Avionics Course Avionics Course

Flight Managament Systems Flight Managament Systems

FMS - Tasks

• Construction of a 4-dimensional detailed flight plan.

• Automatic lateral navigation and guidance along this flight plan. Avionics Course
• Optimization and automatization of the vertical navigation.
• Flight-envelope protection. Flight Management Systems

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FMS - Tasks FMS Concept - Drivers

• The navigation function — responsible for determining the best estimate of • The airline industry is highly competitive.
the current state of the aircraft. • Ensure the most efficient use of fuel.
• The flight planning function — allows the crew to establish a specific routing • Need to reduce workload through automation and information.
for the aircraft. • Need to reduce overall operating costs.
• The trajectory prediction function — responsible for computing the predicted • Enabling technology now available.
aircraft profile along the entire specified routing.
• The performance function — provides the crew with aircraft unique “A Flight Management System (FMS) provides
performance information such as takeoff speeds, altitude capability, and optimized flight profiles either in manual or fully
profile optimization advisories.
• The guidance functions — responsible for producing commands to guide the
automatic control modes,
aircraft along both the lateral and vertical computed profiles. from just after takeoff
till localizer interception.”
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FMS - Architecture FMS - Concept

AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
ELECTRONIC
SENSORS
FLIGHT
INSTRUMENTS
FLIGHTPLAN (FMC)
I (EFIS)
N FLIGHT
P G AIR DATA
MANAGEMENT
U SENSORS
U COMPUTER
T I
(AUTOPILOT)
D
S A AUTOMATIC
Y N FLIGHT
S C NAVIGATION GUIDANCE
FMC E SENSORS
T
E
M CREW
S INTERFACE

7
COCKPIT CREW
COCKPIT CREW 5

Boeing 737 “Classic” FMS - Concept

CREW INTERFACES

FLIGHT GUIDANCE COMPUTERS

DATA DISPLAYS &

ANNUNCIATORS
SINGLE FMC

CREW INTERFACES
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Cockpit elements - A320F Airbus A320F

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MCDU - Airbus AFS + EFIS - A320F

Multipurpose
Control
Display
Unit

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Auto Flight System Interactions Flight Control Unit - Airbus

Detailed 4D FPLN FCU / NCP

CONTROL PANEL

FMC
CONTROL SURFACE
FPLN SERVOS

AUTOTHROTTLE
FCC SERVOS

Commands to
A/T
fly the 4D FPLN
FMC: Flight Management Computer
FCC: Flight Control Computer (autopilot)
(Legacy architecture) A/T: Auto-Throttle computer

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Navigation – Multi-Sensor Systems Mode Control Panel – Boeing 787

• FMS usually make use of multiple navigation sensors.
• Preferably a combination of short-term (e.g., GPS)and long-term sensors
(e.g., IRS).
• Most common combinations:
• IRS/DME/DME
• GPS/IRS/DME/DME
• IRS/VOR/DME
• GPS/DME/DME
• Radionavigation Stations are automatically selected (and tuned), based on
the position of the aircraft.
• The pairing of navaids to obtain a position fix is based on the best geometry
to minimize the position uncertainty (minimize the portion of EPU caused by
geometric dilution of precision - GDOP).
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Kalman Filtering Navigation – Multi-Sensor Systems

VHF navaids (DME/VOR/ILS)
A Kalman filter is a recursive algorithm for estimating states in a system.
• The DME/VOR/ILS receivers must be tuned to an appropriate station to receive data. The crew
Examples of states: may manually tune these receivers, but the FMS navigation function will also auto-tune the
– Position, velocity etc. for a vehicle receivers by selecting an appropriate set of stations from its stored navigation database and
sending tuning commands to the receiver(s). The selection criteria for which stations to tune
– pH-value, temperature etc. for a chemical process are
• Navaids specified within a selected flight plan procedure, while the procedure is active.
Two sorts of information are utilized:
• The closest DME navaids to the current aircraft position of the proper altitude class that are
• Measurements from relevant sensors within range (typically 200 nm).
• A mathematical model of the system (describing how the different states • Collocated DME/VORs within reasonable range (typically 25 nm).
depend on each other, and how the measurements depend on the states) • ILS facilities if an ILS or LOC approach has been selected into the flight plan and is active.
• A standard DME can only accept one tuning command at a time, an agility-capable DME can
In addition, the accuracy of the measurements and the model must be accept two tuning commands at a time, and a scanning DME can accept up to five tuning
specified. commands at a time.

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Kalman Filtering Position Determination

DESIRED TRACK

DME 1 ❖
Radio Position

IRS(L) ◼

◆ ❖ DME 2
RNAV Position
◼
IRS(R)

Position Determination Boeing 737 FMS

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Navigation Database (NDB) – Each AIRAC Cycle Kalman Filtering – Example: INS with DME updating

NAVIGATION
COMPANY ROUTES
DATA
AIRPORT PROCEDURES

RUNWAYS

AIRPORTS

ENROUTE AIRWAYS

WAYPOINTS

VHF NAVAIDS

DEFINED
AREA

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NDB Generation Process Kalman Filtering

Navigation
Airborne - Inertial position mixing
Database ADIRS 1
Database - Inertial velocity mixing
Provider ADIRS 2
- GPIRS position
National Data ADIRS 3
and figure of merit
(AIP)
GPS/Inertial
FMGEC position
GPS 1&2 computation

ARINC 424 Navigation filter

DME /
Database position

VOR /
position

DATABASE
Signal Selection
staion position
Company Data
LOC mode
(e.g. Jeppesen)
ILS LOC deviation

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NDB - Airport Records NDB - Navaid Records

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NDB - SID Records NDB - Airway Records

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Navigation Database (NDB) – Each AIRAC Cycle ARINC 424 – Leg Coding

•
•

ARINC 424 – « Leg Types »

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Navigation Database (NDB) – Each AIRAC Cycle ARINC 424 – Leg Coding

• AF DME Arc to a Fix • IF* Initial Fix

• CA Course to an Altitude • PI Procedure Turn
•
• CD Course to a Distance • RF* Constant Radius to a Fix
•
• CF* Course to a Fix • TF* Track to Fix
• CI Course to an Intercept • VA Heading to Altitude
• CR Course to Intercept a Radial • VD Heading to Distance
• DF* Direct to a Fix • VI Heading to Intercept next leg
• FA* Course from Fix to Altitude • VM Heading to Manual Termination
• FC Course from Fix to Distance • VR Heading to Intercept Radial
• FD Course from Fix to DME Distance
• FM Course from Fix to Manual Term *: These leg types are recommended in DO-
• HA* Hold to an Altitude 236 as the set that produces consistent
• HF* Hold, Terminate at Fix after 1 Circuit ground tracks and the only types that should
be used within RNP airspace (PBN).
• HM* Hold, Manual Termination
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Sample Flight Plan Navigation Database (NDB) – Each AIRAC Cycle

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Lateral Flight Plan Navigation Database – Periodic Loading

• Flight plans are normally constructed
by linking data stored in the
navigation data base. The data may
include any combination of the
following items:
• SID/STAR/approach procedures
• Airways
• Prestored company routes
• Fixes (en route waypoints, navaids, Portable
nondirectional beacons, terminal
Data Loader
waypoints, airport reference points,
runway thresholds)
• Crew-defined fixes (as referenced above)
• Possible discontinuities should be Airborne
corrected by the pilot. Data Loader

• The resulting flight trajectory should

be reviewed prior to departure.
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Flight Managament Systems
Vertical Navigation – Climb Profile
The climb phase vertical path, computed along the lateral path, is typically composed of
the segments as shown. In addition to these climb segments, there can also be altitude
level-off segments created by altitude restrictions at climb waypoints, and additional
target speed acceleration segments created by speed restrictions at climb waypoints.
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Vertical Navigation – Cruise Profile
• The cruise phase vertical path, computed along the lateral path, is very simple.
• It’s typically composed of a climb speed to cruise speed acceleration or deceleration segment
followed by a segment going to the FMC-computed top of descent (T/D). The cruise phase
typically is predicted level at cruise altitude via several distance- or time-based integration steps.
• Unlike the climb and descent phase, the optimal cruise speeds slowly change with the changing
weight of the aircraft, caused by fuel burn. If step climb or descents are required during the cruise
phase, these are treated as unrestricted ascending flight and fixed V/S or FPA descents.
• At each step the FMC computes the aircraft’s along-path speed, along path distance traveled,
and fuel burned based on the projected aircraft target speed, wind, drag, and engine thrust.
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Flight Managament Systems
Trajectory Predictions
• Given the flight plan, the trajectory prediction function computes the predicted four-
dimensional flight profile (both lateral and vertical) of the aircraft within the specified flight
plan constraints and aircraft performance limitations, based on entered atmospheric data and
the crew-selected modes of operation.
• The lateral path and predicted fuel, time, distance, altitude, and speed are obtained for each
point in the flight plan (waypoints as well as inserted vertical breakpoints such as speed
change, cross-over, level off, T/C, T/D points). The flight profile is continuously updated to
account for non-forecasted conditions and tactical diversions from the specified flight plan.
• To simplify this discussion, the flight path trajectory is broken into two parts — the lateral
profile (the flight profile as seen from overhead) and the vertical profile (the flight profile as
seen from the side).
• However, the lateral path and vertical path are interdependent in that they are coupled to
each other through the ground speed parameter.
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Vertical Navigation - Profile
• The fundamental basis for the trajectory predictor is the numerical integration of the aircraft
energy balance equations including variable weight, speed, and altitude. Several forms of the
energy balance equation are used to accommodate unrestricted climb/descent, fixed gradient
climb/descent, speed change, and level flight. The integration steps are constrained by flight
plan-imposed altitude and speed restrictions as well as aircraft performance limitations such as
speed and buffet limits, maximum altitudes, and thrust limits. The data that drives the energy
balance equations come from the airframe/engine dependent thrust, fuel flow, drag, and speed
schedule models stored in the performance data base containing airframe and engine models.
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Vertical Navigation - profile Vertical Navigation – Descent Profile

In addition to navigation functions, the
FMC carries out real-time
performance optimization aimed at
providing the best economy, not
necessarily in terms of fuel
consumption, but in terms of direct
operating costs:
• The descent phase vertical path, computed along the lateral path, can be composed of several
vertical leg types.
• In addition to these descent segments, there can also be altitude level-off segments created by
altitude restrictions at descent waypoints and additional targets speed deceleration segments
created by speed restrictions at descent waypoints as well as eventual deceleration to the
landing speed for the selected flaps configuration.

• climb, cruise and descent speed as

a function of selectable constraints
(altitude, arrival time, ...)
• minimum fuel, time or cost.
Search for “optimum speed”
and “optimum level”
For each « phase of flight »
a speed and a thrust is
choosen!
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« Optimum Speed »??? Speed Schedule Computation

• Climb
• As “fast” as possible! • Economy (based on Cost Index) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation (lowest cost).
• Optimization in flight time • Maximum angle of climb — speed that produces maximum climb rate with respect to distance.
• “Fly at VMO/MMO, as fast as the aircraft is allowed to!” • Maximum rate of climb — speed that produces maximum climb rate with respect to time.
• Required time of arrival speed (RTA) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation, while still achieving a
• As “green” as possible! required time of arrival at a specific waypoint.
• Optimization in fuel consumption • Cruise
• “Fly at the MRC (maximum range cruise) speed!” • Economy (based on Cost Index) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation (lowest cost).
• … • Maximum endurance — speed that produces lowest fuel burn rate, maximizing endurance time.
• Long range cruise — speed that produces best fuel mileage, maximizing range.
• As “cheap” as possible! • Required time of arrival (RTA) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation, while still achieving a
• Optimization in COST required time of arrival at a specific waypoint.

• “Fly at ECON(OMY) speed!” • Descent

• Economy (based on Cost Index) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation (lowest cost).
• Maximum descent rate — speed that produces maximum descent rate with respect to time.
• Required time of arrival (RTA) — speed that optimizes overall cost of operation, while still achieving a
VMO/MMO = maximum operating speed/mach required time of arrival at a specific waypoint.

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Cost Index Direct Operating Cost – DOC

◼ ECON Mach / ECON Speed depends on CT/CF Common feature on modern
transport category aircraft. • The DOC (Direct Operating Cost) of a flight is the sum of:
◼ This ratio is called the COST INDEX (CI)
• Fixed Cost:
◼ The Cost Index is an airline depending variable introduced in the FMC to optimize performance • ATC and Airport charges
calculations including Mach and step climb optimization. • Cyclic maintenance cost (aircraft tyres, brakes, …)
• Etc.
◼ Extreme cases:
• Variable Cost: IATA:
A) CI=0: (when CT=small and CF=large) “In 2023, the airline fuel bill is expected to
• Fuel-related cost reach near $230 billion. That’s more than
→ MINIMUM FUEL STRATEGIC MODE 30% of total operating costs”
• Cost of burnt fuel
This is the case of highest influence of fuel cost in the operating bill: econ speeds to minimize
consumption in all flight phases: • Time-related cost
• Hourly maintenance cost (aircraft, engines, components, …)
- climb at or about max rate of climb
• Crew salaries
- cruise at or about LRC (long range cruise)
• Etc.
- descent at speeds close to minimum drag
B) CI=max: (when CT=large and CF=small) • The variable cost, and as such the total cost as well, is dependent of the speed
→ MINIMUM TIME STRATEGIC MODE applied during the flight!
This is the case when a premium exists on time (arrival); corresponding speeds are then
maximal in all flight phases, the FMC defining its own particular VMO/MMO limits. 47 45

Cost Index Flight Optimization - Cost

Time Cost = CT Fuel Cost = CF

**

(Ref. Boeing)
For each phase of flight – climb, cruise, descent – there is a particular
** L/D = Lift-to-Drag ratio speed/Mach which results in the « cheapest » operation of the aircraft:
ECON Mach or ECON Speed

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The bottomline… Cost Index

• Each aircraft operator has a different cost structure. • For each flight, the Cost Index (CI) is entered into
• Different operating philosophy the FMS by the pilot during pre-flight, iaw
operational policies of the airline.
• Each flight may have a different cost structure!
« 30 » + • The FMS-calculated speeds are dependent of the
• Example: fueling cost different at various places
CI, the mass of the aircraft, entered cruise altitude,
• Each flight may/will have a different cost index. winds and temperatures
• The FMS-calculated speeds for the various flight
• This may result into different speeds and vertical profiles, on the same route, phases should correspond to those of the FPL!
even when flown by ‘identical’ aircraft from the same operator!

What may we expect?

51 49

Flight Profile – Average CI Cost Index - Effect on Block Time

TOC TOD

Cost Index dependent

Climb Cruise Descent

ECON Climb Speed ECON Cruise Speed/Mach ECON Descent

Speed
(Idle!)
Fuel burn Climb Fuel burn Cruise Fuel burn Descent

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Vertical Navigation… Flight Profile – CI=0

… is an interaction of 3 flight parameters:

« External conditions » TOC TOD
(temperature, pressure)

Thrust

Cost Index

Cost Index dependent

Horizontal Speed
Vertical Speed Climb Cruise Descent
(IAS/CAS/Mach)
ECON Climb Speed ECON Cruise Speed/Mach ECON Descent
Speed
(Idle!)
Whereby 2 are selected, and the 3rd is resulting from this selection. Fuel burn Climb Fuel burn Cruise Fuel burn Descent

55 53

“Climb” - Terminology Flight Profile – CI=Max

• Climb gradient TOC TOD

• The amount of altitude gain obtained for a given horizontal distance covered.
• Expressed in either “%” or “degrees”.
• The maximum is achieved at the “Best angle of climb”-speed.
(“as steep as possible”)

• Rate-of-Climb
Cost Index dependent
• The amount of altitude gain obtained in a given amount of time.
• Expressed in “fpm” (feet per minute). Climb Cruise Descent

• The maximum is achieved at the “Best rate of climb”-speed. ECON Climb Speed ECON Cruise Speed/Mach ECON Descent
(“as quickly as possible”) Speed
(Idle!)
Fuel burn Climb Fuel burn Cruise Fuel burn Descent

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Vertical Navigation - Climb Thrust Curves and Speed Polar

Function of:
Temperature =L
Pressure
Engine Type Selected
Climb Thrust

=D

Selected
Vertical Speed
ECON Climb Speed

Function of:
CI
Takeoff Mass

59 57

Climb – Airbus aircraft Climb Physics

• Available climb thrust/power

• Thrust/power required to move/fly (and
accelerate)
Values for a • Excess thrust/power → available to climb!
given Mass
• Propeller-driven aircraft have more “excess”
power available at low speed than jets.

• ROC = rate-of-climb

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Cross-over altitude Aircraft Mass Factor

• Cross-over Altitude is the altitude at which a specified CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and Mach Climb Profiles - A319 - BADA
value represent the same TAS (True airspeed) value. 39000

36000
• Above this altitude the Mach number (the limiting factor) is used to reference speeds.
33000

30000

27000

24000

21000 Aircraft mass is an important factor during Climb!

18000

Altitude [ft]
A319 - 48000 kg
15000

A319 - 60000 kg
12000
A319 - 70000 kg
9000

6000

3000 BADA = aircraft performance model (Eurocontrol)

0
0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0 120,0 140,0 160,0 180,0 200,0
63 61
Horizontal distance [NM]

Cruise – MRC vs LRC Vertical Navigation - Cruise

Cruise:
- « Speed » below the crossover altitude
- « Mach » above the crossover altitude
Note the sharp decline of Crossover altitude:
- Average 26000-32000 ft
‘fuel mileage’ beyond
LRC-Mach! Cruise Thrust

Selected Selected
ECON Cruise Speed Vertical Speed
(IAS/CAS/Mach) (0 fpm)
Function of:
CI
Aircraft Mass
(Ref. Boeing) Wind
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Optimum Altitude Cost Index – Effect on Cruise Speed

For each aircraft mass, and for a
given speed (Mach), there is an
Pressure
altitude where SR is maximum. For a given M-number
Altitude
This altitude is referred to as
“optimum altitude”
Optimum For a ‘light’ aircraft, the
Altitude impact of the CI on cruise
Mach/speed is more
important than for
a ‘heavy’ aircraft

Fuel burn off

Cost Index dependent! SR - Specific Range (NM/kg fuel)

(Ref. Boeing)
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Vertical Navigation - Descent Cost Index – Effect on Cruise Speed

Function of:
Temperature Valid for Jet aircraft
Pressure
Engine Type Selected
Precipitations Idle Thrust
The ECON Mach wind correction is
(for all Airbus models) of the order of :
+0.005 point of Mach per 50kt
MRC headwind
ECON Mach

Selected - 0.005 point of Mach per 50kt

ECON Descent Speed Vertical Speed tailwind.
(Mach/IAS/CAS) FL350

Function of:
Gross weight (tonnes) OPT GW
CI
Aircraft Mass (small dependency) (Ref. Airbus)

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Descent – Speed Profile Descent – Airbus aircraft

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Speeds reflected in Flight Plan – Example 1 IAS / CAS / TAS / Mach?

(FPL-BCS1096-IS • Above the cross-over altitude, the pilot

-B752/M-SDHIPRWY/S selects and flies a Mach-value.
-LFRS1955
- ANG UL976 OBATO UN873 BELDI/ UN873 VEKIN UZ173
• Below this altitude, the pilot selects and
ARVOL flies an IAS-value (Indicated Air Speed).
-EBBR0052 EDDK
-EET/LFFF0008 EBUR0042 EBBU0051 REG/OODPJ SEL/ERBQ OPR/BCS RMK/AO OPS
• This speed, when corrected for the
CONTACT +32.2.718.99.11 DOF/090428 RVR/75 ORGN/EBBRDHLL) measurement error, becomes the CAS
(Calibrated Air Speed)
• The CAS-value corresponds to a TAS-
450 KTAS = 0.78 M @ FL340 = 270 KIAS value (True Air Speed) when corrected
for temperature and ambient pressure.
Deceleration in descent!
• In a standard atmosphere:
403 KTAS = 270 KIAS @ FL260 • 252 KCAS @ FL300 = 403 KTAS Assumption: ISA conditions
252 KCAS @ FL100 = 302 KTAS
Speed range for the Airbus A320 in Descent
324 KTAS = 270 KIAS @ FL100 • 342 KCAS @ FL300 = 547 KTAS
342 KCAS @ FL100 = 410 KTAS
Assumption: ISA conditions • If no wind, then TAS = GS!
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Required Time of Arrival (RTA) Speeds reflected in Flight Plan – Example 2

• Insertion of a RTA at a given waypoint.

(FPL-TAY010-IS
• Note that the ability of an aircraft to vary its speed in
-B77L/H-SDGIJRWXY/SD
the cruise phase of flight is limited! -EBLG0230
• Functional requirements and standards need to be -N0484F320 BUB UL608 DENUT UL610 LAM UL179 CPT UL9 SLANY DCT
MALOT/M083F320 DCT 54N020W 54N030W/ 53N040W 52N050W DCT
developed! CRONO/ DCT DOTTY N160C ALLEX DCT ENE PARCH1
-KJFK0647 KEWR
Ref. NUP+ trials -EET/EISN0058 EGGX0139 54N020W0200 54N030W0240 CZQX0240 53N040W0321
52N050W0403 CRONO0416 DOTTY0430 CZQM0503 REG/OOTSB SEL/ESDL OPR/TNT
AIRWAYS PER/M083 DAT/SVM RMK/TCAS EQUIPPED ACARS EQUIPPED
DOF/120529 RVR/200 ORGN/EBLGTAYO)

449 KTAS = 0.83 M @ FL340

494 KTAS = 300 KIAS @ FL340 No deceleration in descent!

335 KTAS = 300 KIAS @ FL100

Assumption: ISA conditions

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B737-3/4/500 – Configuration with/without EFIS! CI – Change Notification

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Airbus A330/340 – FMS Architecture Airbus A310 – FMS Architecture

• FMC – Flight Management Computer

(2x)
• FMGEC – Flight Management,
Guidance & Envelope Protection • FCC – Flight Control Computer
Computer (2x – autopilot)
(2x – FMC + FCC + FAC) • TCC – Thrust Control Computer
• FADEC – Full Authority Digital (2x - autothrottle)
FMGEC
Engine Control (2x – autothrottle) • FAC – Flight Augmentation Computer
(2x – envelope protection)

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Airbus A350 – FMS Architecture Airbus A320 – FMS Architecture

• The AFS has:

• FMGC – Flight Management &
• Three primary flight control and Guidance Computer
guidance computers (PRIMs) that (2x – FMC + FCC)
control the:
• FAC – Flight Augmentation Computer
• Autopilot(AP) (2x – envelope protection)
• FlightDirector (FD) • FADEC – Full Authority Digital Engine
• Autothrust (A/THR) Control (2x – autothrottle)
• Three Flight Management
Computers (FMCs) that operate two
Flight Management Systems (FMS).

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