NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

by Alexandra Georgakopoulou
Chapter 27 of the SAGE Handbook of Sociolinguistics

Presented by:
Audrey Louisse Villena
James Aron Mortiz

April, 2024
ENG111 - Introduction to Language, Identity, Society, & Culture
Mindanao State University - General Santos City (English Department)
I. INTRODUCTION

Definition

Narrative analysis is a research method that involves the systematic examination and
interpretation of narratives to uncover underlying meanings, themes, and structures within
the stories being studied.

However, it is quite common to be unfamiliar with the word 'narrative' or at least not know
its exact meaning. Therefore, it is beneficial to check this word’s definition also.

A narrative is essentially a story. It can be factual or fictional, and it recounts a series of

related events or experiences.

Narratives can be found in various forms, including:

● Written: Novels, short stories, essays, biographies, news articles, etc.
● Spoken: Conversations, lectures, presentations, etc.
● Visual: Paintings, sculptures, films, photographs, etc.
● Performance: Plays, dance, music, etc.

The word "narrative" comes from the Latin verb "narrare," which means "to tell." So,
at its core, a narrative is a telling of events, whether real or imagined.

Narrative is a form of communication that presents a series of events or

experiences in a structured and coherent manner. It typically involves storytelling, where a
narrator recounts a sequence of events, often with a beginning, middle, and end.

Narratives serve to convey information, convey meaning, evoke emotions, and

engage audiences in understanding the interconnectedness of events or experiences.
Narratives are fundamental to human communication and play a crucial role in shaping
individual and collective identities, beliefs, and cultural practices.

Now, that is just the generic definition. In the field of narrative analysis, Georgia
Kapoulou mentioned in the document that “narrative” does not have an exact
meaning due to the various perspectives of each proponent of narrative analysis. To be
exact, this is because there is no consensus on the definition and views of “narrative”,
leading to a diversity of interpretations and meanings. Now, let’s go back to narrative
analysis.

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Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is a research method that involves the systematic examination

and interpretation of narratives to uncover underlying meanings, themes, and structures
within the stories being studied. It is a qualitative approach that focuses on
understanding how individuals construct, convey, and make sense of their experiences
through storytelling.

B. Significance of NA in Social Science Disciplines

1. Understanding Human Experience and Identity: Narrative analysis provides

insights into how individuals construct and express their experiences, beliefs, and
identities through storytelling.
2. Cultural Interpretation and Expression: By examining narratives, researchers can
uncover how cultural norms, values, and practices influence storytelling,
contributing to the construction of cultural identities.
3. Social Interaction and Context: Narratives are embedded in social interactions,
offering researchers a lens to understand how stories are shared, interpreted, and
negotiated in social contexts, illuminating dynamics of interpersonal relationships.

C. Evolution of Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis has evolved from viewing narratives as static texts to dynamic
social practices over time. Initially, narratives were studied as written or spoken texts with
a focus on their structure, content, and themes. However, with the emergence of social
interactional approaches, there has been a shift towards understanding narratives as
dynamic processes embedded in social contexts.

This evolution involves a transition from analyzing narratives as isolated entities to

recognizing them as situated within social interactions and cultural frameworks.
Researchers now emphasize the communicative aspects of storytelling, exploring how
narratives are co-constructed in specific social settings and how they shape and are
shaped by larger sociocultural processes.

By moving beyond the traditional focus on narrative content, the current approach
to narrative analysis highlights the importance of examining the communicative how,
local contexts of storytelling, and the broader sociocultural influences on narrative
practices. This shift underscores the dynamic nature of narratives as social practices that

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reflect and contribute to the complexities of human interaction and identity formation.

Here’s how it looks in bullets:

● Static Texts Approach
○ Initially, narratives were studied as static texts with a focus on structure,
content, and themes.
○ Analysis centered on the narrative as a standalone entity, detached from its
social context.
● Transition to Social Interaction
○ Shift towards understanding narratives as dynamic processes embedded in
social interactions.
○ Recognition of narratives as co-constructed within specific social settings.
● Emphasis on Social Context
○ Focus on the communicative aspects of storytelling within social contexts.
○ Exploration of how narratives shape and are shaped by larger sociocultural
processes.
● Dynamic Social Practices Perspective
○ Current approach highlights narratives as dynamic social practices.
○ Acknowledgment of narratives as reflective of human interaction
complexities and identity formation processes.

II. THE LABOVIAN MODEL AS THE CONVENTIONAL PARADIGM

Developed by William Labov and Joshua Waletsky in 1967, the Labovian model
stands as the conventional paradigm in narrative analyses. Through their pioneering work,
Labov and Waletsky demonstrated that there is inherent structure and systematicity in
the storytelling of ordinary individuals. They defined "narrative" as a technique for
recapitulating past experiences, incorporating key structural components such as
orientation, complicating action, evaluation, resolution, and coda. Among these
components, evaluation, which represents the narrator's point of view, has emerged as a
contentious aspect of the model, sparking debates within the academic community.

Labov's model notably privileges stories centered on past personal experiences,

placing a strong emphasis on the temporal ordering of events. However, critiques of the
Labovian model have surfaced, pointing out its detachment from context and its failure to

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acknowledge the collaborative and context-sensitive nature of conversational storytelling.
Scholars have highlighted the model's limitations in capturing the dynamic and interactive
aspects of narrative construction, shedding light on the need for a more nuanced
understanding of storytelling practices in diverse social contexts.

In essence, while the Labovian model has significantly contributed to the study of
narratives by providing a structured framework for analysis, it is essential to recognize its
shortcomings in fully encapsulating the complexities of narrative interactions. By
acknowledging the critiques and evolving perspectives on narrative analysis, researchers
can strive towards a more comprehensive and inclusive approach that accounts for the
multifaceted nature of storytelling in social settings.

III. THE SOCIAL INTERACTIONAL APPROACHES

The Social Interactional Approaches offer a contrasting perspective to the

traditional Labovian model in narrative analysis. While the Labovian model focuses on the
structural elements of narratives and the individual teller's perspective, the Social
Interactional Approaches emphasize the interactive and context-dependent nature of
storytelling. These approaches delve into the intricate dynamics of narrative as a
socially-meaningful and orderly activity, highlighting the role of context in shaping
narrative tellings and their connection to the production of social life. By shifting the focus
from narrative as a detached unit to narrative as a social practice, the Social
Interactional Approaches provide a more nuanced understanding of how narratives
unfold in real-time interactions, capturing the collaborative and dynamic nature of
storytelling in diverse social contexts.

In the section entitled “The Social Interactional Approaches,” two approaches were
mentioned, namely: Conversational Analysis and Ethnography of Communication.

A. Conversational Analysis

Emmanuel Schegloff, a prominent figure in the field of conversation analysis,

attributes significance to the concept of narrative as talk-in-interaction. This perspective
underscores the idea that narratives are not isolated accounts but are intricately woven
into the fabric of social exchanges. Schegloff emphasizes that narratives are embedded in
local business, indicating that they are deeply intertwined with the ongoing interactions

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and conversations that precede and follow their telling. This view challenges the notion of
narratives as standalone entities, highlighting their interconnectedness with previous talk
and actions within a specific social context.

Furthermore, Schegloff's approach recognizes the dynamic and situational nature

of narratives. By acknowledging the contextual influences on storytelling, this perspective
underscores the role of narratives as social and cultural practices. It suggests that
narratives are not static retellings but are actively shaped and influenced by the
immediate social environment in which they unfold. This dynamic view of narratives
highlights the fluidity and adaptability of storytelling within different conversational
contexts.

In exploring the ways in which narratives are introduced, managed, and shaped in
conversations, Schegloff's approach delves into the linguistic and discursive strategies
employed in structuring and conveying narratives. This analysis focuses on the intricate
mechanisms through which individuals construct and share stories within interactions. By
examining the linguistic and discursive features of narratives, this approach sheds light on
how storytelling is not only a means of recounting events but also a strategic
communicative practice that serves various social and interactional purposes.

Reiterating the main points of this section:

● Narrative is how we tell stories when we talk to others.

● When we share stories, we are interacting with others.
● Stories are not separate from our conversations; they are part of our everyday
interactions.
● Our stories are influenced by what we have talked about before and what we do
during our conversations.
● Stories are shaped by the context of our conversations and the social environment
we are in.

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 B. Ethnography of Communication Studies

In the section entitled "Narrative in context," there is an approach presented that

shares an equal emphasis with conversation analysis. This approach is known as the
ethnography of communication studies. Similar to conversation analysis, the ethnography
of communication studies focuses on understanding language and storytelling practices
within specific social and cultural contexts. It explores how narratives are shaped by
cultural meanings, social situations, and communicative functions within communities.
Both conversation analysis and ethnography of communication studies highlight the
importance of considering the broader socio-cultural influences on communication
practices and storytelling behaviors.

Ethnography of communication studies is a field within sociolinguistics that

focuses on the analysis of communication practices within specific cultural contexts. This
approach involves studying how communication functions within different social groups,
examining the cultural norms, values, and beliefs that shape communication patterns.
Ethnography of communication studies aims to understand how language and
communication are used to construct social identities, maintain relationships, and convey
meaning within a particular community or cultural setting.

One key aspect of ethnography of communication studies is its emphasis on the

holistic understanding of communication practices. Researchers in this field often engage
in immersive fieldwork, observing and participating in everyday interactions to gain
insights into the communicative strategies employed by individuals in various social
contexts. By taking a qualitative and ethnographic approach, researchers can uncover the
intricate ways in which language and communication are intertwined with cultural
practices and social structures.

In contrast, conversational analysis (CA) focuses more narrowly on the detailed

analysis of talk-in-interaction, examining the sequential organization of conversational
exchanges and the specific strategies used by participants to co-construct meaning in
real-time interactions. While CA provides valuable insights into the micro-level dynamics
of communication, ethnography of communication studies offers a broader perspective
by situating communication practices within their cultural and social contexts.
Ethnography of communication studies seeks to understand not only how conversations
unfold but also why they take place in particular ways within specific cultural frameworks.

Overall, ethnography of communication studies provides a comprehensive

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framework for analyzing communication practices in their cultural and social contexts. By
examining communication as a cultural phenomenon, this approach allows researchers to
uncover the underlying norms, values, and power dynamics that influence how language is
used and interpreted within a community. Through in-depth fieldwork and qualitative
analysis, ethnography of communication studies offers a rich understanding of how
communication shapes and is shaped by broader social structures. This holistic
perspective enables researchers to explore the complex interplay between language,
culture, and society, shedding light on the intricate ways in which communication both
reflects and influences social life.

Reiterating the main points of this section:

● Ethnography of communication studies focuses on analyzing communication

practices within specific cultural contexts to understand how language constructs
social identities and conveys meaning.
● Researchers in this field emphasize a holistic understanding of communication by
engaging in immersive fieldwork to uncover the intricate ways language is
intertwined with cultural practices and social structures.
● In contrast, conversational analysis (CA) focuses on detailed analysis of
talk-in-interaction, while ethnography of communication studies offers a broader
perspective by situating communication practices within cultural and social
contexts.
● Ethnography of communication studies provides a comprehensive framework for
analyzing communication practices, uncovering underlying norms and values that
influence language use within communities and exploring the interplay between
language, culture, and society.

IV. NARRATIVE AND IDENTITIES

In areas outside of sociolinguistics, storytelling has been a crucial method for

studying how people see themselves. Researchers mainly focus on one type of storytelling
which is life stories. Researchers use these stories to understand how people view past
events and make sense of themselves in light of those events. The idea is that storytelling
helps people bring together the elements of time, space, and personal identity so that
researchers can analyze the sources behind these representations empirically, especially
regarding identity.

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 Following this approach, there's a long-standing tradition of exploring how existing
socio-cultural narratives, (often referred to as 'meta-narratives', 'master-narratives', or
'scenarios'), are utilized by individuals to understand themselves and significant events in
their lives over time. Analysts determine what these narratives are, sometimes before
gathering data. Consequently, selves and identities are seen as shaped by these prevailing
narratives.

3 levels of Analysis:

1. Tellers' use of cultural storytelling methods, like specific language and rhetorical
devices, that identify them as members of particular communities.

2. Enactment, discussion, or negotiation of personal social roles and relationships

within the story itself.

3. Expression, discussion, and negotiation of membership into communities, often

shown through how individuals categorize themselves and others.

Turn to Small Stories

Georgakopoulou’s recent work proposes small stories as an alternative to

traditional narrative studies, aiming to include often overlooked storytelling activities in
the analysis of narrative and identity.

What are small stories?

The term "small stories" encompasses various common narrative activities in

conversational settings, like recounting ongoing events, future scenarios, shared
experiences, or referring to past stories. These stories are typically brief compared to
lengthy interview transcripts.

Significance of small stories in the formation of Identities

● Small stories may be used to support arguments or provide additional context in

ongoing conversations.
● Research on small stories reveals how everyday storytelling, despite its
incompleteness, can offer insights into the gradual formation of identities as they
develop over time.
● Continuously engaging with certain identity roles expressed through stories
eventually forms the basis for a consistent sense of self - a feeling of being 'the
same' despite ongoing changes.
● Small stories research suggests that identity formation among intimates heavily
depends on shared experiences.

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V. CHALLENGES AND CRITIQUES IN NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

● Critics of Labov's model have highlighted a major flaw: it views narratives as

separate, self-contained entities with easily identifiable components. They point
out that the stories Labov studied, obtained through interviews, were
well-structured and primarily one-sided. However, further research has revealed
that stories in everyday conversations are often created collaboratively.
● Emmanuel Schegloff, a prominent advocate of conversation analysis (CA), criticizes
Labov's model by suggesting that the focus on narrative as a sequence within a
sequentially-ordered event needs to shift. Schegloff argues that future research on
narrative should aim for a deeper understanding of everyday storytelling.
● Roberts cautions that narratives are sometimes used too narrowly, describing life
at a specific moment as if it's always coherent and portrays the self as consistently
the same. The idea of "life as stories" itself becomes a limiting metaphor,
emphasizing coherence while overlooking the flaws and inconsistencies in speech.
● In a similar vein, Parker warns the risk of prescribing a certain kind of subjectivity
through the analysis of narrative. He notes that personal narrative seems to be
presented as a model of how we should configure ourselves as selves striving for a
purposeful and convincing whole.
● The analysis requires technical skills in phonetics, grammar, syntax, and discourse,
which has deterred some analysts. Additionally, ethnopoetics has been criticized
for its subjectivity and the potential for circular reasoning when identifying
narrative units.

VI. CONCLUSION

To sum it up, narrative analysis is a dynamic approach to understanding human

experiences, identities, and social interactions through storytelling. It has evolved from
examining narratives as static texts to recognizing them as dynamic social practices set
within cultural and social contexts. By studying how people share their experiences
through narratives, researchers can learn more about the formation of identities, cultural
interpretation, and the dynamics of social interactions.

The Labovian model, pioneered by William Labov and Joshua Waletsky, has served
as the conventional paradigm in narrative analysis. It presents the structure of narratives
and their significance in reordering past experiences. On the other hand, the Social

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Interactional Approaches provide a different view of narrative analysis as it focuses on
how stories are influenced by interactions and context. Under this are two approaches,
namely: Conversational Analysis, which is about interacting when we tell stories and how
these stories are shaped depending on the context of a conversation; and Ethnography of
Communication, which focuses on analyzing the cultural and social contexts of
communication.

REFERENCE

1. Georgakopoulou, Alexandra. “Narrative Analysis.” The SAGE Handbook of

Sociolinguistics, edited by Ruth Wodak, Barbara Johnstone, Paul Kerswill. SAGE
Publications Ltd, 2011, pp. 396-408.

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 Annotated Bibliography
Title: Making Sense of the Unknown: A Narrative Analysis of Covid-19 Stories as
Told by WSU Research Students

Authors: Alicia van der Spuy & Lakshmi Jayakrishnan

Statement of the problem: The aim of the study was to reveal the lived experiences of
the lockdown, with specific focus on the people of the Eastern Cape.

Methodology: The researchers utilized a module that was offered online, social media
student groups were formed and information was disseminated. Microsoft Teams and
WhatsApp were used for supervisory meetings and sessions to follow up on progress and
give guidance.

Findings: The findings are presented in terms of themes identified during the analysis,
namely the broad categories of positive and negative experiences, family life, community
life, work life and student life.

Title: Leadership Journeys: A Narrative Research Study Exploring Women School

Superintendents’s Meaning-Making of Leadership Development Experiences

Author: Malisa Komolthiti

Statement of the problem: This research aims to understand women school

superintendents’ meaning-making on leadership development experiences.

Methodology: This research aims to understand women school superintendents’

meaning-making on leadership development experiences through the lens of a
constructivist framework, which honors multiple realities constructed through life
experiences. The researcher used a qualitative research design and a narrative research
tradition to capture these experiences and the meaning making process.

Findings: A narrative of each woman school superintendent’s experiences unfolded the

subjective meaning of her career development stages and tasks. Each story also
described critical incidents and the development of each superintendent’s leadership.

Title: A Narrative Analysis Of Educator’s Lived Experiences of Motherhood and

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Teaching

Author: Margaretha Hubrecht Knowles

Statement of the problem: This research aims to understand women school

superintendents’ meaning-making on leadership development experiences.

Methodology: The key research question of the present study is: “How does the mother
teacher perceive her roles as a good mother and a professional teacher?”

Findings: This study shows how challenging it can be for women who are both mothers
and teachers. It suggests that unless they rethink what society expects from them, they'll
struggle to balance these roles. The study highlights and unearths that support from the
state, school principals and fathers is needed.

Title: Engaging “Others” in Civic Engagement through Ethnography of

Communication

Author: Rebecca M. Townsend

Statement of the problem: The essay addresses the challenge of engaging underserved
populations in culturally sensitive deliberative discussions within the context of civic
engagement.

Methodology: The research utilized ethnography of communication as a framework to

involve community college students as coresearchers in pilot testing a community-service
learning model of civic engagement.

Findings: The findings highlighted the success of using ethnography of communication to

facilitate public participation, with student researchers gaining insights into
transportation needs, culture, and communication dynamics among underserved
populations.

Title: Communication in Primary Healthcare: A State-of-the-Art Literature Review

of Conversation-Analytic Research

Author: Rebecca K. Barnes & Catherine J. Woods

Statement of the problem: The study aimed to conduct a comprehensive literature

review of conversation-analytic research in primary healthcare to understand the
communication dynamics between healthcare providers and patients.

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Methodology: The researchers conducted a systematic review of 177
conversation-analytic studies in primary healthcare published between 1981 and 2022. The
studies included peer-reviewed research articles and book chapters from various
countries, with data collected in 17 different languages. The researchers organized the
data chronologically and developed themes based on the identified practices of action in
primary healthcare communication.

Findings: The review highlighted the importance of managing agendas, participation,

and authority in primary healthcare communication. It identified different communication
patterns and strategies used by healthcare providers, such as opening questions designed
for specific purposes and the impact of question formats on patient responses. The
findings also emphasized the cultural variations in communication practices, as seen in
different countries like the UK, US, Korea, and Vietnam.

Title: Sequential Organization of Interaction in Psychotherapy: A Conversation

Analytical Perspective

Author: Dr. Anssi Peräkylä

Statement of the problem: The study aims to investigate the sequential organization of
interaction in psychotherapy sessions using conversation analysis to understand how
transformative sequences unfold between therapists and clients.

Methodology: The research employs conversation analysis to examine the sequential

structure of psychotherapeutic interactions. Data from actual therapy sessions are
transcribed and analyzed to identify patterns of communication, focusing on formulations
and responses that lead to transformative moments.

Findings: The study reveals that formulations by therapists, such as highlighting,

rephrasing, relocating, and exaggerating, play a crucial role in shaping the therapeutic
process. These formulations elicit responses from clients that lead to self-reflection,
challenging of beliefs, and ultimately, transformative experiences within the therapeutic
context.

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