 𝑖
2
𝑅
d 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
2
Discussion
External resistance and cell resistances are in 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
series connection
𝑉1 = 0
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
Discussion
2𝜀 Terminal p.d. across first cell
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖= is:
𝑅 + 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝑉1 = 0
𝑖 𝑖

Question
′𝑛′ cells each of e.m.f ′𝜀′ and internal resistance ′𝑟′ are connected in series in same
polarity. An external resistance 𝑅 is connected to the combination. If the polarity of ′𝑚′
cells are reversed, find current in the external resistor.
(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀
a
𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝐵
𝑛𝜀 𝐴
b 𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 3 4 5
(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀
c 𝑖 𝑖
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
(𝑛 − 2𝑚)𝜀 𝑅
d
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
Discussion
𝑚 cells
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝐵
𝐴
𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 3 𝜀, 𝑟 4 𝜀, 𝑟 5
𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝑅
𝑖 𝑖
Thus, option (d) is the

correct answer.
Question
A battery consists of a variable ′𝑛′ number of identical cells (having internal resistance ′𝑟′
each) which are connected in series. The terminals of battery are short circuited and the
current 𝐼 is measured. Which of the graphs shows the correct relationship between 𝐼 and
𝑛. 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 3 𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝐼 𝐼
a 𝐼 b 𝐼 c 𝐼 d 𝐼
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Discussion
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐴 𝐵
𝜀, 𝑟 1 𝜀, 𝑟 2 𝜀, 𝑟 3 𝜀, 𝑟 𝑛
𝐼 𝐼
Thus, option (a) is the correct

answer.
∴ Current 𝐼 is constant and independent of 𝑛
𝑉 = 12 𝑉 ✅
𝐼 =1𝐴❌
In this case, voltage requirement is catered using

the series combination of the cells. However
current requirement is not yet met. To understand
this further we need to study parallel combination
of cells.
Parallel Combination of Cells
Polarity
𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝜀1 , 𝑟1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
Same polarity Opposite polarity
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ………(1) 𝑖1 𝑖1
Apply KVL in path 𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
𝑖2 𝑖2
𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑅
Same polarity cells
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ………(1)
𝜀1 − 𝑉
𝑖1 = ………(2)
𝑟1 𝑖1 𝑖1 𝑌
𝑋
𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
𝑖2 𝑖2
𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑅
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ………(1) 𝑖1 𝑖1
𝜀1 − 𝑉 𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝑖
𝑖1 = ………(2) 𝐴 𝐵
𝑟1 𝑖2 𝑖2
𝜀2 − 𝑉
𝑖2 = ………(3) 𝜀2 , 𝑟2
𝑟2
𝑅
1 1 𝜀1 𝜀2
𝑉 + = + −𝑖
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑖1 𝑖1
𝑖 𝜀1 , 𝑟1 𝑖
𝐴 𝐵
𝑖2 𝑖2
𝜀2 , 𝑟2 𝜀1 𝜀2
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
1 1
+
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑅
1 1 1
= +
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐴
Same polarity 𝑖
𝐴
𝑖 𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑅
𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑖2 𝑖1
𝑖
𝜀2 𝜀1 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝐵
𝑅
𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
1 1
𝑖2 𝑖1 +
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑖
1 1 1
= +
𝑛 non-identical cells are connected in parallel with same polarity
𝐴 𝐴
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3 𝜀𝑛 𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝐵
𝐵
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3 𝜀𝑛
+ + +⋯
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛 1 1 1 1 1
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = = + + +⋯
1 1 1 1
+ + +⋯ 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
𝜀𝑖
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑛
𝑟𝑖 1 1
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = =෍
𝑛 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑖
σ𝑖=1
𝑟𝑖 𝑖=1
9𝑉 6𝑉 3𝑉
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω
𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
6 𝑉, 1 Ω
𝐴 Opposite polarity
𝑖
Suppose 𝜀1 > 𝜀2
𝑖2 𝑖1
𝜀2 𝜀1 Note: − Direction of current depends on 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 .

𝑅
𝑟2 𝑟1
𝐴
𝑖2 𝑖1 𝑖
𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑖 𝑅
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝜀1 𝜀2
1 1 1 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
𝑖 = + 𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 1 1
𝐵 +
𝑟1 𝑟2
9𝑉 6𝑉 3𝑉
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω
𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
2 𝑉, 1 Ω
S 9 : Electrical Power and Energy
➢ Series combination of cells - Part 2 ➢ Parallel combination of cells - Part 2

➢ Parallel combination of cells - Part 1 ➢ Mixed combination of cells
➢ Energy and power dissipated by a
resistor
Recap
Series combination
Opposite polarity
Same current flow through

all cells
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Recap
Series combination
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 − 𝑚𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀
𝑖=
𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟
Recap
Parallel combination
Same polarity
𝐴 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑖
𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑅 𝜀1 𝜀2
𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
𝑖 1 1
+
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐵
1 1 1
= +
Recap
𝑛 non-identical cells are connected in parallel with same polarity
𝐴
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3 𝜀𝑛
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀3 𝜀
+ + +⋯ 𝑛 1 1 1 1 1
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = = + + +⋯
1 1 1 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
+ + +⋯
Recap
Parallel combination 𝐴
𝑖
Opposite polarity
𝜀𝑒𝑞
𝑅
𝑖 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 𝑟𝑒𝑞
𝑖
𝐵
𝜀1 𝜀2
𝑟1 − 𝑟2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
1 1
+
𝑟1 𝑟2 If the value of 𝜀𝑒𝑞 comes out positive,
then the equivalent cell will have same
1 1 1 polarity as that of 𝜀1 . If it comes out to
= + be negative, then the polarity will be
opposite.
𝑛 identical cells are connected in parallel with same polarity
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐵
𝑛 identical cells
𝑛𝜀
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟 =𝜀 𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟 𝑛
𝐴 𝑖
𝑛𝜀 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟 =𝜀
𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑟 𝑛
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑖 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′
𝐵
External resistance is in series connection

with net internal resistance of all cells
𝜀
𝑟 𝑖= 𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =𝑅+ 𝑅+
𝑛 𝑛
𝐴 𝑖
𝜀 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′
𝑖= 𝑟
𝑅+ 𝑅 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 …𝑛 𝜀
𝑛
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑖 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′ 𝑖′
𝐵
If
𝑟 𝜀
𝑅≫ ⇒ 𝑖=
𝑛 𝑅
𝑟 𝑛𝜀
≫𝑅 ⇒ 𝑖=
If 𝑛 𝑟
𝑛𝜀
𝑖= Current increases 𝑛 times than current in single cell
𝑟
Operating voltage 12 𝑉
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀 No change in e.m.f. than single cell 𝑟
≫𝑅
𝑛
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟…𝑟 − 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟…𝑟
𝑛 𝑚
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + … + + + …
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑚
(𝑛 − 𝑚) 𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
(𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑛+𝑚
𝑛 identical cells are connected with same polarity
Series combination Parallel combination

𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑛
𝑛𝜀 𝜀 𝑛𝜀
𝑖= 𝑖= 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑖=
𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑅+ 𝑛𝑅 + 𝑟
𝑛
For increase in e.m.f. For increase in current

Example:
Consider Operational voltage for car is 12 𝑉
∴ 10 cells of e.m.f 1.2 𝑉 are connected in series
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 = 10 × 1.2 = 12 𝑉
For increase in potential we use series combination
To get the desired voltage value, we need 10 cells of

1.2 V in series whereas to get the desired current,
we need such 10 combinations with each cell giving
out 0.1 A in parallel. So in total we require, 10 x 10 =
100 1.2 V cells.
For increase in current we use parallel For increase in potential we use series
combination combination
Mixed combination of cell

Mixed Combination of Cells
𝑛 identical cells (𝜀, 𝑟)
1
2
𝐴 3
…
𝑚
Batteries used in vehicles are mixed combination of cells

𝑚 rows each with 𝑛 identical cells with same polarity are
connected in parallel
𝑛 identical cells (𝜀, 𝑟) are in series
𝑛𝜀, 𝑛𝑟
1
2
𝐴 3
𝑚 identical cells (𝑛𝜀, 𝑛𝑟) are in parallel 𝑛𝜀, 𝑛𝑟
…
𝑚
𝑛𝜀, 𝑛𝑟
𝑛𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑚
𝑛𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 1
𝑚
2 𝑖
𝑖
𝐴 3
…
𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
External resistance is in series connection
with net internal resistance of all cells.
Number of cells in mixed combination = 𝑚𝑛

Condition for maximum current:
1
𝑛𝑚𝜀 2 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖= 𝐴 3
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
…
𝑚
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 Should be minimum
𝑖 𝑖
2
𝑎− 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 𝑅
2
𝑎− 𝑏 + 2 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
2
∴ 𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅 − 𝑛𝑟 + 2 𝑚𝑅𝑛𝑟
1
𝑛𝑚𝜀 2 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖= 𝐴 3
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
…
𝑚
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 Should be minimum
𝑖 𝑖
2
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 = 𝑚𝑅 − 𝑛𝑟 + 2 𝑚𝑅𝑛𝑟 𝑅
𝑅 𝑛 Number of cells in series

= =
𝑟 𝑚 Number of rows in parallel
𝑛𝑟
𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑅=
𝑚
1
𝑛𝑚𝜀 2 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖= 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛𝑟 𝐴 3
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑅=
…
𝑚
𝑚
𝑛𝑟
= 𝑟𝑒𝑞 For single cell 𝑛 = 𝑚 = 1 𝑖 𝑖
𝑚
𝑅
Condition for maximum current in single cell is 𝑅 = 𝑟
When the load resistance becomes equal to the net

internal resistance of the circuit then the voltage source
delivers maximum power and this theorem is known as
maximum power transfer theorem.
1
𝑛𝑚𝜀 2 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖= 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝐴 3
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟
…
𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
𝑚𝜀 𝑛𝜀
𝑖max = =
2𝑟 2𝑅
Question
Find equivalent e.m.f and equivalent resistance of the given combination of cells.
a 3 𝑉, 2 Ω
b 6 𝑉, 4Ω 𝐴 10 𝑉, 2 Ω 𝐵
6 𝑉, 1 Ω
c 3 𝑉, 3 Ω
4 𝑉, 2 Ω
d 4 𝑉, 2 Ω
Summary
2
1 1 4
𝐴 10 𝑉, 2 Ω 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
3 ⇒
6 𝑉, 1 Ω 6 𝑉, 1 Ω 3 𝑉, 1 Ω
4 𝑉, 2 Ω
Cells 2 and 3 are in parallel with opposite polarity Cells 1 and 4 are in series with opposite
𝜀3 𝜀2 4 10 polarity
− 𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀1 − 𝜀4 = 6 − 3 = 3 𝑉
𝑟3 𝑟2 2 − 2
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = = = −3 𝑉
1 1 1 1 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟4 = 1 + 1 = 2 Ω
+ +
𝑟3 𝑟2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + =1Ω
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟2 𝑟3 2 2
Power
𝑉
𝐼 𝐼
𝑞
𝑉
Cell is required to do work to move
Work done by cell Here, 𝑞 = −𝑒
charge.
𝑊𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑞 × 𝑉 𝑉 = −𝑉
𝑊𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑒𝑉
Energy supplied by cell= Work done by cell
Power delivered by cell
Work done by cell 𝑞 × 𝑉
𝑃= = = 𝑉𝐼
Time 𝑡
Power
Power always gets dissipated in resistor in form of heat and 𝐼
𝐼
light
Resistor is a passive device.
𝑉
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
S.I unit of power is or Watt.
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Power
𝐼 𝐼
𝑉
Power dissipated by resistor = Power delivered by cell
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑃= 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑉2 𝑉 𝑅
𝑃= 𝐼=
𝑅 𝑅
Energy
Energy dissipated by resistor in time (𝑡) = (Power dissipated by resistor in time (𝑡)) × 𝑡
𝐼 𝐼
𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉
න 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (If 𝐼 is varying with time 𝑡)
𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 (If 𝐼 is constant)
𝑉 2𝑡 𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝑉2𝑡
𝑅 𝐸= 𝐼=
𝑅 𝑅
Energy
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑉2 𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑉2𝑡
𝐸=
𝑅
S 10 : Light Bulb
➢ Parallel combination of cells - Part 2 ➢ Maximum power transfer theorem

➢ Mixed combination of cells ➢ Equivalent power
➢ Energy and power dissipated by a ➢ Combination of bulbs (Series and
resistor parallel)
Recap
Parallel combination of cells
𝐴
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐵
𝑛𝜀
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑟 =𝜀 𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟 𝑛
Recap
Parallel combination of cells (𝑛 − 𝑚)
𝑛 identical cells with same polarity and 𝑚 same cells with opposite polarity 𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
(𝑛 + 𝑚)
𝜀
𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑛+𝑚
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟…𝑟 − 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟…𝑟
𝑛 𝑚
𝜀𝑒𝑞 =
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + … + + + …
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑚
Recap
Mixed combination of cells
𝑛𝑟
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 1
𝑚 2
𝑖 𝑖
𝐴 3
…
𝑛𝑟 𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =𝑅+
𝑚
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
𝑛𝜀
𝑖= 𝑛𝑟 Number of cells in mixed combination = 𝑚𝑛
𝑅+
𝑚
Recap
Power 𝑉
𝐼 𝐼
Work done by cell: 𝑊𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑞 × 𝑉
Work done by cell 𝑞 × 𝑉

Power delivered by cell: 𝑃 = = = 𝑉𝐼
Time 𝑡
Recap
Power
Power always gets dissipated in resistor in form of heat and light
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
S.I unit of power is or Watt.
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐼 𝑅 𝐼
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝑅
𝑉
Recap
Energy
Energy dissipated by resistor in time (𝑡) = (Power dissipated by resistor in time (𝑡)) × 𝑡
𝑉 2𝑡
𝐼 𝑅 𝐼 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
𝑅
𝑉
න 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝐼 2 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (If 𝐼 is varying with time 𝑡)
𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 (If 𝐼 is constant)
Power
Maximum power transfer theorem
, when
𝐼 𝑅 𝐼
𝐸, 𝑟
Power dissipated across 𝑅 is given by:
Power
Maximum power transfer theorem 𝐸2𝑅 𝐸2
𝑃= =
𝑅+𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝑅 1+
𝑅
𝐼 𝑅 𝐼 For maximum power across 𝑅 ∶
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑅
2
𝑑 𝑅
𝐸 2
=0
𝑑𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑟
𝑅+𝑟 2− 2𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝐸, 𝑟
4
=0
𝑅+𝑟
The power dissipated across the external resistance is ⇒ 𝑅+𝑟 2
= 2𝑅(𝑅 + 𝑟)
maximum when the value of external resistance is equal
to the effective internal resistance .This theorem is known
as maximum power transfer theorem. ∴𝑟=𝑅
Power
𝑃= 2
= 2
𝑅+𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 = 𝑅 (Condition for maximum power) 𝑅 1+
𝑅
𝑃
𝐸2
Maximum power: 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑟
𝑅=𝑟 𝑅
Equivalent power
Consider two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 connected separately across same voltage source 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
Equivalent power
The two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are now connected in series to same voltage source 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃1 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1
𝑉
1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑉2
= 2 = 2
= 2+ 2 𝑃2 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑒𝑞 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅2
1 1 1
= +
𝑃𝑒𝑞 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉
Equivalent power
The two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are now connected in parallel to same voltage source 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑉2
𝑃1 =
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑉2
𝑃2 =
𝑅2
𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑉
Bulb
Bulb rating
Glass bulb
Inert gas
Tungsten Filament Circuit diagram symbol
Contact
wires
Foot contact
Bulb
Bulb rating (100 W, 220 V) 𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼
At 220 𝑉, bulb will dissipate 100 𝑊 𝑅
energy
100 W 220 V
𝑉2
Resistance of filament is constant 𝐸= × 𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 × 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼 × 𝑡
𝑅
Brightness ∝ Power
Power dissipated at 55 𝑉
𝑉
Combination of Bulbs
Series Combination
Mixed combination
𝑃1 , 𝑉1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉3
Series Combination
𝑉
𝑃1 , 𝑉1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉3
Series Combination
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉32
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 =
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝐼
𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑅
𝑃 ∝ 𝑅 (𝐼 = Const.) 𝑉
More resistance ⇒ More brighter bulb

𝑃1 , 𝑉1
𝑃2 , 𝑉2
𝑃3 , 𝑉3
𝑉
𝑃1 , 𝑉1
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉32
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑃2 , 𝑉2
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑃3 , 𝑉3
𝑉2
𝑃= = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑅
1
𝑃∝ (𝑉 = Const.)
𝑅 𝑉
More resistance ⇒ Less brighter bulb
S 11 : Galvanometer and its conversion
➢ Maximum power transfer theorem ➢ Introduction to Galvanometer

➢ Equivalent power ➢ Ammeter and Voltmeter
➢ Combination of bulbs (Series and ➢ Conversion of Galvanometer to
parallel) Ammeter and Voltmeter
Recap
𝑃= 2
= 2
𝑅+𝑟 𝑟
𝑃 𝑅 1+
𝑅
𝐼 𝑅 𝐼
𝐸2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑟
𝐸, 𝑟
Condition for maximum power across resistance 𝑅 is:
Net internal resistance(𝑟) = Net external resistance(𝑅) 𝑅=𝑟 𝑅
The power dissipated across the external resistance is maximum

𝐸2 when the value of external resistance is equal to the effective
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = internal resistance .This theorem is known as maximum power
4𝑟
transfer theorem.
Recap
Equivalent power (Series combination) 𝑃1 =
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑅1 𝑃2 =
𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞
1 1 1
= +
𝑃𝑒𝑞 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉
Recap
Equivalent power (Parallel combination) 𝑃1 =
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑅1 𝑃2 =
𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑉
Recap
Combination of bulbs 𝑃1 , 𝑉1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉3
Series Combination
𝐼
𝑃 ∝ 𝑅 (𝐼 = Const.)
𝑉
More resistance ⇒ More brighter bulb 𝑃1 , 𝑉1
𝑃2 , 𝑉2
𝑃3 , 𝑉3
1
𝑅
More resistance ⇒ Less brighter bulb

𝑉
50 𝑊, 220 𝑉
Mixed combination
1
50 𝑊, 220 𝑉 100 𝑊, 220 𝑉

2 3
110 𝑉
𝑅1 ∥ (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ), (𝑉 = Const.)
Bulb 1 will glow brighter than bulb 2 and 3

50 𝑊, 220 𝑉
Mixed combination
1
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉32
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 50 𝑊, 220 𝑉 100 𝑊, 220 𝑉
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
2 3
2202 2202 2202

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 =
50 50 100
110 𝑉
Bulb 1 will glow brighter than bulb 2 and 3
Since bulb 2 and (𝐼 = Const.)

3 are in series:
Bulb 2 will glow brighter than bulb 3

Galvanometer
Device used to measure and detect small electric current (in 𝜇𝐴 or 𝑚𝐴) in electric circuit.
Hans Christian Ørsted

1820
Observed that the current carrying
conductor behaves as a magnet
Galvanometer
G G G
5 𝑚𝐴 10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴
𝑖𝑔
Full Scale Deflection
➢ For the cases given above, 10 𝑚𝐴 current is responsible for full scale deflection of the galvanometer.
Hence, this current is known as “Maximum deflection current (𝑖𝑔 )”.
Ammeter
𝑅 A
𝐴
Ammeter is used to measure current in electric circuit. It is used to measure larger

amount of current as Galvanometer has limits.
Ammeter is always connected in series to the appliance.

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter
Challenge: How to use a galvanometer to measure current 𝑖 > 𝑖𝑔
𝑆 Shunt Resistor {very small resistance}
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
𝑅
𝐺
𝑖𝑔
Use a shunt resistor such that maximum current will flow through it leaving measurable current (𝑖𝑔 ) with the
galvanometer. Then calibrate the galvanometer to give the actual value of current based on knowledge of the
current flowing through the shunt. If 100 𝑚𝐴 current is flowing in the circuit and 𝑖𝑔 of the galvanometer is
10 𝑚𝐴, then calibrate the galvanometer as if 10 𝑚𝐴 is equal to 100 𝑚𝐴.
This combination of shunt resistant and galvanometer is collectively an ammeter. It is connected in series
with the load (𝑅).
Shunt
𝑖𝑔 : Full Scale deflection current
𝐺: Resistance of Galvanometer Coil
𝑆: Shunt resistance
𝑆
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
𝐺
𝑖 𝑖𝑔 𝐺
𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺
𝑆=
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
Ideal Ammeter
Resistance of an Ideal Ammeter:
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝐴
𝐴
𝑖 𝑖1
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑖
𝑖= 𝑖1 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅𝐴 𝑅 1 + 𝑅𝐴 /𝑅 1 + 𝑅𝐴 /𝑅
𝑖 > 𝑖1 If 𝑅𝐴 = 0,
⇒ 𝑖1 = 𝑖
Resistance of Ammeter (𝑅𝐴 ) decreases the current in the circuit.
Ammeter
𝑅𝐴
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝐴
𝑆𝐺
Resistance of ammeter, 𝑅𝐴 = [Since 𝑆 || 𝐺]
𝑆+𝐺
If 𝑆 ≈ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐴 → 0 𝑆
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
𝐺
𝑖 𝑖𝑔 𝐺
Question
A galvanometer whose coil resistance is 20 Ω gives full scale deflection of 1 𝑚𝐴. How can
you convert it into an ammeter of range 0 − 5 𝐴.
By connecting a resistor of 0.004 Ω in

a series with coil of galvanometer
By connecting a resistor of 0.04 Ω in
b
parallel with coil of galvanometer
c By connecting a resistor of 0.004 Ω in

d By connecting a resistor of 0.04 Ω in

series with coil of galvanometer
Discussion
𝑆 To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, we know
that a shunt resistance 𝑆 is connected in parallel with
the galvanometer. Since potential difference across 𝑆
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 and 𝐺 is same, thus,
𝐺
𝑖 𝑖𝑔 𝐺

Voltmeter
𝑉 V
Voltmeter is used to measure potential difference across an appliance.

Voltmeter is always connected parallel to the appliance.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
Maximum potential Difference accross Galvanometer is 𝑖𝑔 𝐺.
𝑖𝑔
𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
𝑅
Since maximum defection current through galvanometer and the resistance of the
galvanometer are very small, the potential difference will also be small. To overcome this
difficulty, in practical cases, a high resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
High Resistance 𝑉
𝑆
𝐺
𝑖𝑔
𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 Max potential Difference that can

𝑅 be measure in Voltmeter is,
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑆)
High resistance needs to be connected in series with Galvanometer to convert it to

voltmeter.
Ideal Voltmeter
𝑉
Measured PD is, 𝑉 = 𝑖 − 𝑖1 𝑅
𝑖 𝑖1
𝑅
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑆 = ∞
𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖1
So, current through the ideal 𝑅
𝑉
voltmeter is, 𝑖1 = 0 since 𝑖1 =
𝐺+𝑆
Actual PD is, 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 Thus, for ideal voltmeter, the
measured PD will be, 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅
Question
A galvanometer whose coil resistance is 10 Ω gives full scale deflection of 5 𝑚𝐴.
How can you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 − 3 𝑉.
By connecting a resistor of 590 Ω in

a
b By connecting a resistor of 590 Ω in

c By connecting a resistor of 59 Ω in
d By connecting a resistor of 59 Ω in
Discussion
𝐴 𝐺 𝑆 𝐵
Let potential difference across points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is 𝑉 𝐺
𝑖𝑔
3000
= 10 + 𝑆
5
𝑆 = 600 − 10 = 590 Ω in series with the galvanometer coil
S 12 : Meter bridge
➢ Introduction to Galvanometer ➢ Construction of meter bridge

➢ Ammeter and Voltmeter ➢ Error in measurement
➢ Conversion of Galvanometer to ➢ End corrections
Ammeter and Voltmeter
Recap
Galvanometer
G
Device used to measure and detect small
electric current (in 𝜇𝐴 or 𝑚𝐴) in electric
circuit.
Full scale deflection
G G G
5 𝑚𝐴 10 𝑚𝐴 100 𝑚𝐴
𝑖𝑔
➢ For the cases given above, 10 𝑚𝐴 current is responsible for full scale deflection of the galvanometer.
Hence, this current is known as “Maximum deflection current (𝑖𝑔 )”. Galvanometer can’t measure current
above this value.
Recap
Ammeter
A
𝑅
𝐴
Ammeter is used to measure current in electric circuit. It is used to measure larger

amount of current as Galvanometer has limits.
Ammeter is always connected in series to the appliance.

Recap
Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter Shunt Resistor {very small resistance}
𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 Use a shunt resistor such that maximum current
𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺 = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 ) × 𝑆 𝑆 will flow through it leaving measurable current
𝑅 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 (𝑖𝑔 ) with the galvanometer. Then calibrate the
𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺 galvanometer to give the actual value of current
𝑆= 𝐺
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑔 based on knowledge of the current flowing
through the shunt. If 100 𝑚𝐴 current is flowing
𝑖 in the circuit and 𝑖𝑔 of the galvanometer is
10 𝑚𝐴, then calibrate the galvanometer as if
10 𝑚𝐴 is equal to 100 𝑚𝐴. This combination of
shunt resistant and galvanometer is collectively
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 an ammeter. It is connected in series with the
load (𝑅).
𝑆𝐺
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝐴 =
𝑆+𝐺
𝑆≈0
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 → 0
Recap
Voltameter
Device used to measure potential difference across an appliance.
Voltmeter is always connected parallel to the appliance.
𝑉 V
Since maximum defection current through galvanometer and the resistance of the
galvanometer are very small, the potential difference will also be small. To overcome this
difficulty, in practical cases, a high resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer
to convert it to voltmeter.
Recap
Conversion of galvanometer to voltameter
High Resistance 𝑉
𝑆
Max potential Difference that can be 𝐺
measure in Voltmeter is
𝑖𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑆)
For an ideal Voltmeter 𝑖𝑔 = 0 𝑅
𝑉
𝑖𝑔 = =0
𝐺+𝑆
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑆 = ∞

Meter bridge
Electrical instrument used to find the value of unknown resistance
Unknown Resistance Known Resistance

𝑅 𝑆
Thick Metallic Strips
Jockey Wire
Alloy (manganin/constantan/nichrome)
Length: 100 𝑐𝑚
Uniform Cross section
low temperature coefficient of resistivity
Null Point
The point on the wire at which the Jockey is connected such that galvanometer shows zero
deflection is known as null point.
𝑅 𝑆
G
𝐶
𝐺
Null Point
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
100 𝑐𝑚
After we find the null point we can find the unknown resistance using equation for balanced
Wheatstone bridge.
Meter bridge
𝑅 𝑆
𝐶
𝐶
𝑅 𝑆
𝐺
𝐴 𝐺 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
Resistance of the wire 𝐷
per unit centimeter 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
𝑅𝑐𝑚 (𝑙1 ) 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 )
100 𝑐𝑚
𝐷
𝑅 𝑅𝑐𝑚 𝑙1 𝑙1
= =
𝑆 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 100 − 𝑙1
𝑆𝑙1
Unknown resistance: 𝑅=
100 − 𝑙1
Question
𝑃 𝑙
The meter bridge shown is in balance position with = 1 . If we now interchange the
𝑄 𝑙2
positions of galvanometer and cell, will the bridge work? If yes, what will be the balance
condition
𝑃 𝑙1
a 𝑦𝑒𝑠, 𝑄 = 𝑙
2 𝑄
𝑃
𝑃 𝑙2 − 𝑙1
b 𝑦𝑒𝑠, =
𝑄 𝑙2 + 𝑙1
𝐺
c 𝑛𝑜, 𝑛𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑃 𝑙2
d 𝑦𝑒𝑠, =
𝑄 𝑙1
Discussion
𝑉 After interchanging the positions of cell and galvanometer, circuit diagram
+ − is as follows:
𝑃 𝑄
𝑙1 𝑙2
∴
Summary
Interchanging the positions of cell and galvanometer
Case-I
𝑃 𝑄
𝑃 𝑄
𝐺
𝑙1 𝑙2
𝐺
𝑃 𝑙1
𝑙1 𝑙2 ∴ =
𝑄 𝑙2
⇒ balanced condition remains same

Question
In a meter bridge, the balancing length from the left end (standard resistance of one ohm is
in the right gap) is found to be 20 cm. The value of the unknown resistance is
a 0.8 Ω
b 0.5 Ω
c 0.4 Ω
d 0.25 Ω
Discussion
+ −
𝑋 1Ω
20 𝑐𝑚 80 𝑐𝑚

Question
The resistances in the two arms of the meter bridge are 5 Ω and 𝑅 Ω respectively. When
the resistance 𝑅 is shunted with an equal resistance, the new balance point is at 1.6𝑙1 . The
value resistance 𝑅 is
a 10 Ω
5Ω 𝑅
b 15 Ω
𝐺
c 20 Ω
𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
d 25 Ω
Discussion
Before adding After adding
shunt resistance: shunt resistance:
𝑅
…(2)
5Ω 𝑅 …(1) 5Ω
𝑅
𝐺 𝐺
𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1 1.6𝑙1 100 − 1.6𝑙1

Putting value of l1 in equation (1),

Question
The null point for the given meter bridge is found to be at 40 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴. Find the value
of resistance 𝑅.
a 6Ω 12 Ω
𝑅
b 4.5 Ω 4Ω
𝐺
c 5Ω 𝐴 𝐵
40 𝑐𝑚
d 2.5 Ω
Discussion
12 Ω and 4 Ω are in parallel, so their equivalent
12×4
resistance will be, 𝑅𝑒 = =3Ω For a balanced meter bridge,
12+4
𝑅𝑒 𝑅
=
40 60
12 Ω
𝑅
4Ω
𝐺
𝐴 𝐵
40 𝑐𝑚
Question
In the given meter bridge, null point is observed at 40 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴. If a 2 Ω resistor is
connected in parallel to 𝑆, the null point shifts to 25 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴. Find the value of 𝑆 and
𝑅?
a 𝑆 = 2 Ω, 𝑅 = 3 Ω
S 𝑅
b 𝑆 = 1 Ω, 𝑅 = 2Ω
𝐺
c 𝑆 = 3 Ω, 𝑅 = 5 Ω 𝐴 𝐵
40 𝑐𝑚
d 𝑆 = 4 Ω, 𝑅 = 6 Ω
Summary
Case 1: 𝑆 𝑅
=
40 60
S 𝑅 𝑆 4 𝑆 𝑅
= ⇒ = … . (𝑖)
𝑅 6 2 3
𝐺
𝐴 𝐵
40 𝑐𝑚 𝑆×2
𝑆+2 = 𝑅
Case 2:
25 75
2Ω
𝑅 2𝑆 𝑅
=
S 𝑆+2 3
𝐺
2𝑆 𝑆
𝐴 𝐵 ⇒ = (𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖))
25 𝑐𝑚 𝑆+2 2
Summary
𝑆 𝑅
= … . (𝑖)
2 3
2𝑆 𝑆
=
𝑆+2 2
∴ 𝑆 = 2 Ω … (𝑖𝑖)
Using (𝑖) and 𝑖𝑖 , we get

𝑅 =3Ω
Error in Measured Resistance
Error in measurement of 𝑙1 causes error in measurement of resistance 𝑅
𝑅 𝑆
𝑅 𝑆 𝐶
= Max. error in measurement of
𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
𝐺
length = Least count of scale
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
𝑆𝑙1
𝑅= 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
(100 − 𝑙1 )
𝑎𝑏 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑎 Δ𝑏 Δ𝑐
If 𝑦 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = + +
𝑐 𝑦 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
0
Δ𝑅 Δ𝑆 Δ𝑙1 Δ 100 − 𝑙1 Δ𝑅 Δ𝑙1 Δ 100 − 𝑙1
= + + = +
𝑅 𝑆 𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 𝑅 𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
End Correction
Resistance of the metal plate is considered for end 𝑅 𝑆
correction. 𝐶
Let 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 be resistance of metal plates towards 𝐴 & 𝐵
respectively 𝐺
Let the copper wire has 𝑥 Ω/𝑐𝑚 resistance 𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
𝑅1 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
End correction at end 𝐴 =
𝑥
𝑅2 𝑥 Ω/𝑐𝑚 =
End correction at end 𝐵 =
𝑥
𝑅 𝑆
⇒ =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑙1 + 1 𝑙2 + 2
𝑥 𝑥
Equivalent length of wire

Question
In the given arrangement, the null point is found at a distance of 52 𝑐𝑚 from end 𝐴. The
end corrections of the meter bridge are given to be 1 𝑐𝑚 and 2 𝑐𝑚 at end 𝐴 and 𝐵
respectively. Find the value of resistance 𝑋.
𝑋 10 Ω
a 10.2 Ω
𝐶
b 10.6 Ω 𝐺
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
c 10.8 Ω 52 𝑐𝑚
d 11.1 Ω
Discussion
𝑋 10 Ω
End correction at end 𝐴 = 1 𝑐𝑚
𝐶
End correction at end 𝐵 = 2 𝑐𝑚

𝐺
For a balanced meter bridge, 𝐴 𝐵

𝐷
52 𝑐𝑚

S 13 : Potentiometer
➢ Construction of meter bridge ➢ Construction of potentiometer

➢ Error in measurement ➢ Working of potentiometer
➢ End corrections ➢ Uses of potentiometer
Recap
Meter bridge
Electrical instrument used to find the value of unknown resistance
Unknown Resistance Known Resistance

𝑅 𝑆
Thick Metallic Strips
Jockey Wire
Alloy (manganin/constantan/nichrome)
Length: 100 𝑐𝑚
Uniform Cross section
Low temperature coefficient of resistivity
Recap
Meter bridge
𝑅 𝑆 𝐶
𝐶
𝑅 𝑆
𝐺
𝐴 𝐺 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 Resistance of the wire
𝐷 per unit centimeter
𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (𝑙1 ) 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 )
100 𝑐𝑚
𝐷
Obeying the condition of balanced Wheatstone bridge:
𝑅 𝑅𝑐𝑚 𝑙1 𝑙1 𝑆𝑙1
= = 𝑅=
𝑆 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 100 − 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
Recap
Error in measured resistance
𝑅 𝑆
𝑅 𝑆 In general, for any physical
= quantity: 𝐶
𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
Max. error in measurement of 𝐺
length = Least count of scale
The max. error in 𝑦 is given by, 𝐴 𝐷
𝐵
𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
Since the value of 𝑆 is a known

value, ∆𝑆 = 0
Δ𝑅 Δ𝑙1 Δ 100 − 𝑙1
= +
𝑅 𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
Recap
End correction
Let 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 be resistance of metal plates towards 𝐴 & 𝐵, respectively.
Let the copper wire has 𝑥 Ω/𝑐𝑚 resistance
𝑅 𝑆
𝑅1
End correction at end 𝐴 = 𝐶
𝑥
𝑅2 𝐺
End correction at end 𝐵 =
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
𝑅 𝑆 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
⇒ =
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑥 𝑥
Equivalent length of wire
Potentiometer
Potentiometer is an electrical instrument used to It measures potential difference without
measure potential difference. drawing any current from the given circuit.
𝑉
𝑉 + −
+ −
𝑖 𝐵
𝑖 Primary
circuit
𝐿 𝐴
𝐴 𝐵 Wire (Uniform Cross-section)
Wire
𝑉
Wire of few meters
+ −
Uniform area of cross-section

𝐿
𝐴 𝐵
Potential gradient
Potential drop across wire of length 𝐿 = 𝑉 + 𝑉−
𝑉
Potential gradient: 𝐾 =
𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝑉𝑥 𝐿
Potential drop across length 𝑥 is
𝐿
➢ If the length of the wire is 100 𝑐𝑚 and the potential drop across the wire is 100 𝑉, then the potential
gradient is,
➢ The potential drop across length 𝑥 = 40 𝑐𝑚 is,

Question
A potentiometer wire has length 4 𝑚 and resistance 8 Ω. The resistance that must be
connected in series with the wire and an accumulator of emf 2 𝑉, so as to get a potential
gradient 1 𝑚𝑉 per 𝑐𝑚 on the wire is
2𝑉 𝑅
a 32 Ω + −
b 40 Ω
c 44 Ω
4 𝑚, 8 Ω
d 48 Ω
Discussion
It is given that the required potential gradient 𝐾 is 1 𝑚𝑉/𝑐𝑚. 2𝑉 𝑅
Potential difference across the wire, + −
(𝑉0 ) = potential gradient × length
𝑉0 =
Current in the wire,

4 𝑚, 8 Ω
Voltage difference across 𝑅 = 2 𝑉 − 0.4 𝑉 = 1.6 𝑉

Question
A potentiometer is an accurate and versatile device to make electrical measurements of E.M.F
because the method involves
a cells.
b a condition of no current flow through the galvanometer.
c potential gradient.
d a combination of cells, galvanometer and resistances.
Answer
A potentiometer works with the method that no current flows through the galvanometer as
we are using secondary circuit unlike voltmeter. This allows us to measure the E.M.F. more
accurately without any errors caused by current flown through the galvanometer.
Potentiometer
Uses of Potentiometer :
To measure EMF of a cell
To compare EMF of two cells
To determine internal resistance of a cell

Null Point
𝑉
+ −
(Primary Circuit)
𝐿 G
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵(0)
𝐶
𝑥
𝑖=0 𝐺
+ −
(𝑉) 𝑋 𝑌 (Secondary Circuit)
𝜀 𝑟
➢ Let the null point (the point where galvanometer shows no deflection) is at point 𝐶 a distance 𝑥 from point 𝐴.
𝑉
➢ The potential difference between point 𝐴 and point 𝐶 is, 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑥
𝐿
➢ By applying the KVL in secondary circuit is given by,
❖ The galvanometer will show zero deflection if
and only if the EMF of the cell in secondary
circuit becomes equal to the potential difference
between the left end (𝐴) of the wire and the
jockey (𝐶).
EMF of cell
➢ We prefer using potentiometer over voltmeter to + 𝑉−
measure the EMF of the cell in the secondary circuit only
because in case of potentiometer, there is no current
flowing in the secondary circuit. However, if we connect
a voltmeter across the cell in the secondary circuit to
𝐿
measure its EMF, the voltmeter itself draws some (𝑉)𝐴 𝐵 (0)
current through it and hence, voltmeter gives 𝐶
𝑥
inappropriate result.
𝐺
➢ When 𝜀 > 𝑉, we will not able to find the null point 𝑖=0
because in this case the potential difference across the
wire 𝐴𝐵 is less than the emf of cell we want to measure. + −
𝑋 𝑌
𝑟
➢ Hence, to measure the EMF 𝜀 of a cell using 𝜀
potentiometer, the necessary condition is 𝑉 > 𝜀.
EMF of cell
+ 𝑉−
∆𝑉𝑋𝑌 = ∆𝑉𝐴𝐶
𝑉𝑥
𝐿 𝜀= = 𝐾𝑥
𝐿
(𝑉)𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝐶 𝑉
𝑥 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐺 𝐿
𝑖=0 𝑉
𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿
+ − 𝐿
𝑋 𝑌 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑉
𝑟
𝜀
➢ The maximum EMF that can be measured using the potentiometer is, 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉
EMF of cell
+ 𝑉− + 𝑉−
𝐿 𝐿
(𝑉)𝐴 𝐵 (0) (𝑉)𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝐶 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
𝐺 𝐺
𝑖≠0 𝑖=0
− + + −
𝑋 𝑌 𝑋 𝑌
𝑟 𝑟
𝜀 𝜀
Same polarities of battery (𝑉) and cell (𝜀) should be connected to each other, otherwise current will not
be zero in the secondary circuit.
EMF of battery should be greater than EMF of the cell i.e., 𝑉 > 𝜀.
Comparison of EMF of two cells
When the cell having EMF 𝜀1 is connected to the galvanometer, let the null 𝑉
+ −
point is at a distance 𝑙1 from point 𝐴. Therefore,
𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝑙1
𝜀1
+ −
𝑋
+ − 𝐺
𝑉
+ −
𝜀2
When the cell having EMF 𝜀2 is connected to the galvanometer, let the null
𝐿 point is at a distance 𝑙2 from point 𝐴. Therefore,
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝑙2
𝜀1
+ −
𝑋 By dividing the two obtained equations, we get,
+ − 𝐺 𝜀1 𝑙1
=
𝜀2 𝜀2 𝑙2
Internal resistance of battery
When key is open: When key is closed:
The null point is at a distance 𝑙1 from positive end of The null point is at a distance 𝑙2 from positive end of 𝐴𝐵.
𝐴𝐵. At null deflection on 𝐺, applying KVL in the secondary circuit, we get,
Since the key is open, the current in the secondary
circuit is zero. Thus, the EMF of the cell is,
where
𝑉 𝑉
+ − + −
𝐿 𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0) (𝑉)𝐴 𝐵 (0)
𝑙1 𝑙2
0𝐴 𝜀
𝜀 𝑟 + − 𝑟 0𝐴
+ −
𝑖′ 𝐺
𝐺
𝑅 𝑖′
𝑅
Internal resistance of battery
When key is open:
When key is closed:
By dividing these two obtained equations, we get,
This is the internal resistance of the battery connected in the secondary

circuit.
Question
A potentiometer wire of length 𝐿 and a resistance 𝑟 are connected in series with a battery of
E.M.F 𝐸0 and a resistance 𝑟1 . An unknown E.M.F 𝐸 is balanced at a length 𝑙 of the
potentiometer wire. The E.M.F 𝐸 will be given by:
𝐿𝐸0 𝑟 𝐸0 𝑟1
a 𝑟 + 𝑟1 𝑙
𝐿𝐸0 𝑟 𝑙
b 𝑟
𝑙𝑟1 𝐴 𝐵
c 𝐸0 𝑟 𝑙
𝑟 + 𝑟1 𝐿
𝐸
d 𝐸0 𝑙
𝐿
Discussion
𝐸0 𝐸0 𝑟1
Current in wire 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑖 =
𝑟1 + 𝑟
𝑖𝑟 𝐸0 𝑟 𝑙 𝑟
Potential gradient (𝐾) = = 𝐴 𝐵
𝐿 𝑟1 + 𝑟 𝐿
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑙
𝐸
𝐸0 𝑟
𝐸= ×𝑙
𝑟1 + 𝑟 𝐿
𝐸0 𝑟 𝑙
∴ 𝐸=
𝑟 + 𝑟1 𝐿

Question
A potentiometer wire is 100 𝑐𝑚 long and a constant potential difference is maintained across
it. Two cells are connected in series, first to support one another and then in opposite
direction. The balance points are obtained at 50 𝑐𝑚 and 10 𝑐𝑚 from the positive end of the
wire in the two cases. The ratio of emf’s is
Case 1: 𝑅 Case 2: 𝑅
a 3: 4
100 𝑐𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚
b 3: 2
50 𝑐𝑚 10 𝑐𝑚
𝐺 𝐺
c 5: 1
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸1 𝐸2
d 5: 4
Discussion
Let potential gradient of wire be 𝐾
Case 1: 𝑅 Case 2: 𝑅 Adding eqn. (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖), we get,
2𝐸1 = 60𝐾
100 𝑐𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚
⇒ 𝐸1 = 30𝐾
50 𝑐𝑚 10 𝑐𝑚 By substituting the value of 𝐸1 in
𝐺 𝐺 eqn. (𝑖), we get,
𝐸2 = 20𝐾
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸2
Therefore,
𝐸1
𝐸1 : 𝐸2 = 3: 2
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐾 × 50….(𝑖) 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐾 × 10….(𝑖𝑖)

Question
A potentiometer circuit has been set up for finding the internal resistance of a given cell. The
main battery, used across the potentiometer wire, has an emf of 2 𝑉 and a negligible
internal resistance. The potentiometer wire itself is 4 𝑚 long. When the resistance
connected across the given cell, has values of
i. infinity
ii. 9.5 Ω
The balancing lengths, on the potentiometer wire are found to be 3 𝑚 and 2.85 𝑚,
respectively. The value of internal resistance of the cell is
a 0.25 Ω
b 0.95 Ω
c 0.5 Ω
d 0.75 Ω
Discussion
CASE-I 2𝑉 CASE-II 𝐸 = 1.5 𝑉
2𝑉 Therefore,
3𝑚 𝐸
𝐴 𝐵 𝑖=
𝑟 + 9.5
4𝑚 2.85 𝑚 𝐶
𝑟 𝐺 𝐴 𝐵 At null condition,
𝐺 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑖 × 9.5 Ω
𝐸 𝑟
2 9.5𝐸
⇒ × 2.85 =
4 𝑟 + 9.5
𝑖 𝐸 5.7 9.5 × 1.5
∞ ⇒ =
4 𝑟 + 9.5
Potential gradient =
9.5 Ω 3.8 9.5
⇒ =
4 𝑟 + 9.5
Since the external resistance connected with the cell in
secondary circuit is infinite, thus, EMF of the cell will be, ⇒ 𝑟 + 9.5 = 10
𝐸 =𝐾×𝑙 Therefore, internal resistance, 𝑟 = 0.5 Ω

Question
A potentiometer circuit is set up as shown. The potential gradient across the potentiometer
wire is 𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡/𝑐𝑚 and the ammeter present in the circuit reads 1 𝐴. The balance points,
when the key between the terminals (i) 1 and 2 (ii) 1 and 3 is plugged in, are found to be
lengths 𝑙1 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑙2 𝑐𝑚 respectively. The magnitudes of the resistors 𝑅 and 𝑋 in ohms are
then respectively equal to
+ −
a 𝑘 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 and 𝑘𝑙2
𝐴
b 𝑘𝑙1 and 𝑘(𝑙2 −𝑙1 ) 𝐵
1
𝐺
c 𝑘 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 and 𝑘𝑙1 3
2
−
𝑅
d 𝑘𝑙1 and 𝑘𝑙2 𝐴 𝑋
+
Discussion
CASE-I CASE-II + −
+ −
𝐴 𝐵
𝑙2 1
𝐴 𝐺
𝐵
𝑙1 3
1
𝐺 2
2 3 −
𝑅 𝑋
𝐴
+
−
𝑅 𝑋
𝐴
+
P.d. across resistance (𝑅 + 𝑋) = potential gradient of
wire(𝑘) x 𝑙2
P.d. across resistance 𝑅 = potential gradient of wire (𝑘) x 𝑙1
𝑉2 = 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑋 = 𝑅 + 𝑋 = 𝑘𝑙2 ⇒ 𝑅 + 𝑋 = 𝑘𝑙2
𝑉1 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑘𝑙1
⇒ 𝑋 = 𝑘𝑙2 − 𝑅
Now, it is given that the ammeter reading is 1 𝐴 i.e., 𝑖 = 1 𝐴
⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑙1 As 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑙1 , ∴ 𝑋 = 𝑘(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )

Chapter contents
Combination of Electrical power Galvanometer and

Ohm's law Potentiometer
resistors and energy its conversion
Introduction to Cells and their

current electricity Kirchhoff's laws Light bulb Meter bridge
combinations
Charge and current
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑄
Current = 𝐼 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
𝜆1 +𝜆2 +𝜆3 +⋯+𝜆𝑛

Mean free path of the electrons, 𝜆𝑚 =
𝑛
𝐼 𝐴𝑚𝑝 𝐽Ԧ → direction same as 𝐼
Current density = 𝐽 = S.I. unit = Siemens/metre = 𝑆/𝑚
𝐴 𝑚2 𝐴 → ⊥ to the current flow
𝐼
Magnitude of current density, | 𝐽 | = Vector form of current, 𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ 𝐴Ԧ
𝐴 cos 𝜃
ഥ1 +ഥ
𝑢 𝑢2 +ഥ ഥ4 +ഥ
𝑢3 + 𝑢 𝑢5 +⋯+ഥ
𝑢𝑛
Average thermal velocity = 𝑢ത 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =0
𝑛
𝑒𝐸
Force on electron, 𝐹Ԧ = −𝑒𝐸 Acceleration, |𝑎| =
𝑚
𝑣1 +𝑣2 +𝑣3 +⋯+𝑣𝑛 𝑒𝐸 𝑒𝑉

Drift velocity of electrons, 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔
ҧ = = 𝑎𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 𝜏 = 𝜏
𝑛 𝑚 𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑚𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑉
Charge in a conductor, 𝑑𝑞 = (𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 𝐴)𝑑𝑡 Current, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝐸 = Here, length of the rod is 𝑙
𝑙
Ohm’s law
Mobility of charged carriers, 𝜇 =
𝑣𝑑 I) Conductors
Resistivity (𝜌)
𝐸 𝑒𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑒𝐸 𝜇 =
𝑚
𝑚
Statement of Ohm’s law: Voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperature remain constant. Temperature (𝐾)
For copper
𝑚 𝜌𝑙 𝑚𝑙
Resistivity = 𝜌 =
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑜ℎ𝑚. 𝑚 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 = 𝐼 = 𝐼 II) For alloys
Resistivity (𝜌)
𝐴 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴
1 𝑉
𝐸 = 𝜌 𝐽Ԧ 𝜌
= 𝜎 (Conductivity) 𝑅= 𝐽Ԧ = 𝜎𝐸
𝐼
𝑅𝑓 −𝑅0
Temperature coefficient of resistance, 𝛼 = 𝑅0 ∆𝑇
Temperature (𝐾)
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) I) For Conductors: 𝛼 = +𝑣𝑒
𝜌𝑓 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) II) For alloys like (Nichrome): 𝛼 = 0 (Manganin, Nichrome, Constantan)
Kirchhoff’s circuit laws
Kirchhoff’s current law Kirchhoff’s Voltage law
At a junction, In a closed loop/mesh, the algebraic sum

Incoming current = Outgoing current of all the potential differences is zero.
Sign Convention:
Net current at a junction is zero. If the direction in which sum is taken is
same as the direction of current then take
Sum of charges Sum of charges
= potential difference as negative.
entering the node leaving the node
If they are in opposite direction then take
potential difference as positive.
Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒

Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒
𝐼 + − − V + 𝐼 + − − V +
BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4𝑡ℎ band → stands for

tolerance or possible
variation in percentage
about the indicated values.
1 2 3 4
3𝑟𝑑 band →Indicates the
decimal multiplier
1,2 band → Indicate the

first two significant figures
of the resistance in ohms.
Combination of resistances
Series combination Parallel combination
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + +
1 1 1 1
𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + ⋯ = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … … … + 𝑅𝑛 𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅1 and 𝑅2 resistances in parallel combination: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅 Equal resistance n resistances of resistance 𝑅 are in parallel combination: 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅
𝑛
Infinite network:
𝑅1 1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅1 ± 𝑅12 + 4𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 +𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞 2
⇒∞ ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
2
𝐵
2
Galvanometer
Galvanometer: Mirror Symmetry/
A device used to detect the presence of current, the Perpendicular axis 4𝑅 4𝑅
direction of flow and compare the magnitudes of two of symmetry 𝑖 𝑖1
currents. 1
Angle of deflection (𝜃) ∝ Amount of current (𝑖) flowing
through it 𝐴 𝑖2 𝑖2 𝐵
Wheatstone bridge: 2𝑅 2𝑅
Folding Symmetry/
Parallel axis of
symmetry
𝑅1 𝑅3 4𝑅 𝑉𝑥 2𝑅
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
𝐵
𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
4𝑅 2𝑅
𝑉𝑥
Cell
EMF: 𝐸 = S.I Unit = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐸
Di s c hargi ng o f a c e l l : 𝑉 = E − 𝐼𝑟 𝐼= ⇒𝑉<𝐸
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸𝑅 𝐸
𝑉= = 𝑉=𝐸
𝑅 + 𝑟 1 + 𝑟/𝑅
𝑟=0 𝐼=0 𝑅=∞

(ideal cell) (open circuit) (ideal case)
At anode
𝑍𝑛 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝑒 − Di s c har gi ng o f a c e l l : 𝑉 = E + 𝐼𝑟
𝑍𝑛2+ + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻+

The electrolyte through which a current flows has a finite
At cathode resistance 𝑟, called internal resistance.
2𝐻+ + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 (𝑔)
Series combination: Parallel combination :
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝜀 − 𝑚𝜀 (𝑛 − 𝑚)
𝜀𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀
𝑟𝑒𝑞 = (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟 (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜀 (𝑛 + 𝑚) 𝑖=
𝑖= 𝑟 𝑅(𝑛 + 𝑚) + 𝑟
𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅 + (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑟 𝑛+𝑚
𝑛𝑚𝜀 𝑛 identical cells (𝜀, 𝑟)

Mixed combination : 𝑖= 1
𝑚𝑅 + 𝑛𝑟 2
𝑖 𝑖
𝑚𝜀 𝑛𝜀 𝐴 3
Condition for maximum current: 𝑚𝑅 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑖max = =
…
2𝑟 2𝑅
𝑚
Condition for maximum current in single cell is, 𝑅 = 𝑟
𝑖 𝑅 𝑖
Energy
𝐸2𝑅 𝐸2
Power: 𝑃 = =
𝑅+𝑟 2 𝑟 2
𝑅 1+
Energy 𝑅
Power
For maximum power across 𝑅 ∶ 𝑟 = 𝑅
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
The power dissipated across the external resistance is
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 maximum when the value of external resistance is equal
to the effective internal resistance .This theorem is
𝐸 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 known as maximum power transfer theorem.
𝑉2
𝑃= 𝑉2𝑡
𝑅 𝐸= 𝑃 𝐸2
𝑅 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑟
𝑅=𝑟 𝑅
Equivalent power
The two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are consume power 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 respectively.
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
Series combination
combination::
𝑉2 1 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 1 1 1
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = = 2 = = 2+ 2 = +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑃𝑒𝑞 𝑉 𝑉 2 𝑉 𝑉 𝑃𝑒𝑞 𝑃1 𝑃2
Parallel combination :
𝑉2 𝑉2 2
1 1
𝑃𝑒𝑞 = =𝑉 + 𝑃𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
Combination of bulbs
𝑃1 , 𝑉1 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 𝑃3 , 𝑉3
Series Combination
𝑃 ∝ 𝑅 (𝐼 = Const.) 𝐼
𝑉
More resistance ⇒ More brighter bulb
𝑃1 , 𝑉1
Parallel combination 𝑃2 , 𝑉2
1 𝑃3 , 𝑉3
𝑅
More resistance ⇒ Less brighter bulb 𝑉
Applications of galvanometer
Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter Conversion of galvanometer to voltameter
𝑉
𝑆 Shunt High Resistance 𝑆
𝑅 𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
𝐺
𝐺
𝑖𝑔
𝑖𝑔 𝑅
𝑖
For an ideal Ammeter, resistance is zero For an ideal Voltmeter, 𝑆 = ∞
𝑆𝐺
Resistance of Ammeter, 𝑅𝐴 = For an ideal Voltmeter 𝑖𝑔 = 0
𝑆+𝐺 𝑉
𝑆 ≈ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐴 → 0 𝑖𝑔 = =0
𝐺+𝑆
𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺 Max potential Difference that can
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑆)
𝑖𝑔 × 𝐺 = (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 ) × 𝑆 𝑆= be measure in Voltmeter is:
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔
Meter bridge
𝑅 𝑆
𝐶
𝐶
𝑅 𝑆
𝐺
𝐴 𝐺 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
Resistance of the wire 𝐷
per unit centimeter 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
𝑅𝑐𝑚 (𝑙1 ) 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 )
100 𝑐𝑚
𝐷
𝑅 𝑆
𝑅 𝑅𝑐𝑚 𝑙1 𝑙1 With end correction: =
= = 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑆 𝑅𝑐𝑚 (100 − 𝑙1 ) 100 − 𝑙1 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 +
Copper wire: 𝑥 Ω/𝑐𝑚 resistance 𝑥 𝑥
𝑅1 & 𝑅2 : Resistance of metal plates towards 𝐴 & 𝐵 respectively
𝑆𝑙1
Unknown resistance: 𝑅= End correction 𝑅1 End correction 𝑅2
100 − 𝑙1 at end 𝐴 =
𝑥 at end 𝐵 =
𝑥
Error in measured resistance

𝑅 𝑆
= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
𝐶
Max. error in measurement of length = Least count of scale
𝐺
Since the value of 𝑆 is a known, ∆𝑆 = 0
𝐴 𝐵
𝐷
Δ𝑅 Δ𝑙1 Δ 100 − 𝑙1 𝑙1 100 − 𝑙1
= +
𝑅 𝑙1 (100 − 𝑙1 )
Applications of Potentiometer
𝑉𝑥 𝑉
Emf of a cell 𝜀= = 𝐾𝑥 + −
1 𝐿
𝐿
(𝑉) 𝐴 𝐵 (0)
Comparison 𝜀1 𝑙1 𝑙2
of Emf of two = 𝜀1
2 𝜀2 𝑙2 𝑋
+ −
cells
+ − 𝐺
Internal
3 𝜀2
resistance of 𝑙1
a battery 𝑟=𝑅 −1
𝑙2

Current Electricity. Byju&#39;s

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Current Electricity. Byju&#39;s

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S 1 : Introduction to current electricity

What you already know What you will learn

➢ Charge ➢ What is current?

This battery could continuously

If 1 C charge is flowing through a cross-sectional area of 𝒆 𝒆

Dimensional Formula − [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]

Unit of current – Ampere (𝐴)

A 1.6 × 10−12 𝐴 B 1.6 × 1026 𝐴 C 1.6 × 10−26 𝐴 D 1.6 × 1012 𝐴

❖ If current I is flowing through an area A, and the angle

Dimensional Formula − [𝑀0 𝐿−2 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]

Net current through this area

We know that due to the electric field the average 𝐴 𝑑𝑞

➢ Current ➢ Ohm’s law and its vector form

Dimensional Formula: [𝑀0 𝐿−2 𝑇 0 𝐼1 ]

Relation between 𝑣 𝑑 and 𝑉 :

By combining these two relations, we get,

Electrical Resistance: Georg Ohm

By assuming temperature to be constant, all the quantities at

Therefore, the expression of resistance becomes,

Note: Resistivity depends on temperature and the material itself

I) Conductors II) For alloys

Temperature (𝐾) Temperature (𝐾)

For copper (Manganin, Nichrome, Constantan)

A both remain the same

B 1.1 times, 1.1 times

C 1.2 times, 1.1 times

D 1.21 times, same

𝑅0 = Resistance at any reference temperature 𝑇0

I) For Conductors: 𝛼 = +𝑣𝑒

II) For alloys like (Nichrome): 𝛼 = 0

Temperature (𝐾) Temperature (𝐾)

For copper (Manganin, Nichrome, Constantan)

𝑅0 = Resistance at reference temperature 𝑇0

4𝑡ℎ band → It stands for tolerance or possible variation in

1st and 2nd band → Indicate the first two significant

Net current at a junction is zero.

Suppose charge of +1𝐶 is flowing through the circuit

Therefore, KVL is based upon Law of conservation of Energy

Distribute current using KCL 10 Ω

Choose loops with direction

Apply KVL over selected loop

By solving equation (1) and (2), we get,

Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

➢ Color coding of carbon resistors ➢ Examples on KCL and KVL

4𝑡ℎ band → stands for

1,2 band → Indicate the

𝐼 + − 𝐼 + − If the direction in which sum is taken is same

Δ𝑉 → +𝑣𝑒 Δ𝑉 → −𝑣𝑒 If they are in opposite direction then take

In a closed loop/mesh, the

Law of conservation of Energy

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛𝑅 Equal resistance

Here, the wire can be considered as

Thus, option (a) is the correct answer.

Thus, option (d) is the correct answer.

𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10 𝑅/10

Here, equivalent resistance

Thus, option (d) is the correct answer.

Potential drop , 𝑉2 = 0.5 × 2 = 1 𝑉

➢ Examples on KCL and KVL ➢ Infinite network of resistors

First identify the repeating pattern.

Thus, option (c) is the correct answer.

Thus, option (c) is the correct answer.

Angle of deflection (𝜃) ∝ Amount of current (𝑖) flowing through it

Current Electricity. Byju's

Current Electricity. Byju's