Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Key constraints and mitigation strategies for prefabricated prefinished

volumetric construction
Bon-Gang Hwang a, Ming Shan b, *, Kit-Ying Looi c
a
Department of Building, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive, 117566, Singapore
b
School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, 68 South Shaoshan Road, Changsha, 410075, China
c
Quantity Surveyor, Arcadis Singapore Pte. Ltd., 1 Magazine Road, #05e01 Central Mall, 059567, Singapore

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction (PPVC) is an innovative and cleaner approach that has
Received 3 October 2017 restructured the production of the construction industry. It can improve the workflow continuity, in-
Received in revised form crease the efficiencies in the use of resources, minimize construction wastes, and reduce the number of
30 January 2018
on-site contractors as well as construction durations. While the benefits of PPVC have been widely
Accepted 13 February 2018
Available online 14 February 2018
recognized over past two decades, the constraints on using PPVC remains unexplored. As a result, the
aims of this study are to investigate the significant constraints demotivating the adoption of PPVC and to
propose a group of feasible mitigation strategies to tackle these constraints. To achieve these goals, a
Keywords:
Prefabricated prefinished volumetric
comprehensive literature review was conducted first, followed by a structured questionnaire survey
construction administered to 41 Singapore-based construction organizations. Lastly, an in-depth case study was
Prefabrication conducted to verify the empirical findings. The analysis results showed that the top five significant
Off-site construction constraints were “extensive coordination required prior to and during construction”, “need for additional
Constraints project planning and design efforts”, “increased transportation and logistics considerations”, “require-
Mitigation strategies ment for early commitment”, and “higher initial cost than conventional construction method.” It also
Singapore revealed the top three most effective mitigation strategies: “encouraging close collaborations between
project stakeholders during the early phase of the project”, “use of BIM to improve coordination and
facilitate communication among project stakeholders”, and “offering training courses for project team
and workers to enhance their knowledge and skills”. This study contributes to the body of knowledge by
examining the constraints and mitigation strategies for the adoption of PPVC. Also, the findings from this
study are informative to the industry practitioners to have a better understanding and implementation of
PPVC.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction numerous benefits, off-site construction has been highly recog-

Off-site construction is a process that manufactures and as-
sembles building elements, components, and modules in off-site
factories and then transports them to site for installation
(Goodier and Gibb, 2007; Pan and Goodier, 2012). It is a cleaner and
innovative construction approach that can improve workflow
continuity and productivity (Li et al., 2016b; Mao et al., 2016),
minimize construction wastes (Arashpour et al., 2016), reduce the
number of on-site trade contractors (Jaillon and Poon, 2008), and
reduce construciton durations (Arashpour et al., 2015). With its
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: bdghbg@nus.edu.sg (B.-G. Hwang), bdgshanming@163.com
(M. Shan), looi.kitying@arcadis.com (K.-Y. Looi).
nized by the global construction community and widely used by
the construciton industries in many countries and regions, such as
Hong Kong (Chiang et al., 2006), Spain (Pons and Wadel, 2011),
Australia (Mostafa and Chileshe, 2017), Singapore (Wu and Low,
2012), the United Kingdom (Taylor, 2010), and the United States
(O'Connor et al., 2014; Song et al., 2005).
According to the degree of the off-site work undertaken for
product, off-site construction methods can be divided at different
levels including component and subassembly, non-volumetric
preassembly, volumetric preassembly, and modular construction
(Gibb, 1999; Pan and Goodier, 2012). Among these various methods,
prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction (PPVC) is a
typical and efficient one. In PPVC projects, modules complete with
finishes for walls, floors, and ceilings are built and manufactured in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.136
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
184 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
off-site factories (mostly 85e90 percent of the project work) and
then transported to construction site for installation (Arif and Egbu,
2010; Kamali and Hewage, 2017; Mao et al., 2016). This method is
particularly suitable for the built structures with repetitive design
features, such as hotels, apartments, student residence, hospitals,
and prisons (Mao et al., 2016). PPVC has multiple advantages.
Unlike conventional construction methods where works are
executed in a consecutive manner, PPVC allows works to proceed
concurrently, which can shorten of the construction schedule
significantly. Meanwhile, as PPVC allows the modules to be
manufactured in off-site factories, it can also provide the workers
with a pleasant working environment (Mao et al., 2015; Pan et al.,
2007, 2012).
Being a city-state with limited natural resources and labor
supply (Gao and Low, 2014), Singapore spares no effort in chasing
productivity in its various industries, particularly in the local
construction industry which is highly labor intensive (Ling et al.,
2013; Pang and Lim, 2015). Currently, the Building and Construc-
tion Authority (BCA) of Singapore is exploring every viable
alternative to enhance construction productivity, which includes
PPVC (Lim, 2016b; Ministry of National Development (2016)). In the
view of BCA, PPVC is a game-changing technology catering to the
prevailing concept of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly, and
also a revolutionary construction method able to achieve a signif-
icant productivity improvement. As such, in 2014, PPVC became
selectively mandatory for built structures that are developed on the
land released by the government, according to the regulations
issued by BCA (BCA, 2017b).
Although it has been widely accepted by the global construction
community, so far, PPVC is still in its infancy. Much of the knowl-
edge regarding PPVC remains unexplored. As a result, this study
aims to explore the significant constraints that limit the adoption of
PPVC in existing building and construciton projects and to propose
a group of mitigation strategies that can help address these
constraints. Although there has been considerable research on
offsite construction currently (e.g., Arashpour et al., 2016; Arif and
Egbu, 2010; Goodier and Gibb, 2007; Johnsson and Meiling, 2009;
Mao et al., 2015; Taylor, 2010), few of them looked into PPVC.
Thus, this study can contribute to the body of knowledge of offsite
construction research, especially focusing on PPVC. Meanwhile, as
this study summarized the lessons and experiences learned from
the real-life PPVC projects, it is also useful and informative to the
industry practitioners who plan to adopt PPVC method, thereby
benefiting their practices.
2. Background
2.1. Prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction
According to the definition of BCA (2017b), PPVC is a construc-
tion method whereby free-standing volumetric modules (complete
with finishes for walls, floors, and ceilings) are manufactured and
assembled in an accredited fabrication facility in accordance with
any accredited fabrication method, and then transported to site and
installed to form a building. Different from conventional con-
struction methods in which design, engineering, and construction
activities are consecutive, PPVC allows works to be done in parallel.
Thus, it can help expedite the implementation of the project
significantly and thereby increase productivity (Saad, 2016).
Moreover, PPVC can result in tangible cost savings due to the less
manpower and equipment required onsite compared to traditional
construction methods (Bernstein et al., 2011). Furthermore, by
carrying out the majority of the work in a controlled, factory
environment, PPVC is able to provide a healthier and safer working
environment for workers, which also addresses the safety concern
of construction projects successfully (Mills et al., 2015). Although
PPVC receives some criticisms that its overuse will make buildings
lose aesthetic values in terms of individuality, uniqueness, and
personality (The Business Times, 2016), its advantages are
predominant and make itself a revolutionary method benefiting
the construction industry (Lim, 2016a).
Recently, PPVC has become popular worldwide. In the US, a
growing number of colleges and universities are using PPVC to
build quick and convenient dormitories and classrooms. As
estimated by Gregor (2008), PPVC can save the colleges and
universities five to ten percent of construction costs and speed up
the construction process at the same time. In Australia, there has
been a growing trend that hotels are built using PPVC. This is
because PPVC can ensure the construction of the hotels on
schedule, and meanwhile the cheap construction costs allow hotels
to offer their guests a high end hotel experience at a more afford-
able rate, enhancing their competitiveness (Waters, 2017). In the
UK, an increasing number of homebuilders have launched prefab
home divisions to build PPVC homes which are complete with light
fittings, bathrooms, bookshelves and kitchens. Also, these home-
builders recognize PPVC a good strategy to tackle the challenge in
labor, namely a shortage of skilled construction workers caused by
an ageing workforce and an exodus due to Brexit (Booth, 2017).
Furthermore, PPVC homes are becoming increasingly common in
Japanese urban areas, due to improvements in design and quality,
speed and compactness of onsite assembly, as well as due to
lowering costs and ease of repair after earthquakes (Zhang, 2015).
2.2. PPVC in Singapore
Since 2010, BCA of Singapore has launched two rounds of
Construction Productivity Roadmap (1st in 2010 and 2nd in 2015)
aiming to improve the productivity in local construction industry
(Navaratnarajah, 2016). Particularly, in the 2nd Construction
Productivity Roadmap BCA highlighted that prefabrication would
be one of the main directions that the local construction industry
should go forward (Lim, 2016a). Recently, BCA has been promoting
PPVC actively. For example, BCA stipulated that the adoption of
PPVC method was one of the land sale conditions for some selected
land parcels sold under the Government Land Sales Program from 1
November 2014 (BCA, 2017b). Subsequently, in 2015 BCA further
stipulated that for the developments of these selected land parcels,
the minimum level of use of PPVC should be 65 percent of the total
constructed floor area (including all floors except the basement and
any floor area built for use as a roof or car park) (BCA, 2015).
Moreover, BCA has set up an acceptance framework to certify each
PPVC supplier and manufacturer to make sure the different PPVC
systems used at mandated development sites are reliable and
durable, (BCA, 2017b). In addition to BCA, the Housing and Devel-
opment Board (HDB) of Singapore is another local authority have
interest in PPVC (Lim, 2016a). HDB deems PPVC as a productive and
helpful instrument for its HDB apartment development. HDB is
currently carrying out some research initiatives to develop an
integrated, automatic PPVC production system (Lim, 2016a). To sum
up, under the enthusiasm from the local authorities, PPVC is being
actively advocated and promoted in Singapore.
2.3. The adoption of PPVC: constraints and mitigation strategies
Given the limited amount of research, the constraints to the
adoption of PPVC and the relevant mitigation strategies can hardly
be extracted from the existing literature directly. However, there is
considerable documentation on generic off-site construction
methods in current literature, which is also applicable to PPVC to a
certain extent. Thus, this study conducted a comprehensive
 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
literature review of generic offsite construction methods trying to
help identify the constraints and mitigation strategies specific to
the adoption of PPVC.
Literature review shows that several studies have done excellent
work in summarizing the constraints, challenges, barriers, and
limitations to the used of generic off-site construction methods.
Arashpour et al. (2016) summarized the constraints on using offsite
construction approach, which includes longer lead times due to a
lack of coordination between onsite demand and offsite construc-
tion, higher maintenance costs for end users caused by low utili-
zation of expensive manufacturing resources, and inconsistent
quality due to high variety of customized products and inefficient
floor control. Kamali and Hewage (2016) reviewed the challenges
for using modular construction method and found that the main
challenges pointed to project planning, transportation restraints,
negative perceptions from the public, site constraints, high initial
cost, and increased coordination and communication required. Mao
et al. (2015) carried out a questionnaire survey and examined the
major barriers that impede the use of offsite construction method
in the Chinese construction industry. They found that the top three
major barriers were the absence of governmental incentives and
regulations, extremely high upfront cost, and practitioners’
dependence on conventional construction methods. Similarly,
Rahman (2013) conducted a critical review to investigate the
barriers to the implementation of modern construction methods
(mostly are offsite construction methods). He found the barriers
mainly lie in eight perspectives including cost-related issues,
motivation and culture, skills and experience, market demands,
tools and standards, industry related issues, inflexibility, and
project-specific issues. Chiang et al. (2006) investigated the barriers
that hinder offsite construction method to be adopted in the public
housing construction sector of Hong Kong, which were found to be
difficulties in transporting the heavy and bulky prefabricated
modules, gaining access to buildings for large modules, additional
labor training, and poor jointing of prefabricated. Azhar er al. (2013)
Table 1
Constraints on using PPVC.
Code Constraints
C1 Decreased flexibility for design changes later
C2 Unsupportive decision made by designers
C3 Limitations to design due to transportation restrictions (e.g. modules' size) Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013)
C4 Restricted site layout (e.g. lack of storage space for PPVC modules/lack of
space to unload and move the modules)
C5 Lack of PPVC experiences in term of design
C6 Lack of PPVC experiences in term of installation
C7 Need for additional protection materials for PPVC modules
C8 Increased transportation and logistics considerations
C9 Transportation restrictions due to rules and regulations
C10 Lack of awareness of PPVC's benefits among owners/developers
C11 Increased organizational requirements (e.g. changing roles of project
participants/increased complexity of procurement and contracting issues)
C12 Requirement for early commitment
C13 The need for additional project planning and design efforts
C14 Extensive coordination required prior to and during construction
C15 Higher initial cost to conventional construction method
C16 Higher construction costs to the conventional construction method
C17 Require more communication among all stakeholders
C18 Complex code compliance and inspection process
185
identified and assessed the constraints associated with the adop-
tion of modular construction, and the top six constraints were
revealed as key decisions of construction methods made by
designers without the involvement of contractors, the wrong
perception of modular construction from the owner, non-
availability of prefabrication unit in the project vicinity, restricted
site layout, decreased flexibility for changes during project imple-
mentation, and difficulty in carrying out onsite modifications.
Jaillon and Poon (2010) conducted a questionnaire survey among
the construction professionals who expressed that site storage and
access, increased time for design, and the lack of flexibility were the
major limitations to the adoption of prefabrication. Tam et al.
(2007) investigated the hindrances in applying prefabrication,
and the top three hindrances were found to be inflexible for design
changes, lack of research information, and higher initial construc-
tion cost. Although it looks that considerable efforts have been
made to investigate the constraints, challenges, barriers, and limi-
tations on using off-site construction methods, it should be noted
that none of them is specific to PPVC. Nevertheless, this compre-
hensive review provides a good reference for this study to identify
the constraints specific to PPVC. Finally, a list of 18 constraints that
may hinder the adoption of PPVC was extracted from literature
review and presented in Table 1.
To address these constraints, challenges, barriers, and limita-
tions mentioned above, various mitigation strategies have been
proposed by the academia. For instance, a large number of studies
proposed to use information technologies such as 3D visualization,
product information model, and building information modeling
(BIM) to tackle the information-related obstacles encountered in
the implementation of offsite construction projects (Han et al.,
2015; Kim et al., 2016; Ramaji and Memari, 2016; Zhang et al.,
2016; Zhao, 2017). Also, as a result of shifting site activities to
factories, offsite construction needs early confirmation of design,
construction details, and construction sequences to avoid any
abortive works that will be costly and time-consuming. In this
References
Azhar et al. (2013); De La Torre (1994); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Kamali and Hewage
(2016); Lu (2007); Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013); Tam et al. (2007)
Azhar et al. (2013)
Azhar et al. (2013); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Kamali and Hewage (2016); Mao et al.
(2015); Tam et al. (2007)
Jaillon and Poon (2010); Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013); Tam et al. (2007)
Chiang et al. (2006); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013); Tam
et al. (2007)
De La Torre (1994)
Haas and Fagerlund (2002); Kamali and Hewage (2016); Mao et al. (2015); McGraw
Hill (2011)
Chiang et al. (2006); Haas and Song (2002); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Kamali and
Hewage (2016); Mao et al. (2015)
Azhar et al. (2013); Mao et al. (2015)
Haas and Fagerlund (2002); Mao et al. (2015)
Azhar et al. (2013); Blismas et al. (2005); Jaillon and Poon (2010); McGraw Hill (2011);
Rahman (2013)
Construction Industry Institute (1992); De La Torre (1994); Haas and Song (2002);
Haas and Fagerlund (2002); Lapp and Golay (1997); Lu (2007)
Arashpour et al. (2016); De La Torre (1994); Haas and Song (2002); Haas and
Fagerlund (2002); Kamali and Hewage (2016); Lu (2007)
(Gibb and Isack, 2003); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Kamali and Hewage (2016); Lapp and
Golay (1997); Mao et al. (2015); (Pan et al., 2007, 2008); Rahman (2013)
De La Torre (1994); Jaillon and Poon (2010); Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013); Tam
et al. (2007)
Haas and Fagerlund (2002); Kamali and Hewage (2016)
Mao et al. (2015); Rahman (2013)
186 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
regard, researchers suggested establishing an effective collabora-
tion among project key participants in early project planning phase
(Goh and Loosemore, 2017; Said, 2015, 2016). Furthermore,
regarding the typical problem of transportation encountered by
offsite construction projects, Khalili and Chua (2013) and Mao et al.
(2016) suggested that the modules can be fabricated and assembled
proximal to the construction site so that additional transportation
efforts may be reduced. As for the site constraint issue for offsite
construction projects, Just-in-Time delivery was proposed as it can
minimize the on-site storage space and thereby improve site
management (Kim et al., 2013; Low and Chuan, 2001; Oral et al.,
2003; Wu and Low, 2012). Additionally, Tam et al. (2007) and
Wang et al. (2016) suggested developing systems or computer-
aided programs to carry out detailed feasibility study (particularly
in the sense of economic analysis) for offsite construction projects
is a good strategy to guarantee project success. Arashpour et al.
(2017) and Hanna et al. (2017) recommended developing training
courses/programs for project team and workers to enhance their
knowledge and skills with regards to the offsite construction, to
address the constraint of lack of experience. Based on the literature
review mentioned above, a total of nine mitigation strategies that
might be helpful for addressing the constraints associated with
PPVC were identified, compiled and listed in Table 2.
3. Methods and data presentation
3.1. Data collection and presentation
This study adopts an approach that employs various qualitative
and quantitative research methods including literature review,
pilot interviews, questionnaire, and case study. Conducting litera-
ture review is an effective approach to learn about a topic regarding
its substantive findings and theoretical and methodological
features (Deng et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2014; Xue et al., 2010; Yuan
et al., 2015). Therefore, this study conducted a comprehensive
literature review first to identify the constraints and mitigation
strategies that are associated with the adoption of PPVC method, as
presented in the last section. To ensure the comprehensiveness of
coverage, a wide range of literature was searched for review,
including books, journal articles, documents from relevant
authorities, information from internet websites, as well as both
unpublished and published theses from universities around the
world.
In construction engineering and management (CEM) research,
doing interview with experienced industry experts is a widely
Table 2
Mitigation strategies for the constraints on using PPVC.
Code Mitigation strategy
MS1 Encouraging close collaborations between project stakeholders during early phase of project Goh and Loosemore (2017); Said (2015, 2016)
MS2 Apply Temporary Occupation License (TOL) to set up temporary worksite in the vicinity of Shi and Sun (2001)
the construction site to overcome the restricted site layout issue
MS3 Use of Just-in-Time delivery
MS4 Offering training courses for project team and workers to enhance their knowledge and
skills
MS5 Fabricate and assemble the module components as close as possible to the construction site Khalili and Chua (2013); Mao et al. (2016)
to reduce transportation effort
MS6 Use of Information Technologies (e.g. electronic file transfer) to overcome the extra
requirement of planning, coordination and communication
MS7 Conduct feasibility studies for PPVC method
MS8 Develop systems/computer programs to perform detailed economic analyses for both PPVC Wang et al. (2016)
and conventional construction methods
MS9 Use of BIM to improve coordination and facilitate communication among project
stakeholders
adopted strategy to validate and refine the information retrieved
from literature review, as it is a good opportunity for a research
work to take in the valuable views from the practice (Li et al., 2016a;
Ozorhon et al., 2010; Tran et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017). Thus,
following the literature review, this study carried out pilot
interviews with industry experts with the intention of verifying the
constraints and mitigation strategies identified from literature
review. In this study, three industry experts with experiences in
local PPVC projects were invited for pilot interviews. All of them are
senior members of the Building Innovation Panel, a government
organization dedicated to improving construction productivity
through various innovative technologies including PPVC (BCA,
2017a). The interview results showed that the constraints and
mitigation strategies identified from the literature review were
applicable to the existing PPVC projects in Singapore and thus could
be used for further research actions. Nevertheless, the statements
of some constraints and mitigation strategies were rephrased based
on interviewees’ comments to increase their comprehensiveness
and accuracy.
Questionnaire survey is a widely used method to collect pro-
fessional views of a certain topic in CEM research (e.g., Azhar et al.,
2013; Cheung et al., 2015; Collins et al., 2017; Li et al., 2016c; Liu
et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2014). Thus, this study used questionnaire
survey to gather professionals' perceptions of constraints and
mitigation strategies. Based on the results of pilot interviews, a
questionnaire was developed, which consisted of three sections.
The first section was to record respondents’ background informa-
tion including their employer types and years of experience in the
construction industry and the PPVC field. The second section asked
respondents to rate the constraints using a five-point rating scale
(i.e., 1 ¼ very insignificant, 2 ¼ insignificant, 3 ¼ slightly significant,
4 ¼ significant, and 5 ¼ very significant). The third section reques-
ted respondents to rate the effectiveness of the mitigation strate-
gies using another five-point rating scale (i.e., 1 ¼ very ineffective,
2 ¼ ineffective, 3 ¼ slightly effective, 4 ¼ effective, and 5 ¼ very
effective).
This study identified 100 institutions having experiences in
undertaking prefabrication projects in Singapore as potential re-
spondents and emailed them the questionnaires for data collection.
To ensure a high response number, phone calls and email re-
minders were sent every week if the dispatched questionnaires
were not returned before the due date. Finally, a total of 41 re-
sponses were received, representing a response rate of 41 percent
for this survey. It is noteworthy that this number has already been a
relatively high response rate as the normal one for a survey in the
References Targeted constraint
C1, C2, and C3
C4
Kim et al. (2013); Low and Chuan (2001); Oral C4
et al. (2003); Wu and Low (2012)
Arashpour et al. (2017); Hanna et al. (2017) C5, C6, and C7
C8 and C9
Kim et al. (2016); Ramaji and Memari (2016) C10 and C11
Tam et al. (2007) C12, C13, C14, C15,
C16, C17, and C18
C12, C13, C14, C15,
C16, C17, and C18
Kim et al. (2016); Zhang et al. (2016) C12, C13, C14, C15,
C16, C17, and C18
 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193 187

Table 3
Profile of the respondents.

Respondent profile Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative percentage (%)

Respondent's Institution
Governmental agency 1 3 3
Developer 5 12 15
Construction company 21 51 66
Consultancy 6 15 81
Architectural firm 3 7 88
Quantity Surveyor 2 5 93
PPVC Supplier/Manufacturer 3 7 100
Respondent's occupation
Architect 4 10 10
Engineer 13 32 42
Project Manager 7 17 59
Quantity Surveyor 9 22 81
Facility Manager 8 19 100
Years of experiences in the construction industry
1-4 years 16 39 39
5-9 years 7 17 56
>10 years 18 44 100
Years of experiences with PPVC projects
Less than 1 year 27 66 66
2 years 9 22 88
3 years 5 12 100

construction industry is between 20 and 30 percent (Hwang et al.,
2014; Jia et al., 2016). The profiles of the respondents and their
institutions are shown in Table 3. It could be noted that the re-
spondents are from different types of institutions such as govern-
mental agency, developer, construction company, consultancy,
architectural firm, quantity surveyor, and PPVC supplier/manufac-
turer. Also, the respondents are of different occupational back-
grounds such as project manager, architect, quantity surveyor,
engineer, and facility manager. The diversity and heterogeneity of
the respondent panel can ensure the quality and reliability of the
collected data and thereby enabling the findings more convincing
(Cao et al., 2016). Although it can be found from Table 3 that the
majority of the respondents have limited years of experience in
PPVC projects, this can be explained by the fact that PPVC was not
introduced to Singapore until very recently (BCA, 2017b).
In CEM research, case study is a qualitative research method
widely used to cross-check findings obtained from quantitative
research (Du and El-Gafy, 2015; Hwang et al., 2014; Ozorhon et al.,
2014; Zhao and Singhaputtangkul, 2016). Thus, at the last step of
this study, a case study was conducted based on a real-life PPVC
project named North Residential Hall at Nanyang Technological
University. During the case study, an experienced professional
working for this project was contacted and interviewed to capture
the in-depth information of this PPVC project in terms of its con-
struction procedures, coordination activities, as well as the major
constraints it was facing. The outputs of the case study are valuable
as they can further strengthen people’ understanding of PPVC in
current practice.
3.2. Data analysis methods
Statistical tests were conducted to analyze the data collected
from the questionnaire survey. Although the sample size of this
study (i.e. 41) was not large, statistical analysis could still be per-
formed because the central limit theorem holds true as long as the
sample size is no less than 30 (Ott and Longnecker, 2015; Zhao et al.,
2016). There are two types of prevailing statistical tests, parametric
statistical tests and non-parametric statistical tests (Kim, 2015).
Parametric statistical tests have a specific requirement that the data
to be analyzed must fall in a normal distribution, while non-
parametric statistical tests have no such particular requirement
(Minchin et al., 2016). Thus, the first step of data analysis is to check
data's normality. Upon the recommendations of Chou et al. (1998)
and Gel et al. (2007), the commonly used Shapiro-Wilk test was
conducted to help check data's normality. The null hypothesis of
the Shapiro-Wilk test is the population was normally distributed. If
the p-value generated from the test is less than the chosen alpha
level (e.g., 0.05), then the null hypothesis is rejected, and conclusion
can be made that the data tested are not normally distributed
(Villasenor Alva and Estrada, 2009). In this study, a common alpha
level of 0.05 was used. The test was conducted with the aid of SPSS
Statistics 17.0.
As questionnaire respondents are from different institutions
such as governmental agency, developer, construction company,
consultancy, architectural firm, quantity surveyor, and PPVC
specialist builder, it is necessary to conduct inter-group comparison
to check whether there are significant differences in respondents’
perceptions in terms of their institutions. Two different statistical
test methods, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis test,
were considered to perform the inter-group comparison. ANOVA is
a widely used parametric statistical test method that checks the
statistical differences between the means of two or more inde-
pendent groups (e.g., Caldas et al., 2014; Deng et al., 2012; Xia et al.,
2015; Zhao et al., 2014); while Kruskal-Wallis test is a rank-based
non-parametric statistical test method that checks the potential
differences among two or more different groups (Rajendran et al.,
2009; Tixier et al., 2014). Thus, the data normality test results
provided by the Shapiro-Wilk test will determine which method
will be used for inter-group comparison.
According to Roberts et al. (2016), conducting pairwise com-
parison of matched variables is a good strategy to identify the
foremost variables, the core ones that have the highest priority in
terms of ranking and significance in a set of variables. As a result,
pairwise comparisons of matched constraints/mitigation strategies
were carried out to identify the most significant constraints and the
most effective mitigation strategies for PPVC. Wilcoxon Signed-
Ranks test was considered for the pairwise comparison, following
the recommendations of Darko and Chan (2018) and Shan et al.
(2017). This is a distribution-free statistical test method that has
been widely used to compare two matched variables, assessing
whether significant difference exists between (Berg, 2016; Lund
Research, 2013; Wu et al., 2014).
188 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193

4. Results and discussions
4.1. Significant constraints on using PPVC
Tables 4 and 5 present respondents’ assessments of constraints
as well as the results obtained from the statistical test. Shapiro-
Wilk test results in Table 4 indicate that the data of constraints
are non-normal distributed. Therefore, the Kruskal-Wallis test was
selected to conduct inter-group comparison, and that the Wilcoxon
Signed-Ranks test was selected for variable comparison. The
Kruskal-Wallis test results in Table 4 reveal that except C7 “need for
additional protection materials for PPVC modules”, none of con-
straints were perceived statistically different by respondents in
terms of their institution background. Such result implies that the
assessments of the respondents are basically unanimous and can be
treated as a whole for analysis. Also, assessment results in Table 4
show that C14 “extensive coordination required prior to and dur-
ing construction”, C13 “need for additional project planning and
design efforts”, C8 “increased transportation and logistics
considerations”, C12 “requirement for early commitment”, and C15
“higher initial cost to conventional construction method” are top
five constraints on using PPVC. Furthermore, the Wilcoxon Signed-
Ranks test results in Table 5 show that the assessments to C14 and
C13 are statistically higher than the majority of constraints, sug-
gesting they are the most significant constraints on using PPVC. Due
to the word and space limit, only the top five significant constraints
were discussed in detail in this study.
Receiving the highest assessment of 4.37, C14 “extensive coor-
dination required prior to and during construction” was ranked as
the most significant constraint on using PPVC. In contrast to the
conventional construction methods, PPVC involves multidisci-
plinary professionals to work in parallel and collaboratively in
every stage of the project, which means that extensive coordination
among the different project stakeholders is required, to handle the
design, manufacturing, transportation, and installation of the pre-
fabricated modules. However, the fragmented and conservative
nature of the construction industry restricts such coordination (De
La Torre, 1994; Lu, 2007), which impedes the implementation of

Table 4
Assessments and statistical test resutls of constraints.

Code Constraint Mean Rank Shapiro-Wilk test Kruskal-Wallis test

(p-value) (p-value)

C14 Extensive coordination required prior to and during construction 4.37 1 0.000* 0.344
C13 Need for additional project planning and design efforts 4.27 2 0.000* 0.810
C8 Increased transportation and logistics considerations 4.10 3 0.000* 0.153
C12 Requirement for early commitment 4.00 4 0.000* 0.162
C15 Higher initial cost than conventional construction method 3.95 5 0.000* 0.054
C3 Limitations to Design due to transportation restrictions (e.g. modules' size) 3.94 6 0.000* 0.677
C1 Decreased flexibility for design changes later 3.93 7 0.000* 0.403
C9 Transportation restrictions due to rules and regulations 3.80 8 0.000* 0.381
C4 Restricted site layout (e.g. lack of storage space for PPVC modules/lack of space to unload and move the 3.78 9 0.000* 0.499
modules)
C16 Higher construction costs to the conventional construction method 3.71 10 0.000* 0.424
C17 Require more communication among all stakeholders 3.71 10 0.000* 0.242
C18 Complex code compliance and inspection process 3.54 12 0.000* 0.405
C10 Lack of awareness of PPVC's benefits among owners/developers 3.51 13 0.001* 0.263
C5 Lack of PPVC experiences in term of design 3.49 14 0.000* 0.162
C6 Lack of PPVC experiences in term of installation 3.44 15 0.001* 0.829
C2 Unsupportive decision made by designers 3.44 15 0.002* 0.973
C7 Need for additional protection materials for PPVC modules 3.17 18 0.005* 0.026**
C11 Increased organizational requirements (e.g. changing roles of project participants/increased complexity of 3.41 17 0.000* 0.203
procurement and contracting issues)

Note: * The Shapiro-Wilk test was significant at the significance level of 0.05, suggesting the data were not normally distributed.
**The Kruskal-Wallist test was significant at the significance level of 0.05, suggesting statistical difference among respondents from different institutions.

Table 5
The results of Wilcoxon signed-ranks test for constraints.

C14 C13 C8 C12 C15 C3 C1 C9 C4 C16 C17 C18 C10 C5 C6 C2 C7 C11

C14 e 0.285 0.100 0.050 0.028* 0.056 0.014* 0.006* 0.016* 0.002* 0.001* 0.000* 0.001* 0.001* 0.000* 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
C13 e 0.213 0.114 0.065 0.133 0.031* 0.021* 0.014* 0.006* 0.001* 0.000* 0.001* 0.000* 0.000* 0.000* 0.000* 0.000*
C8 e 0.715 0.399 0.516 0.382 0.058 0.154 0.053 0.039* 0.002* 0.004* 0.005* 0.001* 0.006* 0.000* 0.000*
C12 e 0.701 0.911 0.526 0.315 0.306 0.157 0.073 0.027* 0.009* 0.007* 0.014* 0.032* 0.000* 0.002*
C15 e 0.987 0.809 0.325 0.466 0.040* 0.231 0.009* 0.027* 0.024* 0.014* 0.012* 0.000* 0.001*
C3 e 0.813 0.305 0.287 0.248 0.247 0.018* 0.035* 0.029* 0.013* 0.036* 0.001* 0.010*
C1 e 0.498 0.474 0.211 0.344 0.024* 0.066 0.019* 0.015* 0.029* 0.000* 0.005*
C9 e 0.967 0.699 0.802 0.147 0.145 0.167 0.083 0.615 0.081 0.643
C4 e 0.709 0.725 0.164 0.192 0.172 0.099 0.227 0.023* 0.129
C16 e 0.837 0.319 0.230 0.283 0.213 0.124 0.016* 0.070
C17 e 0.323 0.397 0.243 0.154 0.301 0.003* 0.081
C18 e 0.962 0.815 0.656 0.578 0.049* 0.535
C10 e 0.922 0.631 0.615 0.081 0.643
C5 e 0.790 0.868 0.025* 0.863
C6 e 0.973 0.179 0.867
C2 e 0.240 0.990
C7 e 0.140
C11 e

Note: * The Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks test was significant at the significance level of 0.05, suggesting the two compared variables were statistically different.
 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193 189

PPVC in the current construction business. This result echoes
Rahman (2013) and Kamali and Hewage (2016) who highlighted
that there is an urgent need for more detailed and effective coor-
dination among different project stakeholders in each stage of
modular construction.
C13 “Need for additional project planning and design efforts”
was assessed as the second most significant constraint on using
PPVC, with an assessment of 4.27. The planning and design pro-
cesses of PPVC projects demand early collaboration among
different parties such as architects, contractors, and manufacturers,
which normally requires additional efforts from different project
stakeholders (Azhar et al., 2013; Mao et al., 2015; Rahman, 2013).
Moreover, due to the unique size and location of each project, the
building layout for each PPVC project is exclusive. Therefore, the
relevant planning and design has to be reinvented for each new
project. Thus, compared to conventional construction methods,
PPVC needs additional project planning and design efforts. This
result is in line with Lu (2007) and Jaillon and Poon (2010) who
emphasized that the increased workloads of pre-project planning
design are is the biggest obstacle to offsite construction projects.
C8 “Increased transportation and logistics considerations” were
ranked as the third most significant constraint with an assessment
of 4.10. Transportation logistics have a vital role in undertaking
PPVC projects (Haas and Fagerlund, 2002). Normally, before taking
any design step, the modular project team needs to examine the
limitations of module transportation in the relevant area, because
in most cases there is some special traffic control requirement on
transporting heavy and bulky articles in densely populated areas
(Rahman, 2013). Additionally, the module's dimensional constraint
might be another transportation barrier which can be dictated by
transportation regulations sometimes (Tam et al., 2007). Also,
module manufacture itself may have a maximum limit of distance
for transportation (Jaillon and Poon, 2010). Similar conclusions
were also obtained by Mao et al. (2015) and Kamali and Hewage
(2016) who claimed that transportation restraints were a chal-
lenge for using modular construction.
C12 “Requirement for early commitment” ranks fourth with an
assessment of 4.0, implying that the early commitment is another
significant constraint on using PPVC. According to BCA (2017b),
PPVC requires early involvement of project design and planning
because the precast components and modules need to be manu-
factured before construction starts. However, the respondents
attending the survey maintained that the intensive upfront
commitment in PPVC projects was inflexible, particularly regarding
the possible changes in the later project stages, which becomes an
obstacle to using PPVC. Such results are also found by Azhar et al.
(2013); Blismas et al. (2005); Jaillon and Poon (2010); and
Rahman (2013) who stated that the requirement for an early
commitment from the project stakeholders is a critical limitation
that inhibits the implementation of offsite construction methods.
C15 “Higher initial cost than conventional construction method”
received the fifth rank with an assessment of 3.95, indicating the
high initial cost a major limitation to the use of PPVC. The initial
cost for PPVC projects mainly refers to the expenses for the pur-
chase of prefinished modules as well as for the shipping, which is
normally higher than those for projects constructed with tradi-
tional methods. Normally, the modules used by PPVC are very
expensive because they are typically highly completed (mostly
85e90 of the project work) (Kamali and Hewage, 2017). Further-
more, the shipping of prefinished modules to site is also costly
either from overseas module suppliers or from a local prefabrica-
tion yard. Moreover, due to the large size, the prefinished modules
are more prone to shipping damage, thereby making the initial cost
for PPVC projects even higher. This result is in line with numerous
studies who claimed that the high initial cost is a major economic
constraint of offsite construction projects (Gibb and Isack, 2003;
Jaillon and Poon, 2010; Kamali and Hewage, 2016; Mao et al.,
2015; Pan et al., 2007, 2008; Rahman, 2013; Tam et al., 2007).
4.2. Effective mitigation strategies for constraints
Tables 6 and 7 presents the respondents' assessments to the
proposed mitigation strategies as well as the relevant statistical test
results. As indicated in Table 6, Shapiro-Wilk test results reveal a
non-normal data distribution, therefore Kruskal-Wallis test and
Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks test were selected to proceed inter-group
comparison and variable comparison, respectively. According to
the results of Kruskal-Wallis test, except MS1 “encouraging close
collaborations between project stakeholders during early phase of
project,” the rest mitigation strategies received consistent assess-
ments from respondents, indicating that respondents’ perceptions
of mitigation strategies are basically unanimous. Assessment re-
sults in Table 6 show that MS1 “encouraging close collaborations
between project stakeholders during early phase of project,” MS9
“use of BIM to improve coordination and facilitate communication
among project stakeholders,” and MS4 “offering training courses
for project team and workers to enhance their knowledge and
skills” are top three effective mitigation strategies that can over-
come the constraints of PPVC. Moreover, the Wilcoxon Signed-
Ranks test results in Table 7 reveal that the assessments to MS1,
MS9, and MS4 are statistically higher than the majority of mitiga-
tion strategies, indicating they are the most effective mitigation

Table 6
Assessments and statistical test resutls of mitigation strategies.

Code Mitigation strategy Mean Rank Shapiro-Wilk test Kruskal-Wallis test

(p-value) (p-value)

MS1 Encouraging close collaborations between project stakeholders during early phase of project 4.17 1 0.000* 0.046**
MS9 Use of BIM to improve coordination and facilitate communication among project stakeholders 4.07 2 0.000* 0.437
MS4 Offering training courses for project team and workers to enhance their knowledge and skills 4.02 3 0.000* 0.544
MS3 Use of Just-in-Time delivery 3.68 4 0.000* 0.684
MS5 Fabricate and assemble the module components as close as possible to the construction site to reduce 3.63 5 0.000* 0.310
transportation effort
MS6 Use of Information Technologies (e.g. electronic file transfer) to overcome the extra requirement of planning, 3.63 6 0.000* 0.839
coordination and communication
MS8 Develop systems/computer programs to perform detailed economic analyses for both PPVC and conventional 3.63 7 0.000* 0.673
construction methods
MS7 Conduct feasibility studies for PPVC method 3.56 8 0.000* 0.316
MS2 Apply Temporary Occupation License (TOL) to set up temporary worksite in the vicinity of the construction 3.46 9 0.001* 0.425
site to overcome the restricted site layout issue

Note: * The Shapiro-Wilk test was significant at the significance level of 0.05, suggesting the data were not normally distributed.
**The Kruskal-Wallist test was significant at the significance level of 0.05, suggesting statistical difference among respondents from different institutions.
190 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
Table 7
The results of Wilcoxon signed-ranks test for mitigation strategies.
MS1 MS9 MS4 MS3 MS5 MS6 MS8 MS7
MS1 e 0.381 0.568 0.005* 0.014* 0.002* 0.003* 0.001*
MS9 e 0.741 0.046* 0.039* 0.006* 0.007* 0.001*
MS4 e 0.112 0.055 0.043* 0.030* 0.008*
MS3 e 0.826 0.777 0.717 0.562
MS5 0.974 0.958 0.785
e
MS6 e 0.982 0.439
MS8 e 0.439
MS7 e 0.659
MS2
Note: * The Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks test was significant at the significance level of
0.05, suggesting the two compared variables were statistically different.
strategies against the constraints to PPVC. Due to the word and
space limit, only the top three most effective mitigation strategies
were discussed in detail in this study.
MS1 “Encouraging close collaborations between project stake-
holders during the early phase of project” was ranked first with the
highest assessment of 4.17, indicating that collaborations among
project stakeholders were perceived to be the most effective
strategy in mitigating constraints impeding PPVC. This is because,
in a PPVC project, multidisciplinary professionals to work concur-
rently during the early project phases such as planning and design,
which makes close and effective collaborations from different
project stakeholders a necessity rather than an option for PPVC
projects. BCA (2017b) also emphasized that the needs of upfront
planning and coordination among stakeholders is the inherent
traits of PPVC method and that the success of PPVC project needs
the support and collaboration between project participants. Simi-
larly, Said (2015) highlighted that the close collaborations among
project stakeholders would lead to positive impacts including time,
cost, quality and risk on the prefabrication projects.
MS9 “Use of BIM to improve coordination and facilitate
communication among project stakeholders” was assessed as the
second most effective mitigation strategy with an assessment of
4.07. Without any doubt, the needs for early involvement and
commitment in the early stage of PPVC projects leads to more
communication among project players. As such, it gives rise to the
adoption of BIM, which serves as an information platform to bridge
the communication gaps between project stakeholders and
enhance the interdisciplinary coordination. Also, according to Lu
and Korman (2010), the mechanical, electrical and plumbing co-
ordination process can be improved significantly with the adoption
of BIM as it changes the way engineers and contractors interact
with each other. This is also supported by Goh and Loosemore
(2017) who suggested that leveraging on BIM can improve coor-
dination and allow project stakeholders better understand the
geometry of modules before fabrication. Singh et al. (2015) also
highlighted that, by integrating modular construction rules with
BIM, designers can automate complex modeling and documenta-
tion activities, thus enhancing the design process.
Receiving an assessment of 4.02, MS4 “offering training courses
for project team and workers to enhance their knowledge and
skills” was ranked as the third most effective strategy in mitigating
the constraints to the use of PPVC. In this study, lack of PPVC ex-
periences in terms of design and installation was found to be major
limitations to the adoption of PPVC. This is a very critical issue as it
may lead industry practitioners back to the conventional con-
struction method again. Thus it is imperative to launch a series of
training courses for professionals to help improve their knowledge
and skills related to the implementation of PPVC. This can allow
them to better appreciate the technology and to be more confident
in adopting PPVC projects in the future. Currently, in Singapore,
such training courses and workshops have been launched by
several vocational education institutions such as Institution of En-
gineers Singapore Academy and BCA Academy, and are highly
MS2 acknowledged by trainees (BCA Academy, 2015; The Institution of
0.001*
Engineers Singapore (2017)).
0.004*
0.012*
0.292 5. Case study: North Hill Residential Hall at Nanyang
0.380
Technological University
0.386
0.325
This case study is based on a real PPVC project named North Hill
e Residential Halls conducted in Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. This project is Singapore's first public high-rise building
that constructed based on the prefabrication of modular elements
assembled in an off-site factory. Completed within 19 months, the
project consisted of six 13-storey blocks which are able to accom-
modate more than 1850 students overall. It is also a one-stop in-
tegrated hub, comprising a multipurpose hall, fully-equipped gym,
eateries, sky lounges and rooftop gardens with barbecue pits. To
better understand the construction procedures, coordination and
constraints faced in this PPVC project, an interview was conducted
with a PPVC specialist involved in this project.
According to the interviewee, the location and the size of tower
cranes, as well as the delivery routes and the pick-up and unloading
points for trucks, were confirmed in the early stage of site prepa-
ration. Mock-up modules were manufactured first before the actual
production of modules to obtain the approval from the client in
order to avoid the possible disputes in the future. After that, the
approved modules were manufactured and prefabricated at four
locations including Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan and mainland
China. Subsequently, the finished modules were transported to a
temporary site at Jurong Island, Singapore. During this process,
inspectors were hired to do inspections at the manufacturing fac-
tories and Jurong temporary site to ensure the compliance of the
completed modules to the requirements stipulated in the binding
contract. After inspection, the modules were transported to the site
for installation. As for module transportation, the Just-in-time de-
livery was selected, by which about six modules were delivered
from the Jurong temporary site to NTU site in one day. The number
of modules per trip varied according to the size. The delivery of
modules was scheduled only on days with suitable weathers.
Overall, 1213 modules were used in this project. To ensure smooth
coordination and accurate sequencing of installation, unique codes
were used and printed on every single module. Also, connection
details were all initially incorporated into the steel frame, thereby
allowing easier access for workers to make the on-site connections.
Figs. 1e3 depict the core processes of this PPVC project, including
Fig. 1. Module manufacture at factory.
 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
Fig. 2. Transporting modules to temporary site at Jurong, Singapore.
module manufacture, module transportation, and module
installation.
In addition to construction procedures, the interviewee also
highlighted several constraints facing the project. For instance, as
Singapore is a city-state with limited industrial capacity, the vast
majority of the modules required by this project had to be manu-
factured overseas and then imported to Singapore, which increased
the project's initial cost dramatically. Also, as this PPVC project
needs the planning and design to be finalized and confirmed prior
to construction and only allow limited opportunities for changes
during project construction, the project team had to expend
considerable time and efforts on project design and planning to
make sure they are correct and feasible. This process resulted in a
lot of additional workloads, particularly in terms of the coordina-
tion and communication among different project stakeholders (e.g.,
developers, architects, engineers, and contractors), which
Fig. 3. Module installation at site.
191
somewhat affects the schedule performance of the project. Another
significant constraint is transportation. Normally, the delivery of
the modules to the site needs to be done by the oversized heavy
vehicles which may slow down the urban traffic and affect road
structured due to their large dimension and heavyweight. There-
fore, the movement of such vehicles is strictly regulated by the local
transportation authority. In Singapore, each movement of the
oversized heavy vehicle must apply for approval three working
days before the intended date of travel and must follow the
approved route (Land Transport Authority, 2016). This also brought
some inconvenience to the implementation of this project. Refer-
ring to the constraints mentioned by the interviewee, it could be
noted that they are mainly associated with problems of cost,
additional efforts on planning and design, extensive coordination
and communication among project stakeholders, and trans-
portation and logistics, which are generally in line with the findings
obtained from the questionnaire survey. This proves that the
findings from the questionnaire survey are reliable.
6. Conclusions and recommendations
Under the circumstances that PPVC gains more interests from
the industry, this study aimed to explore the significant constraints
that limit the adoption of PPVC in construciton projects and to
propose a group of mitigation strategies that can help address these
constraints. By conducting a comprehensive literature review and
administering an empirical questionnaire survey to the experi-
enced industry professionals, this study identified 18 significant
constraints that impede the adoption of PPVC, and also came up
with nine mitigation strategies responding to the constraints. The
survey results revealed that the top five significant constraints were
“extensive coordination required prior to and during construction,”
“need for additional project planning and design efforts,”
“increased transportation and logistics considerations,” “require-
ment for an early commitment,” and “higher initial cost than con-
ventional construction method.” The top three most effective
192 B.-G. Hwang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 183 (2018) 183e193
mitigation strategies were found to be “encouraging close collab-
orations between project stakeholders during the early phase of the
project,” “use of BIM to improve coordination and facilitate
communication among project stakeholders,” and “offering
training courses for project team and workers to enhance their
knowledge and skills.” Moreover, a case study was carried out
based on a real PPVC project conducted in Singapore. The infor-
mation provided by the case study echoed the findings from the
questionnaire survey, suggesting that the findings from this study
are reliable.
Although the objectives of this study were achieved, some
limitations were still present. First, this study collected the sub-
jective opinions of the respondents, which were based on their
experiences. Second, the sample size of the questionnaire survey
was small. Thus caution should be warranted when analysis results
are interpreted and generalized. Lastly, the findings from this study
applied to the context of Singapore exclusively, which may vary in
other countries. Nonetheless, the findings from this study are still
valuable and contributes to the body of knowledge, as they are the
first investigations into the constraints and mitigation strategies for
the PPVC method. Furthermore, the findings from this study can
benefit the industry by providing industry practitioners with a
thorough picture of the PPVC method regarding its constraints and
mitigation strategies, ultimately helping them achieve a better
implementation of this particular method in the future. For future
research, it is required to perform economic analysis on PPVC as
well as to examine critical risks and their impacts on project ob-
jectives when PPVC method is adopted.
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