ANALYSIS OF THE LAB-CONTROLLED CEMENT GROUTED SAMPLES

USING VARIOUS WATER-CEMENT RATIOS

A Research Paper Presented to the

Faculty of Civil Engineering Department
College of Engineering
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
The National Engineering University
Alangilan, Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject

ENGG 416- Research Methods

Africa, Christine Joy Y.

Mendoza, Gian Carlo D.
Saavedra, Mary Caryl Franchette A.
Sambile, Kurt Neo B.

MAY 2023
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I .......................................................................................................................1
Background of the Study ..................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................3
Research Objectives .........................................................................................................4
Scope and Delimitations...................................................................................................4

CHAPTER II ......................................................................................................................5
Conceptual Literature .......................................................................................................5
Related Studies ...............................................................................................................20
Foreign Studies ......................................................................................................20
Local Studies ..........................................................................................................24
Synthesis .........................................................................................................................27
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................32

CHAPTER III ..................................................................................................................35

Research Design .............................................................................................................35
Data Gathering Procedure ..............................................................................................36
Laboratory Materials and Equipment Treating and Preparation ....................................37
Mixtures and Sample Preparation ..................................................................................38
Testing the Relative Strength of the Soilcrete Specimens .............................................39
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................40
Work Plan .......................................................................................................................41
Expected Output .............................................................................................................42

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................44

APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................53

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LIST OF FIGURES
California Bearing Ratio Test Loading Machine ................................................................9
Effect of Temperature .......................................................................................................14
Research Paradigm ............................................................................................................34
Data Gathering Procedure .................................................................................................36
Grain Size Distribution Curve of Selected Soil ................................................................37
Plot of Load versus Settlement .........................................................................................41
Online Consultation with Geotechnical Engineering Professor ........................................54
Online Group Meeting ......................................................................................................54
CBR Machine in the Laboratory .......................................................................................54
Video Editing ....................................................................................................................54

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LIST OF TABLES
Water Cement Ratio IS 10262 (2009) Code Chart .............................................................7
Curing Time and Compressive Strength ...........................................................................15
The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Tested Soil Specimen .............................38
Soilcrete Mixture Ingredients ............................................................................................39
Work Plan ..........................................................................................................................42

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter I - Background of the Study
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter includes the background of the study, objectives of the study,

statement of the problems, significance of the study, scope, limitation and delimitation, as

well as the conceptual framework. This background provides reader’s essential context

needed to understand the research problem.

Background of the Study

Every civil engineering project and construction is interrelated to soil in some

manner, and the properties of the soil or rock hence determine its design. Geotechnical

operations are crucial for soil sampling, assessing geomaterial properties, managing

groundwater level and flow, as well as the interaction with the environment and hydrology

(Eslami 2020). Understanding the shear strength of soil is vital in geotechnical engineering.

Geotechnical engineers must understand soil shear strength. Whether designing building

foundations, pavements, or temporary access roads, soil strength allows us to calculate

ground-bearing capacity; similarly, soil shear strength determines how stable retaining

walls, slopes, and embankments will be (Lees 2021). The determination of soil strength

always coincides with a link to physical soil properties like hydraulic conductivity, pore

size distribution, and pore continuity, and is also linked with plant growth and yield,

climate change aspects as well as groundwater recharge, and water quality (Horn & Fleige

2014).

In concrete, the amount of water used in the mix has the most important influence

on most of its properties. There is a ratio of cement and water utilized in the preparation of

concrete called the water-cement ratio. The more water in a concrete mix, the more dilute

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter I - Background of the Study
the cement paste. This affects not only the compressive strength, but also the tensile and

flexural strengths, porosity, shrinkage, and color (The Concrete Countertop Institute 2022).

If the proportion of water utilized is less, then there will not be a sufficient quantity of

water to hydrate the cement. As a result, the concrete will be weak and porous. Therefore,

the common tendency is to use too much water, which produces a more workable mix but

does not sound concrete. Too much water causes aggregate segregation, resulting in porous

concrete with low strength and density (Dmello & Bashir 2021).

For civil engineers, soil is an uncemented or weakly cemented aggregation of

mineral particles generated by the weathering of rocks, with the void space between the

particles containing water and/or air. In relation to this, cement grouting is a procedure that

uses grout as a flowable medium to fill pores in granular soil or voids in rock or soil.

Depending on the application, cement grout is injected under pressure at strategic locations

via single or several ports. The particle size of the grout being injected must be aligned

with the site-specific geotechnical conditions; this allows the cement grout to penetrate the

pores or voids effectively. Once treated, the grouted mass has enhanced strength and

stiffness while decreasing permeability (PCA Ground Engineering 2014).

When determining the potential strength of subgrade, subbase, and base course

material, including recycled materials, the California bearing ratio (CBR) test is utilized.

The outcomes are used in the pavement design of roadways and airfields. The California

State Highway Department invented the test originally (Trenchless Pedia 2023). It is the

ratio of the force per unit area needed to penetrate a soil mass at a rate of 1.25 mm/min

compared to the force needed to do the same with a standard material (Jamal 2017). The

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter I - Background of the Study
test gauges the amount of force needed to force a standard-sized plunger into a soil sample.

The CBR value rises as surface hardness increases. (Trenchless Pedia 2023).

In this study, the researchers will entail how the water-cement ratio affects the

physical and mechanical properties of cement-grouted soils as well as their resistance to

penetration, curing time, workability, and compressive strength through the California

bearing ratio test. Aside from the related studies and literature, the researchers will also

conduct trials and tests with various soil samples in order to achieve the success of the

study.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to identify the potential of different water-cement ratios in

improving the strength characteristics of cement grouted soil. Specifically, it seeks answers

to the following questions:

1. What are the effects of different water-cement ratios on the strength characteristics

of cement grouted soil?

2. How will water-cement ratio affect the stability of cement grouted soil?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of testing different water-cement ratio

in terms of:

 resistance to penetration;

 curing time;

 workability,

 compressive strength

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter I - Background of the Study
Research Objectives

This paper generally aims to present the data on whether different water-cement

ratios have the potential to improve the strength characteristics of cement grouted soils.

At the end of this study, the researchers shall be able to:

1. Utilize the California Bearing Ratio Test in obtaining the data for this research.

2. Elaborate the significance of water-cement ratio on the strength capacity of soil.

3. Compare and translate the data and results gathered in experimenting different

water-cement ratios.

Scope and Delimitations

This study focuses on determining whether having different water cement ratios

have the potential of increasing the strength of cement grouted soil. At the end of the study,

the researchers will holistically identify the possibilities of cement grouted soil using

different water cement ratios. However, this research is limited only to the testing of

different water-cement ratios using California bearing ratio test and its effect on the

physical and mechanical characteristics of cement grouted soil. Moreover, it will not cover

the analysis of other properties of soil. The sandy soil will be mixed with cement grout in

varying proportions ranging from 0.5:1 to 1.0:1, and a total of 72 specimens will be

prepared in the laboratory, specifically, four different days of curing with six water-cement

mixtures and three samples per day of testing.

The conduct of this study from chapters 1-3 lasted for three (3) months, starting

from the first week of March up to May 2023.

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies, which have significant

bearings on the study’s variables. This will also include the synthesis, which will include

a summary of the studies and a comparison to the proposed research. This literature review

aims to provide a thorough examination of recently published articles in the study's areas

of interest.

Conceptual Literature

This classifies an outline of the concepts or variables, principles, key factors, and

specifications relevant to the study.

Soil mixing is a natural technique used to enhance the resilience and/or

permeability of contaminated or marginal soils. Over the last few decades, the use of this

technology has rapidly developed in both the geotechnical and environmental markets.

Expansion in the geotechnical market is largely as a result of enhancement in soil mixing

installation methods and monitoring equipment (Ruffing and Moran 2016).

Soil Concrete and its Significance

A Soilcrete is widely used in the reinforcement of foundation footings, the

construction of roads and railways, and the manufacture of bricks and pavement tiles. And

soilcrete's compressive strength is vital in its physical and mechanical makeup (Kharun

and Svintsov 2017). It is a method of soil stabilization wherein the soil is incorporated with

cement and water. The process of mixing is done in situ by burrowing soil and cement, and

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Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
water, blending with a mechanical mixer, or the fluid infiltrating under high pressure

(Buthelezi n.d.).

Water-Cement Ratio

According to Parmar (2023) in order to achieve strength and keep the concrete

workable, the water-cement ratio is crucial in determining how much water should be

added to the cement. The water-cement ratio compares the amount of water in one unit of

cement. Higher strength is reflected by a lower value, however, concreting operations are

complex. A mix that is difficult to work with and may not properly bond or cure can emerge

from using too little water, although using too much water can produce weaker and more

porous concrete that is less durable (Mahajan 2023). Raising the w/c ratio will increase the

chance of shrinkage, setting, and worse, binding to the rock surface, which can lead to

inadequate grouting results (Elizaveta 2018).

As stated by Babu (2016), numerous people express a fundamental skepticism

about the wisdom of persisting in attaching any significance towards the water-cement ratio

to strength relation that was initially postulated for normal concretes and additionally only

for concretes of marginal strengths after perceiving that modern concretes are customarily

modified significantly in a variety of manners in recent times. In addition, Majahan (2023)

iterated, the right amount of water to cement in concrete relies on several variables, such

as the type of cement used, the size and type of the aggregates, and the desired strength and

workability of the final product. For the majority of applications, it is generally thought

that a water-cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.50 is optimal.

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Calculating the water-cement ratio is obtained using the formula water/cement. In

plain English, the procedure yields the w/c ratio by dividing the amount of water by the

amount of cement. Another way is by using The Water Cement Ratio IS 10262 (2009) code

chart. (Mahajan, 2023)

Table 1. Water Cement Ratio IS 10262 (2009) Code Chart

Cement Grouting Method

As reported by Gibson (2023), cement grouting is the process of injecting cement

under pressure into fractures and cavities in concrete structures. Cement grouting/pressure

injection of grout into rock fractures will improve the stability of the rock formation;

provide pre-construction site improvement; arrest foundation settlements; stop rocking

slabs in warehouses; repair fractures in machine bases; rectify sinkhole problems; lift and

level slabs and foundations; control soft-ground settlements in granular soils. PCA Ground

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Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Engineering (2014) explained that cement grout is injected under pressure at strategic

locations via single or several ports, depending on the application. The particle size of the

grout being injected must be aligned with the site-specific geotechnical conditions; this

allows the cement grout to efficiently penetrate the pores or voids. After treatment, the

grouted mass has enhanced strength and stiffness while decreasing permeability.

Furthermore, Hussin (2018) stated that cement grout can be injected either through

a pipe drilled into the soil or, when grouting rock formations, through an open hole drilled

in the rock. Packers are frequently used to segregate areas of the drilled hole in order to

ensure adequate grout distribution. For instance, Laticrete (2023) added that on any given

project, the grout will typically be applied at a wide range of consistencies. Some may need

to be placed in a fluid consistency, while others may be plastic or flowable, or dry-packed.

It is critical that the grout used does not shrink at any point throughout the installation

process.

California Bearing Ratio Test, Machine and Calculation Procedures.

This study is an experimental type of research and will be maximizing the

California Bearing Ratio Test in order to obtain data significant to the study’s areas of

interest. The California bearing ratio test is a load test performed on the soil surface to

determine soil strength. The proximate strength of a soil specimen is measured in relation

to a standard sample in this test. The California bearing ratio is the percentage of stress that

a soil specimen can withstand for a given amount of penetration in comparison to the

amount of stress that a standard soil can withstand. The outcome will be an indicator of the

soil's strength (Hazzan n.d.).

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures

Figure 1. California Bearing Ratio Test Loading Machine

The machine used in the test has an internal diameter of 150mm and 175mm with

a detachable collar, and the detachable base plate has perforations at the bottom. A space

disc of 148mm diameter and height of 47.7mm. Surcharge weights of mass 2.5 kg each

and having a central hole of 53 mm diameter. Penetration plunger of diameter 50 mm and

100 mm height. A loading machine of capacity 5000 kg and capable of traveling vertically

at a 1.25 mm/minute rate. Compaction rammers, proving ring, dial gauges, weight balance,

filter papers, mixing tool, tray, and measuring cylinder (Dreamcivil 2022).

To begin the procedures, place the mold assembly with the surcharge weights on

the penetration test machine. Seat the penetration piston in the center of the specimen with

the smallest possible load, but no more than 4 kg, to ensure full contact of the piston with

the sample. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to zero. Load the piston so that the

penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min. Load readings should be taken at penetrations of

0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10, and 12.5 mm. Take note of the maximum load

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
and corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm. Remove the

mold from the loading equipment (Pro Civil Engineer 2022).

In terms of calculation, if the curve's initial portion is concave upwards, correct it

by drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope and shifting the origin. Find

and record the correct load reading for each penetration.

C.B.R. = (PT/PS) X 100

where PT = Corrected test load corresponding to the chosen penetration from the

load penetration curve.

PS = Standard load for the same penetration taken from the table above.

C.B.R. values are typically calculated for penetrations of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. In

general, the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater than at 5 mm, and in such a case/the

former shall be taken as C.B.R. for design purposes. If the C.B.R. for 5 mm exceeds that

for 2.5 mm, the test should be repeated. If the results are the same, the C.B.R.

corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be used for design (Iricen n.d.).

Resistance to Penetration

Penetration into concrete is a subject that researchers have interest on for plenty of

years. The Constructor (n.d.) explained that this property of concrete exhibits other

characteristics such as uniformity of concrete, specifies the poor quality or deteriorated

concrete zones, and evaluates the in-situ strength of concrete.

Based on this, improvements in concrete's resistance to impact and impulsive

loading have mostly been based on empirical considerations and trials. Thus, undergoing

to these processes, concrete failure under impact and impulsive loading can also influence

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
concrete resistance to penetration and pressure (Patel 2017). Consequently, since

penetration is inversely proportional to the compressive strength in the standard condition.

It was then concluded that test results can demonstrate that resistance to penetration is

influenced by the concrete strength and the nature of aggregates (The Constructor n.d.).

Since it was revealed that when concrete is subjected to impact or impulsive loading

it can produce a volume of crater. The increment of compressive strength will result to the

reduction of water-cement ratio as well as the removal of coarse aggregates (Patel 2017).

Contrary to this, as mentioned by The Constructor (n.d) this proposition does not guarantee

the decrease of the penetration depth and crater diameter. This is due to the reason that

coarse aggregates can in fact reduce the depth of penetration as well as the crater diameter

and crack propagation. This clearly implies that coarse aggregates reduces the impact of

the load, thus, contribute to penetration resistance.

Curing Time and Factors Affecting Curing Time

Curing is a vital component of strength development and durability of concrete. It

follows directly after concrete placing and finishing and includes maintenance of required

moisture and temperature condition for both at depth and surface level, applicable for

extended time period (Zemajtis n.d.). Palmer (2020) exclaimed that since fresh concretes

can be easily ruined due to its sensitivity, thus, this factor must not be neglected during

curing process to achieve the desired strength and durability of the concrete.

Based on the report of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) the minimum curing

period of a concrete is achieved when it attained the 70 percent of the required compressive

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Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
strength. This somehow equates to the seven-day curing of the concrete (Zemajtis n.d.).

The Constructor (n.d.) agreed to this having ordinary Portland cement to be the basic

component of the concrete that was revealed to have cured in a minimum seven days.

However, they stated that curing time still depends the type of cement used, temperature,

type of construction, and required strength. Palmer (2020) also presented that curing period

varies in each project depending on the weather, concrete mix, finishing techniques,

mixture proportion, and concrete placements. As a result, Zemajtis (n.d.) elaborated that

when concrete are properly cured, they obtain an adequate amount of moisture needed for

continuous hydration and strength development, stability, thawing and freezing resistance,

and scaling and abrasion resistance. Thereafter, this process helps retain moisture in the

slab where concrete gains strength and delays the shrinkage until desired strength is

achieved (Palmer 2020).

Factors Affecting Curing Time

Mixture Ratio

As mentioned earlier, mixture ratio, temperature, and time affect the entire process,

things must be known to every person involved in the process. As reported by Thompson

(2021), insufficient water will not combine the cement and aggregate, however, too much

water can make the concrete porous which leads to cracking and chipping. This simply

implies that the right amount of water must be used to not have a mishap during curing. He

also explained that high water-to-cement ratios are utilized when concrete needs to be fresh

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and malleable while curing. While, low water-to-cement ratios are used for durability

development and faster curing period.

Temperature

During hot and cold weathers, curing time differs, thus, required more attention.

Heated enclosures, evaporation reducers, curing chemicals, and insulating blankets are

some of the techniques used in cold weather. Heated enclosures, evaporation reducers,

curing chemicals, and insulating blankets are some of the techniques used in cold weather.

On the contrary, for hot weather concrete installations, sunscreens, windscreens, fogging

and evaporation retardants can be employed. Because concrete strength gains faster in

warmer conditions, the curing period may be lowered (Zemajtis n.d.). However, the

ultimate strength of concrete may be reduced (The Constructor n.d.). Consequently, as

published by The Constructor (n.d.), if testing of concrete is not done, concretes must be

kept above 10 degrees Celsius and be cured depending on the required period. If the

concrete is poured below the required temperature, it should be protected from thawing

and freezing, if not, its durability will be at stake.

Below illustrates the effect of curing temperature on compressive strength as

mentioned earlier.

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures

Figure 2. Effect of Temperature

Time

Time plays a crucial part in the curing process for it tells how much strength the

concrete has gained in days and how long the concrete will fully reach its required strength.

Concrete curing does not end, its compressive strength increases in three to seven days in

a faster rate and increases gradually for the next three weeks (Thompson 2021). The

Constructor (n.d.) showed determined that it is possible to cut down the curing period to

three days if high-early strength concrete is used. In support of these statements, Palmer

(2020) discussed that timeframes must be taken into account during the curing period.

From 24 to 48 hours, after initial set, forms can be removed. On the seventh day, after

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Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
partial curing, 70% of the strength is gained. After 28 days, concretes are considered to be

fully cured.

The Constructor (n.d.) presented the table below to provide proper illustration on

the relationship of curing time and compressive strength development.

Table 2. Curing Time and Compressive Strength

Days Compressive strength

1 16%

3 40%

7 65%

14 90%

28 99%

Workability of Concrete

Concrete's capacity to be mixed, poured, solidified, and finished with little loss of

homogeneity is referred to as its workability, a broad and arbitrary phrase. Workability is

a trait that has a direct bearing on strength, quality, appearance, and even labor costs for

placement and finishing operations. This research shows how these qualitative traits are

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Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
characterized in quantitative terms, though, since views aren't really important for testing

and documenting tangible properties. A quality product with a long service life is produced

by a concrete mix with outstanding workability, which balances a variety of factors (Gilson

n.d.).

According to Cusens, Murdock and Kaplan n.d. every concrete mix design's

workability and other aspects are influenced by the proportions, quality, and properties of

the ingredients and admixtures. The water-cement ratio, aggregate size and form, and

admixtures are some factors impacting workability.

Water-Cement Ratio

Gilson (n.d.) stated that with the right amount of water, more paste coats the surface

of the aggregates for quicker consolidation and a superior finish. A higher mix of cement

or cementitious ingredients typically indicates greater strength. Lack of adequate water

results in poor strength development and an unruly mix that makes placing and finishing

difficult. It may be argued that adding too much water improves workability by making it

simpler to place and consolidate. However, because it can have such a deleterious effect

on finishing processes, segregation, and final strength, it should be addressed with extreme

caution. The ideal range for producing workable concrete is 0.45 to 0.6 for the water-to-

cementitious material ratio (w/cm).

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Aggregate Size and Shape

More cement paste is required to completely cover the surface of the aggregates as

their surface area grows. As a result, mixes containing smaller particles are less workable

than those containing bigger aggregates. Aggregates that are long, angular, and flaky are

more challenging to mix and place because they need to cover a larger surface area, which

reduces their workability. Although rounded aggregates have a smaller surface area, they

lack the angularity needed to form strong enough bonds with cement paste. The right ratio

of crushed aggregate offers a stronger bond with the cement matrix and sufficient

workability.

Admixtures

Numerous admixtures, either intentionally or unintentionally, change how

workable fresh concrete is. Surfactants, like superplasticizers, lessen the attraction between

cement and aggregate particles, making it possible to create flowable mixtures without

compromising strength or segregation. Although adding too much results in a sticky mix

with the opposite effect, air-entraining admixtures for freeze-thaw durability produce air

bubbles of a controlled size that can make for simpler finishing.

Compressive Strength of Concrete

For good reason, concrete is regarded as a strong and durable material.

Compressive strength is one of the numerous ways to evaluate the strength of concrete,

though. In order to fulfill the design specifications of a structure, concrete mixtures can be

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created to offer a variety of mechanical and durability attributes. Concrete cylinder

specimens are broken in compression-testing equipment to determine the compressive

strength. It is measured in pound-force per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa) and

computed by dividing the failure load by the cross-sectional area resisting the load (Zephyr

n.d.).

According to Tim Lysett (2022) the most popular and often used method of

determining the strength of concrete to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular concrete

mixture is the compressive strength of concrete. It gauges the concrete's resistance to forces

that will cause it to shrink in size. Concrete cylinder specimens are broken in a specialized

apparatus made to measure this kind of strength to determine the material's compressive

strength. Psi stands for pounds per square inch. The American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) standard C39 is followed throughout testing. Compressive strength is

significant because it serves as the primary criterion for determining if a certain concrete

mixture will be enough for a given application.

The appropriate concrete psi for a particular project varies on a number of variables,

but each project should start with a minimum of 2,500 to 3,000 psi. There is a general

allowable psi range for every concrete building. Typically, concrete footings and slabs on

grade need to be between 3,500 and 4,000 psi strong. 3,500 to 5,000 psi are needed for

suspended slabs, beams, and girders, which are frequently seen in bridges. Traditional

concrete walls and columns typically vary from 3,000 to 5,000 psi, whereas pavement

18
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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
requires 4,000 to 5,000 psi. For concrete constructions to resist longer freeze-thaw cycles

in colder climes, a greater psi is necessary.

In order to determine the psi, compressive strength is often evaluated after seven

and 28 days, respectively. The seven-day test, which in some situations may even be

conducted as early as three days, is used to determine early strength increases. However,

the American Concrete Institute (ACI) regulations specify that the concrete psi is based on

the findings of the 28-day test.

Other Factors Contributing to the Strength of Concrete

Water-Cement Ratio

This is referring to the proportion of cement to water in the concrete mix. Although

stronger concrete with a lower water-to-cement ratio is more challenging to work with, the

concrete is also stronger. To attain the desired strength while keeping workability, the

proper balance must be struck.

Proportioning

Traditional concrete is composed of a sand, gravel, and stone aggregate mixture,

water, cement, and air. To get greater concrete strength, it is essential to use the proper

ratio of these components. A concrete mixture that contains an excessive amount of cement

paste may be simple to pour, but it will crack easily and not hold up over time. On the other

hand, too little cement paste will result in rough, porous concrete.

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Mixing

Strength depends on the right amount of mixing time. Up to a certain degree,

mixing time does seem to boost strength, but mixing too long can actually cause extra water

to evaporate and the production of fine particles in the mix. As a result, the concrete

becomes weaker and more difficult to work with.

Curing Methods

Concrete will become stronger the longer it is kept moist. When curing concrete in

excessively cold or hot conditions, safety measures must be followed in order to preserve

the concrete.

Related Studies

Related studies are reviews of existing works, such as journals and government

reports that demonstrate the researchers' in-depth knowledge and understanding of the

research subject. The related studies presented below are organized chronologically for

both foreign and local studies.

Foreign Studies

In recent years, numerous experiments concerning the different water-cement ratios

of grouted soil are being accomplished by several researchers. They are primarily

investigating the effect of different water-cement ratios on grouted soil in terms of the

20
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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
strength of construction elements, intending to maximize sustainability. In fact, a

laboratory study by Ahmed and AL-Malkee (2021) ascertained that the water-cement ratio

and compressive strength embody an indirectly proportional relationship. After preparing

a total of 96 specimens in the laboratory and testing at different curing times, it was found

that the soil concrete strength of a water-cement ratio of 0.7 is higher at about 237% of a

1.4 W/C ratio at the 28-day of curing. So, when the water-cement ratio increases, the dry

density of soil concrete decreases as a result, the uniaxial compressive strength of soil

concrete decreases. They also claimed that one of the difficulties encountered by the

researchers was determining the strength and geometry element created using the jet

grouting method. Furthermore, grouted columns in soil are a complicated issue because

they are dependent on several parameters such as soil type, grout and water flow rate,

monitor rotation and lifting speed, nozzle jetting force, and water-to-cement slurry ratio.

Relative to the preceding studies, Harianto et al. et al. (2018) used unconfined

compression testing to investigate the compressive strength characteristics of grouted soil-

cement columns. They discovered a sample of grouted soil-cement column with a water-

cement ratio of 0.8 and two kgs/ sq. under 28 days of curing, cm grouting pressure indicates

the best result with the highest value of compressive strength, which is 30.182 kgs/ sq. cm.

They also confirmed that the compressive strength's affinity to the water-cement ratio

shows a tendency that the higher the water-cement ratio, the lower the compressive

strength.

The paper accomplished by Li (2021) presented how the changing water-cement

ratio of concrete affects its strength. More importantly, this established the regression

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
relationship of the two variables, thus, served as a future reference for mix design of high

performance concrete. The idea of this research was to have the mix ratio of cement

pavement concrete where the researchers arrived at the specific mix ratio of cement : sand

: large stones : small stones : water : admixture which translates to its numerical value 340

: 618 : 1009 : 433 : 139 : 6.8. There were 18 groups of tests having three cylinder and three

trabecular samples per group with a total of 54 cylinder samples and 54 trabecular samples.

These samples were cured and undergone testing for splitting tensile strength and bending

tensile strength. The researchers figured out the relationship between water-cement ratio

and concrete strength where the change of concrete performance was analyzed by utilizing

different water-cement ratios of concrete. As a result, they announced that when the water-

cement ratio of concrete is ranging from 0.371-0.479, the strength of concrete will decrease

while the water-cement ratio increases.

Ortiz (2015) investigated the initial conditions that could affect grout application

effectiveness. In this study, variations in pure grout qualities have been investigated using

two grouts: ultrafine and acrylate. An apparatus was developed to enable a uniform grout

to pass through the pore spaces of a soil specimen. After conducting the test, it was

concluded that the water-cement ratio had negative impacts on the stability of grout.

Increasing the water-to-cement ratio from 0.5 to 2.5 resulted in a factor of 100 reduction in

strength. Moreover in general, this study discovered that as the initial moisture was

increased from dry circumstances to a gravimetric moisture content of 9%, the rate of grout

penetration into the soil increased. Increased initial moisture decreased grouted soil

strength in each investigation, with strength decreases exceeding 50% in certain cases.

22
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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
XH Vu, Y. Malecot, and L. Daudeville (2017) conducted a study to characterize

concrete behavior under high triaxial loadings (near-field detonation or ballistic impacts).

Static tests on concrete samples have been performed using a very high-capacity triaxial

press to simulate high stress levels with carefully controlled loading paths (stress levels on

the order of 1 GPa). The porosity and strength of the cement matrix of cured concrete are

significantly influenced by the water/cement ratio (W/C) that enters the concrete mix. This

article's aim is to measure this ratio's impact on specific behaviors under very constricted

circumstances. Two more concrete have been created from the materials of a reference

"ordinary" concrete (W/C = 0.6), with W/C ratios of 0.4 and 0.8, respectively. In this

article, the effects of the water/cement ratio (W/C) on the behavior of concrete under high

confinement are examined through experimental findings and their analysis. It

demonstrates how concrete behaves like a granular stack of concrete when it is tightly

compressed, regardless of the strength of the cement matrix.

According to G. Lv, J. Liu, B. Han, T. Zhang, Q. Xie, and X. Zhang (2021), due to

its large impact on grouting efficiency, diffusion radius is an essential construction

element. Diffusion radii can be predicted theoretically; however, there are still substantial

variations between theoretical calculations and reliable results in real-world construction.

The time-dependent behavior of cement grout, which is strongly influenced by the water-

cement ratio (W/C), is one of the main causes of the misprediction. As a result, the

influence of W/C on the viscosity fluctuation of the grout and grouting process is

investigated experimentally and numerically in this article. In the beginning, a rotational

viscometer is used in a lab experiment to measure the apparent viscosity of the cement

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
grout under various W/C settings. The influence of W/C on the diffusion process of cement

grout in sand layers is then investigated using numerical models built on the foundation of

the laboratory experiments. The laboratory data show that as W/C increases, the apparent

viscosity of cement grouts reduces. Additionally, as W/C grows, the expanding range of

apparent viscosity initially increases and subsequently reduces, although the apparent

viscosity itself increases over time. According to the results of the simulation, as W/C

increases from 0.8 to 1.1, the diffusion radius at 60 minutes increases under the specified

grouting pressure for permeation grouting in the sand layer less and less noticeably. When

W/C is 0.9, the relative inaccuracy is marginally less than that of 0.8 at 60 minutes, reaching

37.65%. However, the relative error gets much narrower (21.36%) as W/C goes from 0.9

to 1.0, and this value is substantially lower than that of 0.8 or 0.9. The relative error is 6%,

which demonstrates the effectiveness of the analysis, and the simulation results are

confirmed by field testing. In light of the grout's variable viscosity, the cement permeation

model is a viable choice for the actual project. When employing cement grouts with a low

water-to-cement ratio in real-world engineering, in particular, it is important to take into

consideration the cement grouts' time-dependent behavior.

Local Studies

A study scrutinized by Gepulango and Grio (2017) presented the daily compressive

strength of concrete for twenty-eight days. A typical concrete mixture was made by

properly proportioning materials (including water) for a given strength within general

limits imposed by the cement content and workability. Three batches of concrete mixtures

were prepared, each with a different water-cement ratio of 0.85, 0.8, and 0.65. The research

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
found that concrete gained 27.11 percent, 58.10 percent, 76.22 percent, 89.34 percent, and

100 percent of its strength on the first, seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth

days, respectively. Moreover, the researchers asserted that some discrepancies were

uncovered. The differences could be attributed to the quality of the materials used in the

concrete mix, the water-cement ratio, and variations in the handling, transporting, placing,

and compacting procedures used.

In the experiment conducted by Galdo and Caingles (2022) samples from pavement

design were gathered wherein few soil properties of subgrade, subbase, and base materials

were considered to be crucial parameters. They determined the effects of lime sludge mixed

with cement as road subbase course material stabilizers. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

tests and other specific laboratory tests were conducted to determine the engineering

properties of treated and untreated soil samples. They arranged two sets of treated soil

samples. Set 1 with subbase soil and lime sludge with varying percentage of 8, 10, 12, 14,

and 16. While Set 2 was mixed with subbase soil, lime sludge of different percentage same

with Set 1, and 2% Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). Test results showed that from Set 1

samples those with lime sludge of 10%, 12%, 14%, and 16% exhibited a quantifiable CBR

values higher than of the untreated samples. This also recorded that the sample with 14%

of lime sludge showed the highest CBR value. Consequently, for Set 2 where 2% of cement

was added, CBR values of the samples significantly increased where it was determined that

the sample with 10% lime sludge and 2% cement provided the highest CBR value. In this

circumstance, it was determined that CBR value of the subbase course materials can in fact

be improved by lime sludge mixed with cement.

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Orozco and Diola (2019) conducted a laboratory experiment to compare the

strength performance of concrete made from different types of local cement such as

ordinary Portland cement (Type I), fly ash blended cement (Type IP), and pozzolan blended

cement (Type P) and to determine which is most applicable in the Philippine setting. Plain

concrete cylinder and beam specimens with varied water-to-cement ratios (0.4 and 0.5)

were cured at 3, 7, 14, 28, 56, 90, and 120 days in the experiment. The strength performance

of concrete batched from the three types of cement was compared using statistical analyses.

As per the result, there are no significant differences in the performance of concrete made

from Type I and Type IP for almost all curing ages in both water-cement ratios. Both the

Type IP and P cement demonstrated good consistency in the development of flexural

strength. However, the study still suggested using Type I and Type IP with a 0.5 water-

cement ratio as it performed better strength.

Fullante and Mendoza (2016) examine how concrete's compressive strength is

affected when coarse particles are partially replaced with waste ceramic tile. Utilizing

glazed and unglazed ceramic tiles, the experiment was conducted. The study also used

three different water-cement ratios: 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6, along with partial substitutions of

ceramic tile waste at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, and three different types of concrete

mixes: pure glazed, pure unglazed, and mixed tiles. The universal testing machine was used

to measure the compressive strength of the cylindrical concrete samples. The findings

demonstrated that the pure glazed samples had better compressive strengths than the

conventional, as did the mixed type samples with a 0.4 water-cement ratio and partial

substitutions of 10% and 20%, as well as the pure glazed samples with a 0.5 water-cement

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
ratio and partial substitution of 10%. The best compressive strength was achieved when

20% of glazed ceramic tiles were substituted for cement at a water-cement ratio of 0.4 as

opposed to 0.6.

Synthesis

Soilcrete is a method of soil stabilization in which soil is incorporated with cement

and water in situ by burrowing soil and cement and blending with a mechanical mixer or

fluid infiltrating under high pressure. It is necessary for its physical and mechanical

structure.

Basically, the water-cement ratio is the proportion of water to cement used for

producing concrete. Several studies have assessed the effect of various types of water-

cement ratios on the strength of concrete. The factors to consider in finding the right

amount of water to cement in concrete are the type of cement used, the size and type of the

aggregates, and the desired strength and workability of the final product Moreover, in

accordance with Abram’s law, it is stated that the strength of concrete is inversely

proportional to the water-cement ratio. The most utilized water-cement ratio ranges from

0.45-0.50. To calculate the water-cement ratio, the weight of the water will be simply divided

by the weight of the cement used in the mix. However, there is also a chart called Water

Cement Ratio IS 10262 (2009) Code Chart which basically provides the water-cement ratio

in different exposure and type of cement.

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Grouting is the process of utilizing grout to fix issues such as concrete fractures,

tile gaps, joint seals, soil stabilization, etc. Cement grouting is utilized for high-

permeability soil, and the grout is produced by water, sand, and cement. It is the injection

of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation in order to alter its physical properties.

Depending on the soil or rock type and the area to be grouted, several materials may be

used for grouting. The underlying technique, however, is the same: the soil or rock is

injected with fluid grout, which settles and reduces or acts as a sealant on the permeability

of the material. The most crucial part to consider in grouting is the stability during and after

the procedure. Moreover, it is important to ensure that there will be less wastage in the

process because grouting is relatively costly.

In light of these ideas, this study will maximize the California Bearing Ratio Test

to obtain data significant to the study's areas of interest. The California bearing ratio is the

percentage of stress a soil specimen can withstand for a given amount of penetration. The

outcome will be an indicator of the soil's strength (Hazzan n.d.). In addition, some other

properties will be tested. The mechanical properties of cement-grouted soils are best

understood by undergoing tests and procedures that require time to be accomplished and

quantified. These properties are vital in determining the maximum load a concrete can

withstand, compressive strength a concrete must gain, and quality development of

concretes which are influenced by time, temperature, proportions and quality of additives,

and even labor costs. More importantly, these properties will help establish the pros and

cons of varying water-cement ratio in concretes. Thereafter, these can be direct and

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
substantial parameters in discussing the overall performance, quality, and service life of

concretes.

Over the years, researchers are investigating the effect of different water-cement

ratios on grouted soil in terms of strength. A laboratory study by Ahmed and AL-Malkee

(2021) study found that when the water-cement ratio increases, the dry density of soil

concrete decreases and the uniaxial compressive strength decreases. However, determining

the strength and geometry element created using the jet grouting method is difficult due to

several parameters. Moreover, in the experimental study of Harianto et al. et al. (2018)

used unconfined compression testing to investigate the compressive strength

characteristics of grouted soil-cement columns. They found a sample with a water-cement

ratio of 0.8 and two kgs/ sq. cm had the highest compressive strength, 30.182 kgs/ sq. cm.

The higher the water-cement ratio, the lower the compressive strength.

Furthermore, in the study of Ortiz (2015), two types of grout (ultrafine and acrylate)

were tested in order to determine the conditions that could possibly affect the grout

application effectiveness which significantly relates to this research paper as it also

investigates the relationship between the water-cement ratio and the stability of grout.

Thereafter, as a result of the study by Ortiz (2015), it was concluded that the water-cement

ratio has a negative effect on the grout stability as it increased the ratio from 0.5 to 2.5.

Truly, there are differences in the effects of the water-cement ratio in various

investigations, and this study will help the researchers to correlate the studies more

effectively.

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
The research can be a reference for this paper, which will test 72 samples but with

the use of California Bearing Ratio Test, for it showed the in-depth relationship of water-

cement ratio and concrete strength. Similarly, the researchers will determine the strength

developed by each samples with varying water-cement ratio. However, unlike what was

done by Li (2021) testing will be done during 7th, 14th, 28th, and 56th day of curing.

Despite of these, the goal of this study is to provide the significant relationship between

the two variables.

On the other hand, the article of G. Lv, J. Liu, B. Han, T. Zhang, Q. Xie, and X.

Zhang (2021) investigates the influence of the water-cement ratio (W/C) on the viscosity

fluctuation of the grout and grouting process in sand layers. A rotational viscometer is used

to measure the apparent viscosity of the cement grout under various W/C settings, and

numerical models built on the foundation of the laboratory experiments show that W/C

increases as the grout expands. The relative error is 6%, which demonstrates the

effectiveness of the analysis, and the simulation results are confirmed by field testing. The

cement permeation model is a viable choice for the actual project, but it is important to

take into consideration the cement grouts' time-dependent behavior.

Various studies have claimed that the type of cement mix affects the stability of

concrete and in accordance with the study of Orzoco and Diola (2013), the water-cement

ratios used in the experiment are 0.4 and 0.5 with specified curing days such as 3, 7, 14,

28, 56, 90, and 120 days. Nevertheless, no significant difference was observed in the

strength of concrete even with the various types of cement, water-cement ratio, and curing

time indicated. Given the fact that it was concluded to have no significant difference, the

30
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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
study requires preference which resulted in the suggestion of using a 0.5 water-cement ratio

with the type of cement such as Portland cement and fly ash blended cement.

Gepulango and Grio (2017) investigated the daily compressive strength of concrete

for 28 days in their local study. Three batches of concrete mixtures with varying water-

cement ratios were prepared. Concrete gained 27.11 percent, 58.10 percent, 76.22 percent,

89.34 percent, and 100 percent of its strength on the first, seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first,

and twenty-eighth days, according to the study. However, differences were discovered due

to material quality, water-cement ratio, and variations in handling, transporting, placing,

and compacting procedures.

In the local study of L. Ceballos, S. Fullante, and R. Mendoza (2016) examined the

effect of water-cement ratio and partial replacement of coarse particles with waste ceramic

tile on the compressive strength of concrete. The compressive strength of the cylindrical

concrete samples was assessed using the universal testing apparatus. The results of

employing three different water-cement ratios revealed that pure glazed samples, with 20%

of glazed ceramic tiles substituted for cement at a water-cement ratio of 0.4, had better

compressive strengths than conventional samples.

Accordingly, CBR is considered to be the appropriate test to determine the effective

strength of concrete specially when mixed with different additives, strengtheners, and

water-cement ratio. Thus, provides a quantifiable relationship between CBR values and

other specified variables. Similar to what was discussed, the researchers will also utilize

CBR test to determine the concrete strength, however, lime sludge will not be considered

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
as an additive because they will focus on the effects of varying water-cement ratio on sandy

soil mixed with cement grout with proportions ranging from 0.5:1 to 1.0:1.

These studies were reflections of the feasibility of the research foregoing as they

serve as details to support the undertaking. The researchers believe that both the conceptual

and related literature studies hold importance in providing in-depth investigation to define

research objectives and result accurately.

Conceptual Framework

The concept of California Bearing Ratio Test explains the process by which

foundation and structures acquire strength and stability thru testing of rock and soil

samples.

As discussed by (“EMS GeoTech” n.d.), foundations are built for load transferring

from a structure to a soil or rock where in it can be either a shallow spread foundation or

deep foundation. Settlement and the stability of the underlying ground are considered to be

the main factors that affect the foundation design.

They also determined that California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR) is developed by

California State Highway Department which was initially performed to acquire road

pavement design data. CBR test is an integral part of the overall site investigation because

of its practical application in determining the thickness of materials essential for he project.

(“EMS GeoTech” n.d.) emphasized that it is important to note that strength of ground,

seasonal moisture variations, effects of tree roots, and ground disturbance influence

foundation depths.

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures
Taking the context into account, (Zamara 2022) defined this methods as a type of

penetration test used to assess the subgrade strength of roads, pavements, and foundations.

(Hassan n.d.) supported that it is a stress ratio that a soil specimen can withstand for a

penetration amount relative to the stress value a standard sil sample can resist. (“EMS

GeoTech” n.d.) added that this test determines the data for the required pressure to

penetrate a soil sample using a plunger with standard area and dimensions. Consequently,

the results obtained are estimates of the soil strength and surface stiffness applicable for

foundation design Zamara (2022).

The test is an empirical test that determines the shear strength of a soil. The major

advantage of this test is that it is quite simple to do, and because of its widespread usage

across the world, there is a plenty of data to aid in the interpretation of findings. The CBR

test is mostly a laboratory test, however in some cases it is performed on the soil in situ.

In light of this, the concept about California Bearing Ration Test will serve as the

backbone of this paper because it will give the researchers the idea of how different water-

cement ratio affects the stability and strength of the building as they are being tested. This

notion will be the researchers’ guide in identifying the most suitable ratio to be used to

provide stability and conserve the strength of the soil.

This concept was put into action and explained with the use of an input-output-

process diagram illustrated below which showed the connection of variables, processes

involved, and the projected end result of each water-cement ratio (“California Bearing

Ratio (CBR) Test” n.d.).

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter II- Review of Related
Literatures

Figure 3. Research Paradigm

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Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

To fully understand how data from a research is explored a group must use a

research design appropriate for their research. Since research design incorporates timeline,

techniques for collecting and analyzing research, probable objection to research, and the

appropriate methodology. Hence, its very essence is to present the neutrality, reliability,

validity, and generalization of the overall research methodology and output (Team

Leverage Edu 2023).

This being said, an experimental research design is utilized by the researchers for

the reason that its purpose is to explore the relationship and interaction between the

variables of the on-going study (Roundy and Saigo 2022). The researchers believe that this

form of research design is an appropriate framework for collecting the essential data to

meet the research paper's aims. It consists of an experimental group of 72 samples with

varying water-cement ratio. Specifically, four different curing days were done with six

water-cement mixtures and three samples tested each day. By doing this, change in strength

and stability and penetration resistance can be observed properly and results are recorded

to conclude the most effective water-cement ratio.

The design utilized California Bearing Ratio Test to compare which ratio can best

strengthen and stabilize soil with cement grout. The researchers determined the maximum

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
penetration resistance of each sample as it is put under pressure using the machine. Thus,

acquiring the estimates of the soil strength and surface stiffness.

Data Gathering Procedure

There are several ways to collect data. Surveys, interviews, software simulations,

and experiments are a few of the commonly used techniques. Surveys and interviews

accumulate data in the form of questionnaires and a structured conversation where one

participant asks questions and the other provides answers, respectively. Software

simulations gathered data through computer simulation generation. In this paper, the

researcher will acclimate an experimental study that focuses on experimental procedures

to collect data. This section also provides an in-depth discussion of the standard procedures

to be used based on ASTM DI883: Standard Test Method for California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) of Laboratory-Compacted Soils.

Laboratory Materials and

Equipment Treating and
Preparation.

Mixtures and Samples

Preparation

Testing the Relative Strength

of the Soilcrete Specimens

Figure 4. Data Gathering Procedure

36
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology

Laboratory Materials and Equipment Treating and Preparation.

The physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil and cement are first

determined in this investigation. The researcher will focus on soil samples that are fine,

poorly graded sand, containing fines (silt and clay), passing sieve no. 200 of 4%, and

having a specific gravity (Gs) of 2.63 in relation to the Unified Soil Classification System.

The soil's grain size distribution curve is depicted in the figure below. In the meantime,

table no. displays the mechanical and physical characteristics of the soil. Portland cement

(a sulfates-resistant variety) is the cement type utilized in the mixture, and the grout was

made using potable water.

Figure 5. Grain Size Distribution Curve of Selected Soil

37
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology

Table 3. The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Tested Soil Specimen

Property Unit Value Specifications

Specific Gravity (Gs) - 2.63 ASTM D854-14: Standard Test

Methods for Specific Gravity of
Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer
Classification (USCS) - SP ASTM D2487-17e1: Standard
Practice for Classification of Soils
for Engineering Purposes (Unified
Soil Classification System)
Maximum dry unit kN/cu.m 17.67 ASTM D4253-16e1: Standard Test
weight Methods for Maximum Index
Density and Unit Weight of Soils
by Vibratory Table
Minimum dry unit kN/cu.m 12.4 ASTM D4254-16: Standard Test
weight Methods for Minimum Index
Density and Unit Weight of Soils
and Calculation of Relative Density
Test unit weight kN/cu.m 14.6 -
Angle of internal % 34 ASTM D3080/D3080M-11 :
friction at 50% relative Standard Test Method for Direct
density Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions

Mixtures and Sample Preparation

The sample preparation process will start with the incorporation of a slurry of

cement to the soil concrete material. Following that, it will be mechanically stirred and

mounted into the mold. The soil dosage is 1460 kg/m3 (medium density sand), while the

cement intake is 430 kg/m3. The water to cement ratio (W/C) used in this investigation

was 0.5 to 1.0. Table number no.3 shows the amounts of soil, cement, and water used for

generating soilcete specimens for each water/cement ratio. After 24 hours, the samples

will be retrieved from the PVC molds and immersed in water in a plastic container in the

laboratory at temperatures ranging from 20 to 23 degrees Celsius.

38
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
Table 4. Soilcrete Mixture Ingredients

Water/cement Ratio Sand Cement Water

(W/C) (kgs.) (kgs.) (kgs)

0.5 12 3 1.5

0.6 12 3 1.8

0.7 12 3 2.1

0.8 12 3 2.4

0.9 12 3 2.7

1 12 3 3

Testing the Relative Strength of the Soilcrete Specimens

The California bearing ratio test is a surface load test used to measure soil strength.

In this test, the proximate strength of a soil specimen is assessed in comparison to a

standard sample. The California bearing ratio is the ratio of the amount of stress that a soil

specimen can withstand for a given amount of penetration to the amount of stress that a

typical soil can withstand. The result will be a measure of the soil's strength (Hazzan n.d.).

Three specimens will be tested after 7, 14, 28, and 56 days of curing. To begin the testing,

the sample will be placed on the mold assembly. Then, seat the penetration piston in the

center of the specimen with the least feasible load, but no more than 4 kg, to guarantee

thorough contact of the piston with the sample. Set the stress and strain dial gauge to zero.

Load the piston so that the penetration rate is around 1.25 mm/min. Take note of the

39
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
maximum load and associated penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than 12.5 mm.

Finally, remove the mold from the loading apparatus.

Data Analysis

After gathering the data from the tested samples, the researchers will proceed to
analyze the data. Based on the recorded data, if the initial portion of the curve is concave
upwards, apply correction by drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of the maximum
slope and relocating the origin. Find and record the accurate load reading for each
penetration. And lastly, apply the formula for C.B.R.
C.B.R. = (PT/PS) X 100

Where PT = Corrected test load from the load penetration equivalent to the specified
penetration curve and PS = Standard load for the same penetration.

C.B.R. values are typically estimated for 2.5 mm and 5 mm penetration. Generally,
the C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater than at 5 mm, and the former shall be used as
C.B.R. for design purposes. If the C.B.R. for 5 mm is greater than that for 2.5 mm, the test
should be repeated. If the results are identical, the C.B.R. corresponding to 5 mm
penetration should be used for design.

In order to have a clear visualization of the results, the results must be plotted in
the graph for load versus penetration.

40
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology

Figure 6. Plot of Load versus Settlement

Work Plan

A Gantt chart was used by the researchers to demonstrate the workplan required in

order to complete the project effectively and on schedule. The work plan's objective is to

list all of the different tasks that must be carried out during the research process. Activities

as depicted in the chart are included in the chronology. For the purpose of the research

project, these several tasks must be completed over a period of 15 weeks.

41
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
Table 5. Work Plan

ANALYSIS OF THE LAB-CONTROLLED CEMENT GROUTED SAMPLES USING

VARIOUS WATER-CEMENT RATIO
MAY
ACTIVITIES FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL
W4 W1 W2 W3
W1 W2 W3 W3 W1 W2 W3 W4 W1 W2 W3

Listing of Possible
Topics
Research Topic
Consultation

Approved Topic

Drafting Objectives
Writing and
Finalizing Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Consultation

Chapter 1 Revision
Reading related
literature
Writing and
Finalizing Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Consultation
Writing and
Finalizing Chapter 3
Completion of Final
Paper
Expected Output

The researchers are set to determine the effects of water-cement ratio on the

physical and mechanical properties of cement-grouted soils. They also intend to determine

how it affects the samples’ resistance to penetration, curing time, workability, and

42
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Chapter III- Methodology
compressive strength. With these defined reasons, they aim to produce laboratory manuals

with the data gathered from the experiment. This will serve as the basis of other engineers

who wish to conduct the same method or with the same parameters. This manual will

consist of testing procedures, data collected from the conducted experiment, as well as the

conclusion and recommendation derived from the test results. The laboratory manual will

be designed using Microsoft Publisher or Canva or any available software used by the

researchers and will be reproduced upon approval.

43
Analysis of the Lab-controlled Cement Grouted Samples using Various Water-cement
Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. References
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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Appendices
APPENDICES

DESGIN PROJECT DOCUMENT

TOPIC SUMMARY

Soil serves as a platform for man-made structures, as well as a foundation for

buildings and other structures. And it is the primary responsibility of the Geotechnical

Engineer to guarantee that facilities stand tall at ground level. Soil stabilization is critical

for all other project components because it provides a solid working surface; without it, the

building could lean, settle, and finally collapse as the earth beneath them shifts. Different

water-cement ratios, however, have a problem that will affect the strength characteristics

and stability of cement grouted soil, and the benefits and drawbacks of testing various

water-cement ratios with regard to resistance to penetration, curing time, workability, and

compressive strength. That is why the researcher chose the topic of assessing the influence

of the water-cement ratio on the relative strength of soilcrete specimens generated in the

laboratory simulating cement grouting. And to introduce soil improvement approaches that

can be employed in the production of structural elements of soil cement with various

geometries (columns, panels, slabs) with high energy, stimulating disintegration, mixing,

and partial replacement of the soil by a cementitious agent. To actualize the idea of the

researchers they have considered the water cement ratio of 0.5-1.0 and 72 samples as the

inputs. Where these 72 samples will undergo the process of California bearing ratio testing.

There will be 3 samples to be tested on 7 14 28 56 days of curing. And that the expected

output is a laboratory manual having the collected data from the experiment.

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Ratios
Africa, C.J.Y., Mendoza, G.C.D., Saavedra, M.C.F.A.,
Sambile, K.N.B. Appendices

PICTURES AND EVIDENCE OF INITIAL ASSESSMENT INTERVIEW OR

CONSULATION

Figure 7. Online Consultation with Figure 8. Online Group Meeting

Geotechnical Engineering Professor

Figure 9. CBR Machine Figure 10. Video Editing

in the Laboratory

54