Class lecture by

DR. DIPANJAN BHHATACHARJEE

Compiled by- BIKASH KUMAR MOHANTY, MANEESHA MURLEEDHARAN ET

DHARITRI BHAISAL
 Dr. Dipanjan Bhattacharjee 1
Strain

CONCEPT OF STRAIN

CONTENT

 Introduction
Definition of deformation & Strain
 Components of deformation
1. translation
2. Rotation
 Types of deformation
1. Homogeneous deformation
2. Heterogeneous deformation
 Analysis of homogeneous deformation
 Types of strain
1. one dimensional strain
2. Two dimensional strain
3. Three dimensional strain
 The strain ellipse
 Flinn diagram
 Finite and infinite strain ellipse
 Progressive deformation
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Strain

INTRODUCTION
DEFORMATION
 Deformation is the transformation from an initial to final geometry by means of rigid
body translation, rigid body rotation, strain distortion or volume change.
 Deformation is a change in the relative configuration of particles in a body.
 If refers to the changes from the deformed state to undeformed state, without any
consideration of the intermediate states through which the transformation has take place.
 Deformation around any point can be decomposed into a stretch (strain), a rotation and a
translation component.
 If the co-ordinate of the system is allowed to move with the translation body.
 The translation component becomes zero, this leaves deformation with strain (stretch) and
rotation only.
 Deformation relates the position of particles before and after the deformation history, and
the position of points before and after deformation can be connected with vectors.
 These vectors are called ‘Displacement Vector’ and a field of such vectors is referred to
as the ‘Displacement Field’.
 Displacement Vectors such as those displayed in the central column of figure, it do not
tell us how the particles moved during the deformation history and they are linked the
undeformed and deformed state.
 The actual path that each particle follows during the deformation history is referred to as
particle path and for the deformation shown.

STRAIN
 Strain or distortion is non-rigid deformation and
relatively simple to define.
 Any change if shape, with or without change in
volume is referred to as strain and it implies that
particles in a rock have changed position relative
to each other.
 Volume change of a rock is also referred to as
dilation, is commonly considered to be a special
type of strain, called ‘Volumetric Strain’.
 Longitudinal strain (change in length of a line) has
different parameters:
Extension: ε = (l' – l) / l = Δl / l;
Stretch: s = 1+ ε = l' / l
Quadratic elongation: λ = S2 = (1+ ε) 2
 Shear strain (γ) = change in angle between two
orthogonal lines = tanψ.
 Natural (logarithmic) strain:
έ = ln (l' / l) = ln (1+ ε); therefore, λ = exp (2 έ).
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Strain

COMPONENTS OF DEFORMATION

 Some other authors [e.g.- Ramsay and Huber (1983)] ref3ers ‘Deformation as Strain’-
with two components of strain i.e
1. Rotational Components
2. Stretch Components
TRANSLATION
 Translation moves every particle in the rock in the same direction and the same distance
and its displacement field consist of parallel vectors of equal length.
ROTATION
 Rigid rotation involves a uniform physical rotation of a rock volume relative to an
external co-ordinate system.

Fig: Types of deformation, displacement vectors and the particle paths.

TYPES OF DEFORMATION
 There are mainly two types of deformation
1. Homogenous Deformation
2. Heterogenous Deformation
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Strain

1. HOMOGENEOUS DEFORMATION

If the finite (or infinitesimal) strain within a body does not vary with position (one point
to another), the deformation is homogeneous,
If strain varies spatially, the deformation is called inhomogeneous or heterogeneous
Characteristics of homogeneous deformation (Affine transformation):
1. Parallel lines remain parallel
2. Straight lines remain straight
3. All angles between two sets of parallel lines change equally
4. A circle inscribed in the body would become an ellipse.
From this comes the concept of strain ellipse and reciprocal strain ellipse

2. HETEROGENEOUS DEFORMATION

 Further the strain and volume/area change will be constant throughout the volume of
rock under consideration.If not,then the deformation is heterogeneous.
 This means that two objects with identical initial shape and orientation will end up
having identical shape and orientation after the deformation.

Fig: Regular grid in undeformed and deformed state. The overall strain is heterogeneous, so
that some of the straight lines have become curved. However, in a restricted portion of the
grid the, the strain is homogeneous. In this case the strain is also homogeneous at the scale of
the grid cell.

ANALYSIS OF HOMOGENEOUS DEFORMATION

 Strain is the result of deformation, which is relative displacement of neighboring particles
in a body under the action of external forces (stress).
 If the displacements of all the particles are same, then the body will have a rigid body
translation, without any strain.
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Strain

 Unequal displacement however induces change in

length and/or shape of the body, leading to strain.
 If deformation is homogeneous, the original and final
position of the particle within the body will be related a
set of linear equations. e.g.-in 2D
x’ = ax + by; y’ = cx +dy … (1)
 This type of transformation is called linear coordinate
transformation, or affine transformation which
preserves straight lines as straight, parallel lines as
parallel before and after deformation, and transforms an
initial circle into an ellipse in 2D deformation (sphere to
ellipsoid in 3D).
 • Eq. 1 calculates the final position (x’,y’) with respect
to initial positions (x, y). This equation is thus a Lagrangian transformation (from
undeformed to deformed state). The reverse formulation (from deformed to undeformed
state) is known as Eulerian transformation:
x = Ax’ + By’, y = Cx’ + Dy’ … (2)

or

Where =

or A= d/(ad-bc); B = -b/(ad-bc);
C= -c/(ad-bc); D = a/(ad-bc)
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Strain

THE STRAIN ELLIPSE :-

 The finite spatial change in shape that is connected with deformation is completely
described by the strain ellipsoid.
 The strain ellipsoid is the deformed shape of an imaginary sphere with unit radius that is
deformed along with the rock volume under consideration.
 The strain ellipsoid has three mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry, the principal
planes of strain which intersect along three orthogonal axes that are referred to as the
principal strain axes. Their lengths (values) are called the principal stretches.
 These axes are commonly designated X, Y and Z, where X represents the longest, Z the
shortest and Y the intermediate axis: X > Y > Z
 A circle of unit radius in x-y space, with center at the origin, is expressed as:
x2 + y2 = 1
If we transform this circle using eq. 2, we get an equation of the form:
(A2 + C2) x’2 + 2 (AB+CD) x’y’ + (B2+D2) y’2 = 1
Or, (d +c ) /(ad-bc)2 x’2 - 2 x’y’ (bd+ac)/(ad-bc)2 + (a2 +b2) /(ad-bc)2 y’ = 1 …… (4)
2 2

 Eq. 4, expressed in the form of: px’2 – 2pqx’y’ + qy’2=1, is the mathematical expression
of an ellipse, known as the strain ellipse.
 Strain ellipse concept only holds for a homogeneous deformation.
 In case of heterogeneous deformation there cannot be any bulk strain ellipse, but strain
ellipse can be calculated in smaller homogeneous domains within the heterogeneous bulk
strain field.
 Eq. 4 is the Lagrangian description of strain from undeformed to deformed state. If we
use Eulerian formulae on a circle in a deformed body, we get a strain ellipse in the
undeformed state (by retro-deformation). This is known as the reciprocal strain ellipse
and is more useful in geology.

In 3D, the strain is represented by an ellipsoid

(adj. Fig.) with three mutually perpendicular
axes representing stretch (Si) = 1+ei = √λi
corresponding to the maximum, intermediate
and minimum longitudinal strains e1 > e2 > e3 .
Two circular sections of the ellipse will show
no strain. The sectional strain ellipses should
therefore be used with care.
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Strain

FLINN DIAGRAM :-
 The shape of the 3D strain ellipsoid can be visualized by plotting the axial ratio x/y
and y/z as coordinate axes in a 2Dplane of paper. Ellipticity is the fundamental
parameter
 The logarithmic axes are commonly used for such diagram, this widely used diagram
is called Flinn diagram.
 The actual shape of the ellipsoid is characterized by the Flinn diagram k-values.
 K=(RXY-1)/(RYZ-1) where RXY=X/Y and RYZ=Y/Z
 The ratios: Rxy = 1+ e1/1+ e2 and Ryz = 1+ e2/1+ e3 are used as a comparison of
ellipticities and are plotted along the ordinate and abscissa respectively. The resulting
graph is shown in the figure below, and is known as Flinn diagram, after Derek Flinn.
 The horizontal and vertical axes in the Flinn diagram represent axially symmetric
flattening and constriction respectively.
 The origin of the graph is (1,1) instead of usual (0,0) because R<1 is theoretically
impossible.
 A varient of the Flinn diagram has been purposed by Ramsay in 1967 where log RXY
and log RYZ are used and the origin returns to (0,0).
 If the volume remains constant then λ1. λ2. λ3=1
 Three principal quadratic elongations are not independent.
Pure constriction

Pure flattening

 Any strain ellipsoid is represented on the Flinn diagram as a point with a k-value,
where k = (Rxy-1)/(Ryz-1) = tan q.
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Strain

Five types of strain fields in the Flinn plot:

• Pure flattening (√λ2>1, √λ1=√λ2 >√λ3): k = 0;

• General (or apparent) flattening (√λ2>1, √λ1>√λ2 >√λ3): 0<k<1;

• Plane-strain (√λ1>1, √λ2=1, √λ3 =1/√λ1 <1): k = 1;

• General (or apparent) constriction (√λ2 <1, √λ1>1, √λ2 > √λ3): 1<k<∞ ;

• Pure constriction (√λ2 <1, √λ1>1, √λ2 = √λ3): k = ∞

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Strain

FINITE AND INFINITESIMAL STRAIN:

 Final state of strain in a rock is known as finite strain, In comparison to instantaneous or

infinitesimal strain, which is accumulated at a very short time.
 In geological material, strain accumulates over a prolonged period of time, often caused
by more than one episodes of deformation. The final state of strain in rocks is thus known
as Finite strain, in comparison to Instantaneous or Infinitesimal strain which is
accumulated at a very short time.
 If the flow pattern and the flow parameter of infinitesimal strain remain same during
successive instant of deformation, then deformation is a steady state flow.
 If the axes of finite and the infinitesimal ellipse are always parallel throughout the
deformation (e,g-pure shear) Then the deformation is called co-axial as irrotational
deformation.
 If they are not parallel then such deformation are called Non co-axial or rotational
deformation.(e.g-Simple shear).
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Strain

PROGRESSIVE DEFORMATION:-

 The deformation history can be understood by progressive deformation. It takes place

from Non deformed to deformed state.
 Finite deformation (strain) does not take into account the way deformation has taken
place.
 Two simple examples are shown stretching and rotation history of lines in pure shear (a)
and simple shear (b) shows that finite positive extension of a line does not necessary
mean that the line has been extending throughout the deformation history.
 Especially in case of simple shear (Fig. b) where all lines rotate (except those parallel to
the shear plane) in the sense of shear, the stretching history is quite complex.
 As shown in the figure, a line may first shorten, and then extend, and in the process, at
some stage the line is extending (instantaneously), whereas it is still shortened (finite
sense) (e.g. stage 3).
 Similarly, the line b in pure shear (Fig. a) has first shortened, then reached a stage of no
finite elongation, and then kept on extending, to have a finite extension. This explains
why a layer could be folded and then unfolded and boudinaged.
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Strain

a b

The overlap of ‘finite’ (ef) and ‘incremental’ (ei) stretch leads to four fields of different
stretch history:
1. ef +ve, ei +ve : lines extended, still extending; e.g. layer boudinaged and being further
extended.
2. ef +ve, ei -ve : lines extended, now shortening; e.g. boudinaged layer being shortened
(folded).
3. ef -ve, ei -ve : lines shortened, still shortening; e.g layer folded and folds being further
tightened.
4. ef -ve, ei +ve : lines shortened, now extending; e.g. folded layers being unfolded and
boudinaged.

THIS NICELY ILLUSTRATES THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFINITESIMAL

AND FINITE STRAIN