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PHYS1160 Written Assessment

Figure 1: Aurora over Norway – Image via NASA and taken by Max Rive

An aurora, otherwise known as polar lights, is a natural phenomenon of colourful ribbons

displayed in the Earth’s night sky. The northern lights are scientifically termed aurora
borealis, and the southern lights are called aurora australis. This phenomenon is caused by
the interaction of solar wind disturbing the Earth’s magnetic field. Correspondingly, solar
wind is the result of high-energy particles emitted from the Sun’s upper atmosphere, also
known as the corona. Seeing these polar lights is commonly a bucket-listed experience. The
best time to see this astronomical spectacle is in winter months when there are dark clear
skies. Higher altitudes are recommended, the closer to the Arctic or Antarctic Circle the
better, such as Alaska, Northern Norway (Figure 1) and Iceland for the aurora borealis, and
Bruny and Satellite Island in Tasmania for aurora australis. Aurora australis, however, has
also been viewed as far north as Sydney, Brisbane and Uluru, in areas outside of the main
cities and away from light pollution.

So, what are the specific processes that create these magnificent colours and gradients of
the aurora lights?
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The sun is approximately 150 million kilometres away from us, such that it takes 8.3 minutes
for light from the sun to reach Earth (1). Despite this extensive distance, the sun has a major
influence on Earth’s magnetosphere, as revealed in an article published in Nature
Communications (2). During highly volatile periods, the sun can tug on the Earth’s magnetic
field, stretching it away from our planet like a rubber band. Through time, this magnetic
field will rebound back to its natural position, creating powerful ripples, referred to as
Alfvén waves. As these Alfvén ways approach Earth, they begin to travel faster due to
Earth’s magnetic pull. Simultaneously, solar winds containing electrons, if travelling at the
appropriate speed, can jump onboard the Alfvén waves to surf towards Earth’s upper
atmosphere (3). These accelerating electrons enter an excited phase as they interact with
molecules in the Earth atmosphere, such as oxygen and nitrogen. As highlighted in Figure 2,
it is the calming down of the excited electrons which releases light, producing the
spectacular aurorae (2).

Figure 2: When electrons interact with molecules in Earth’s upper atmosphere, they become excited. When
these excited particles return to a normal state, they produce light energy, creating the aurorae phenomenon –
Image via NASA

Different gasses in the Earth’s atmosphere in which electrons interact with produce
different aurora light colours. For example, when electrons collide with oxygen, green light
is produced, and nitrogen is causal of blue and red hues (4). This red luminescence is
spiritually significant in Indigenous cultures of New South Wales and Victoria, representing
the blood and pain from warriors battling in the sky and the spirits of the dead rising to the
heavens (5). Also, an Aboriginal community from the Burragorang Valley of NSW has
described the aurora australis as “long streams of liquid fire” in their Dreamtime stories (6).
The aurora lights are definitely a grand sight to see, with many people eager and as excited
as an electron to catch a glimpse of it!

However, this invisible magnetic field around the Earth, what really is it?

The magnetic field provides essential protection for Earth from solar winds and radiation for
the Sun and outer space. As discussed above, some charged particles from space do
however manage to interfere with the magnetosphere, producing an aurora. The magnetic
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field has similar characteristics to a fridge magnet but occurring at a much larger scale. It is
created by electric currents produced in the liquid outer core of Earth, mainly composed of
molten iron. It is the existence of Earth’s magnetic field that allowed explorers to use
compasses to travel the furious seas. As such, a compass works by detecting the Earth’s
natural magnetic field, with the compass needle pointing to magnetic north. This term
magnetic north is different to true north. Magnetic north changes over time and is not a
fixed point, responding to the movement of Earth’s fluid upper core. True north, on the
other hand, is a fixed point on the globe and is geographically identified as 0ºN, where the
North Pole is located. Although this variance exists between magnetic and true north, the
two points are close enough so compasses can effectively navigate users (7).

The history of magnetism dates to circa 600 BCE, but scientists didn’t truly understand its
properties until the twentieth century. Evidence has shown the Greek civilisation using the
mineral magnetite, a compound made from iron and oxygen, because of its potential to
attract iron or other minerals of the same composition (8). William Gilbert (1540-1603) was
the first individual to investigate magnetism using scientific methods, eventually revealing
the Earth is also a weak magnet. As such, our knowledge about Earth’s magnetic field has
been expanding. By studying parent rocks from the Barberton Greenstone Belt located in
South Africa, scientists have amazingly unveiled the prevailing electric currents responsible
for the Earth’s magnetic field had first established 3450 million years ago (9). New
technologies and test have been developed, further assisting scientists in their
investigations. For example, magnetometers are instruments currently used to measure the
strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field.

But what is so significant about the Earth’s magnetic field?

This invisible protective layer that sits above the Earth ensures our planet’s hospitability. All
of life depends on this phenomenon for survival. Firstly, the magnetic field deflects majority
of the charged particles emitted from the sun and space, as mentioned above. At high
levels, this solar radiation can be deadly to living organisms, with the ability to break down
DNA. This DNA damage could potentially cause genetic mutations which can lead to cancer
growth (10). For example, excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays can increase the risk of
developing skin cancers. Therefore, if you are spending a lot of time in the sun, remember
to slip, slop, slap, slide, seek!

The magnetic field also prevents solar particle stripping, stopping our planet’s atmosphere
and water content from being lost to space. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and other trace gases. As such, solar particle stripping is the
process where these atmospheric ions are removed into space due to stellar activity.
Charged particles from incoming solar wind accelerate atmospheric ions, causing their
leakage to space (11). Scientists believe this is a common process that could have occurred on
the planets in our solar system millions of years ago. NASA’s MAVEN mission was deployed
in November 2013 and is currently orbiting Mars to investigate whether the planet’s initially
thick atmosphere was lost to space (12). Following, essential greenhouse gases are a part of
the atmosphere, and are responsible for maintaining the hospitable temperature of Earth.
Using simulations, scientists believe the Earth would be 33ºC cooler if greenhouse gases
were not present (13). Imagine living in the blistering snow every day, even in summer!
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Analogously, if Earth’s atmosphere was lost to space, that would also lead to our oceans
being removed. High sun luminosity and solar radiation, due to no magnetic field, would
cause water molecules to become water vapour. Radiation, such as UV rays, have the
capacity to split water vapour into hydrogen and oxygen molecules (14). Due to these
singular molecules being much lighter in weight than when combined as water, they are
more susceptible to being swept away into space. Therefore, the magnetic field plays a key
role in preventing stellar activity from entering Earth, preventing the loss of our atmosphere
and water.

Animals use the magnetic field for some other surprising processes, such as for navigation in
their flight paths. Sensory biology has been a mystery to humans for many years, but this
characteristic has been demonstrated in migratory birds. An article published in Nature
investigates the presence and function of cryptochrome 4, a light-sensitive
magnetoreceptor in the eyes of migratory songbirds (15). Data revealed that cryptochrome 4
has greater magnetic sensitivity in migratory birds, compared to in non-migratory birds,
such as pigeons and chickens. Therefore, migratory birds can actually utilise this sensor to
detect the Earth’s magnetic field, guiding them towards their destination. Amazingly, the
gum boot chiton also displays features of sensory biology. As shown in Figure 3, this aquatic
organism can produce and consume magnetite, such that this mineral composes its teeth
(16)
. One theory states the magnetite is produced to assist the gum boot chiton in picking up
magnetic signals for navigation, however, further studies are required (17).

Figure 3: The gum boot chiton is capable of producing and consuming magnetite, such that it is present in its
teeth structure. Scientists believe the gum boot chiton utilises magnetite to detect magnetic signals – Image via
NASA and taken by Jerry Kirkhart.

So, our knowledge about the magnetic field encompassing Earth has extensively grown. But
you may ask, how have we used this knowledge to benefit us humans?

Researching the phenomenon of magnetism can inform scientists about the origin of our
planet. Since the magnetic field is driven by electric currents from the outer core, studying
these processed and the composition of Earth’s surfaces can help determine how our planet
was formed. This knowledge can then be used to analyse other planets in the solar system,
revealing how they formed and have geologically evolved through the millennia.
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Furthermore, the knowledge of magnetism has led to advances in technology, with its many
applications used in our daily lives. For example, electromagnets are a key mechanism in
transformers of power supplies. Transformers allow the conversion of electrical energy,
such as obtained from wall outlets, directly to current energy. This current energy allows the
use of electronic devices, generators, and motors (17). Also, MRIs (magnetic resonance
imaging) are widely used for medical imaging, where the basis of this technology relies on
high-field superconducting magnets.

Although we technically cannot see Earth’s magnetic field, we know that it exists. As an
effect of this invisible casing of Earth, and the intimate relationship between solar activity
and atmospheric molecules, the spectacular aurora lights can be possible. This phenomenon
truly illustrates the magnificence of Earth’s magnetic field, not to mention its significance in
sustaining life on Earth. The properties of magnetism have been inherently applied to our
daily lives, with many of us totally unaware. Next time when you are charging our phone,
checking your fridge, or travelling the wild seas with just a compass, look up to the sky and
smile at our magnetic field.

References

1. NASA 2020. How Big is the Solar System? Accessed 26 July 2021,
<https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1164/how-big-is-the-solar-system/>.
2. Schroeder JWR, Howes GG, Kletzing CA et al. 2021. Laboratory measurements of the
physics of auroral electron acceleration by Alfvén waves. Nat Commun, vol. 12, pp.
3103, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23377-5.
3. Hernandez J 2021. What Causes The Northern Lights? Scientists Finally Know For
Sure, accessed online on 26 July 2021,
<https://www.npr.org/2021/06/10/1004859458/what-causes-the-northern-lights-
scientists-finally-know-for-sure>.
4. Imster E 2017. What causes the Aurora Borealis? Accessed online on 26 July 2021,
<https://earthsky.org/earth/what-causes-the-aurora-borealis-or-northern-lights/>.
5. Hamacher DW 2015. The southern lights in Indigenous oral traditions, accessed
online on 26 July 2021, < https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-
tech/southern-lights-indigenous-oral-traditions>.
6. Fuller RS, Hamacher DW 2017, Did Aboriginal Australians record a simultaneous
eclipse and Aurora in their oral traditions? Journal of Astronomical History and
Heritage, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 349-359.
7. NOAA 2021, Magnetic Declination, accessed online on 26 July 2021,
<https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/declination.shtml>.
8. Gale Research, 2000, Magnetism, accessed online on 26 July 2021,
<https://www.ucl.ac.uk/EarthSci/people/lidunka/GEOL2014/Geophysics9%20-
Magnetism/Useful%20papers/Magnetism.htm>.
9. Usui Y, Tarduno JA, Watkeys M, Hofmann A, Cottrell RD 2009, Evidence for a 3.45-
billion-year-old magnetic remanence: Hints of an ancient geodynamo from
conglomerates of South Africa, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., vol. 10, no. 9,
DOI:10.1029/2009GC002496.
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10. Subramanian S 2019, The Mechanism of DNA Damage by UV Radiation, accessed

online on 27 July 2021, <https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/The-
Mechanism-of-DNA-Damage-by-UV-Radiation.aspx>.
11. NASA 2015, Solar Wind Strips the Martian Atmosphere, accessed online on 27 July
2021, <https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4370>.
12. NASA 2017, MAVEN Mission Overview, accessed online on 27 July 2021,
<https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/maven/overview/index.html>.
13. Lang KR 2010, Global warming, accessed online 27 July 2021,
<https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=21&page=1>.
14. Wethington N 2010, How water protected our molecules, accessed online on 27 July
2021, <https://www.universetoday.com/50863/how-water-protected-our-
molecules/>.
15. Xu J, Jarocha LE, Zollitsch T. et al. 2021, Magnetic sensitivity of cryptochrome 4 from
a migratory songbird, Nature, vol. 594, pp. 535–540, DOI:10.1038/s41586-021-
03618-9
16. Nemoto M, Ren D, Herrera S et al. 2019, Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic
analyses of a molecular mechanism of radular teeth biomineralization
in Cryptochiton stelleri., Sci Rep, vol. 9, pp. 856, DOI:10.1038/s41598-018-37839-2.
17. Keighley HJP 1986, Magnetism, Electromagnetism, Motors, Dynamos,
Transformers and Cells, Work Out Physics ‘O’ Level and GCSE, DOI: 10.1007/978-
1-349-07213-2_14