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Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Thermal Properties and Applications
Edited by Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Senthil Muthu Kumar

Thiagamani, Chandrasekar Muthukumar, Rajini Nagarajan, and
Suchart Siengchin
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v
Contents
Preface xiii
1 Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites: An Overview 1
Chandrasekar Muthukumar, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Senthil Muthu
Kumar Thiagamani, Rajini Nagarajan, and Suchart Siengchin
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Thermal Characterization 3
1.2.1 DMA 3
1.2.2 TMA 5
1.2.3 DSC 6
1.2.4 TGA 6
1.3 Conclusion 10
Acknowledgment 11
References 11
2 Thermal Properties of Hybrid Natural Fiber-Reinforced

Thermoplastic Composites 17
A. Vinod, Yashas Gowda, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, M.R Sanjay, and
Suchart Siengchin
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Thermal Properties 18
2.2.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 18
2.2.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 20
2.2.3 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA) 21
2.2.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) 23
2.2.5 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 24
2.3 Conclusions 25
References 26
vi Contents
3 Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid

Polymer Composites: An Overview 31
Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Suchart
Siengchin, Sabarish Radoor, Roshny Joy, Jinu Jacob George, Chandrasekar
Muthukumar, Senthil Muthu Kumar Thiagamani, Nisa V. Salim, and Nishar
Hameed
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Thermal Properties of Natural Fiber Composites 33
3.3 Conclusion 45
Acknowledgment 45
References 46
4 Thermal Properties of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 53
R.A. Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, A. Atiqah, M.R.M. Asyraf, N.M. Nurazzi, Mohd N. F.
Norrrahim, Mohd A. Jenol, M.M. Harussani, R. Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, and
Chandrasekar Muthukumar
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Thermal Analysis of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites 58
4.2.1 TGA Properties of Sugar Palm Composites 58
4.2.2 TGA Properties of Sugar Palm Hybrid Composites 60
4.3 Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid
Composites 63
4.3.1 Sugar Palm/Glass Fiber 63
4.3.2 Sugar Palm/Cassava Bagasse 66
4.3.3 Sugar Palm/Flax 66
4.4 Potential Applications 66
4.5 Conclusions 72
Acknowledgment 72
References 72
5 Thermal Properties of Sisal Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 85
Tamil Moli Loganathan, Jesuarockiam Naveen, Koduri Naga Ganapathi
Lakshmi Reshwanth, Kandasamy Jayakrishna, and Chandrasekar
Muthukumar
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Thermal Properties of Sisal Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric Composites 87
5.3 Thermal Properties of Hybrid Sisal Fiber/Synthetic Fiber-Reinforced
Polymeric Composites 88
5.4 Thermal Properties of Sisal/Other Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric
Composites 89
5.5 Conclusions 91
References 91
Contents vii
6 Thermal Properties of Flax Fiber Hybrid Composites 93

Carlo Santulli
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 Techniques for Thermal Analysis of Natural Fiber Composites 95
6.3 General Properties and Composition of Flax Fibers 97
6.4 Thermal Analysis of Flax Fibers 98
6.5 Thermal Analysis of Flax Fiber Composites 99
6.6 Conclusions 100
References 101
7 Thermal Properties of the Pineapple Leaf Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 107
Bheemappa Suresha, Rajashekaraiah Hemanth, and Gurumurthy Hemanth
7.1 Introduction 107
7.2 Thermal Properties of Polymers 108
7.2.1 The Hypothesis of Thermal Conductivity 108
7.2.2 Factors Influencing Thermal Conductivity of Composite Materials 109
7.2.2.1 Fibers 109
7.2.2.2 Resins 111
7.2.2.3 Fillers 112
7.2.2.4 Additives 112
7.2.2.5 Thermal Conductivity of the Composites 113
7.3 Improving the Thermal Properties of Epoxies 114
7.3.1 Modification of Epoxies with Other Polymers or Additives 114
7.3.2 Modification of Epoxies by Reinforcing Fibers 115
7.3.3 Modification of Epoxies by Micron-sized Particulate Fillers 115
7.3.4 Modification of Epoxies by Filling Nano-Sized Particulate Fillers 116
7.3.5 Modification of Epoxies by Hybridization 116
7.4 The Thermal Properties of PALF Composites 116
7.4.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis of PALF Composites 116
7.4.2 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of PALF Composites 120
7.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetric Analysis of PALF Composites 124
7.4.4 Thermal Conductivity of PALF Composites 126
7.5 Concluding Remarks 127
References 129
8 Thermal Properties of the Grass/Cane Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 135
Manickam Ramesh, Jaganathan Maniraj, and Sengottuvelu Ramesh
8.2 Hybrid Composite Materials 137
8.3 Cane/Grass Fiber Hybrid Composites 138
8.4 Properties of Cane/Grass Fiber Hybrid Composites 140
8.5.1 Thermal Conductivity 141
viii Contents
8.5.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis 142

8.5.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Analysis 142
8.5.4 Flammability Test 142
8.5.5 Heat Deflection Temperature Test 143
8.5.6 Specific Heat Capacity Measurement 143
8.5.7 Thermal Diffusivity 143
8.6 Applications of Grass/Cane Hybrid Composites 144
8.7 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 Thermal Properties of the Banana Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 153
Nasmi Herlina Sari and Senthil Muthu Kumar Thiagamani
9.2 Fabrication of Banana Fiber-Based Hybrid Composite 154
9.2.1 Hand Layup 154
9.2.2 Vacuum Bag-Assisted Resin Infusion Technique 155
9.3 Thermal Properties of Banana Fiber-Based Composites 155
9.3.1 Thermal Stability 155
9.3.2 Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) 155
9.3.3.1 Jute and Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites 156
9.3.3.2 Glass and Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites 157
9.3.3.3 Banana/Flax-Based Glass Fiber Hybrid Composite 158
9.4 Specific Heat of Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites 159
9.4.1 Banana and Pineapple Leaf Fiber Hybrid Composites 159
9.5 Thermal Conductivity of Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites 160
9.5.1 The Pineapple Leaf and Banana Fiber Hybrid Composites 160
9.6 Thermal Diffusivity 160
9.7 Applications 162
9.8 Conclusions 162
References 163
10 Thermal Properties of Kenaf Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 167
Chinnaiyan Deepa, Lakshminarasimhan Rajeshkumar, and Manickam
Ramesh
10.2 Hybrid Composites 168
10.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis 169
10.3.2 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 172
10.3.3 Derivative Thermogravimetric Analysis 174
10.3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 175
10.3.5 Thermal Mechanical Analysis 176
Contents ix
10.3.6 Flammability Tests 177

10.3.7 Heat Deflection Temperature 178
10.4 Conclusion 178
References 179
11 Thermal Properties of Hemp Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites 183
Hom Nath Dhakal and Mohini Sain
11.2 Thermal Properties Measurements and Importance 185
11.2.2 Hybrid Approach for Thermal Properties Improvement 186
11.2.4 Thermal Conductivity 190
11.2.5 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 192
11.3 Conclusions and Perspectives 197
References 198
12 Thermal Properties of Cellulose Nanofibers and Their

Composites 201
Sadia Khalid, Tania Ali, Asiya Gul, and Sara Qaisar
12.2 Nanocellulose 202
12.3 Cellulose Nanofibers (CNFs) 202
12.4 CNF Preparation 203
12.5 Surface Functionalization of CNFs 203
12.6 CNF-Based Composites 205
12.7 Thermal Properties of CNF Composites 208
12.8 Current Status: CNF-Based Composites 209
12.9 Outlook and Future Perspective 212
References 214
13 Influence of Graphene Nanoparticles on Thermal Properties of

the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites 219
Theivasanthi Thirugnanasambandan
13.2 Graphene 220
13.3 Polymer/Graphene Composites 220
13.4 Polymer/Natural Fiber Composites 223
13.5 Polymer/Natural Fiber/Graphene Composites 226
13.6 Conclusion 233
Acknowledgments 233
References 233
x Contents
14 Influence of Nanoclay on the Thermal Properties of the

Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites 239
Sabarish Radoor, Jasila Karayil, Reshma Soman, Aswathy Jayakumar,
Edayileveettil K. Radhakrishnan, Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, and
Suchart Siengchin
14.2 Effect of Nanoclay on the Thermal Stability of Natural Fiber-Based
Hybrid Composites 240
14.3 Effect of Nanoclay on the Inflammability of Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid
Composites 244
14.4 Effect of Nanoclay on the Melting and Crystallization (DSC) of Natural
Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites 246
14.5 Effect of Nanoclay on the Glass Transition Temperature of Natural
14.6 Conclusion 248
Acknowledgments 249
References 249
15 Effect of CNT Fillers on Thermal Properties of the Bamboo

Mohit Hemath, Babu V. Hemath, Hemath K. Govindarajulu, Sanjay M.
Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin, and Suresh N. Sundaram
15.2 Materials and Methods 257
15.2.1 Materials Used 257
15.2.2 Extraction of Bamboo Microfibers 258
15.2.3 Amino Functionalization of SWCNTs 258
15.2.4 Fabrication of SWCNT/Bamboo Fiber (BF)/Epoxy Hybrid
Nanocomposites 258
15.2.5 Characterization 259
15.2.5.1 Thermal Properties 259
15.2.5.2 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 259
15.2.5.3 Mechanical Properties of SWCNT/BF/Epoxy Composites 259
15.2.5.4 Morphological Characteristics 260
15.3 Results and Discussion 260
15.3.1 Effect on FTIR Spectra 260
15.3.2 Effect on Thermal Degradation Properties 260
15.3.3 Effect on Thermal Conductivity 262
15.3.4 Effect on Mechanical Characteristics 264
15.3.4.1 Flexural and Tensile Properties 264
15.3.5 Tensile Fracture 265
15.3.5.1 Impact Strength and Hardness 266
15.4 Conclusion 267
Acknowledgment 267
References 267
Contents xi
16 Effect of Metal Oxide Fillers on Thermal Properties of the

Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites 273
Mohit Hemath, Hemath K. Govindarajulu, Sanjay M. Rangappa, Suchart
Siengchin, Ruban Ramalingam, and Babu V. Hemath
16.2 Materials and Methods 274
16.2.1 Materials 274
16.2.2 Extraction of Bamboo Nanocellulose Fiber (BNF) 275
16.2.3 Fabrication of Epoxy Hybrid Nanocomposites 275
16.2.4 Epoxy Hybrid Nanocomposite Characterization 275
16.2.4.1 Thermal Properties 275
16.2.4.2 Flame-Retardant Properties 275
16.2.4.3 Mechanical Properties 275
16.2.4.4 Morphological Properties 276
16.2.4.5 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectra 276
16.3.1 Effect on FTIR Spectra 276
16.3.2 Effect on Flammability 277
16.3.3 Effect on Thermal Stability 280
16.3.4 Effect on Mechanical Properties 280
16.3.4.1 Tensile Properties 280
16.3.4.2 Tensile Fracture 282
16.3.4.3 Flexural Properties 282
16.3.4.4 Compression Properties 283
16.3.4.5 Impact Strength 285
16.4 Conclusion 286
References 286
17 Influence of Chemical Treatments on the Thermal Properties

of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites (NFRHC) 291
Rafael de Avila Delucis and José Humberto S. Almeida Jr
17.2 Chemical Modifications for Natural Fibers Applied in Hybrid
Composites 295
17.2.1 Chemical Treatments 295
17.2.1.1 Chemically Treated Natural Fibers in Hybrid Thermoset
Composites 295
17.2.1.2 Chemically Treated Fibers in Hybrid Thermoplastic Composites 298
17.2.2 Chemical Coupling Agents 299
17.2.2.1 Maleic Anhydride 299
17.2.2.2 Silanization 300
17.2.3 Two-Step Treatments 301
17.3 Concluding Remarks 302
References 303
xii Contents
18 Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of

Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Polymer Composites 309
Subramanian Ravichandran, Suresh Sagadevan, and Md Enamul Hoque
18.2 Preparation of Composite Material 311
18.3 Characterization of Composite Material 312
18.3.1 Tensile Test 312
18.3.2 Flexural Test 312
18.3.3 Test of Water Absorption 312
18.4.1 Mechanical Properties 313
18.4.2 Water Absorption Studies 315
18.4.3 Thermal Properties 316
18.5 Conclusions 317
Conflicts of Interest 318
References 318
Index 321
xiii
Preface
We are glad to present the book entitled “Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

Thermal Properties and Applications” to thermal analysts, materials scientists,
materials engineers, material chemists, and researchers working in the field of
bio-composites.
This book focuses on exploring the thermal properties of hybrid composites
reinforced with natural fibers. As per literature, the thermal properties of these
composites could be analyzed by the techniques such as differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC), thermomechanical analysis (TMA), thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). In lieu of this, all the chapters are
designed to cover a broad audience with the aforementioned techniques on hybrid
composites reinforced with natural fibers.
This book consists of 18 chapters and is structured as follows: Chapters 1, 2, and 3
present the overview of thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced thermoset and
thermoplastic hybrid composites. Chapters 4 to 11 discuss the thermal properties of
hybrid composites made up of different natural fibers such as sugar palm, sisal fiber,
flax fiber, pineapple leaf fiber, grass/cane fiber, banana fiber, kenaf fiber and hemp
fiber. Chapters 12 to 16 provide insights on the effect of nanofillers (e.g. graphene,
nanoclay, CNT, metal oxide) on thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced
hybrid composites. Chapter 17 discusses the effects of chemical treatments of
hybrid composites on thermal properties. Chapter 18 provides an overview of
physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of hybrid polymer composites.
We thank our parents and sincerely appreciate the publisher, the typesetting
professional associated with this book, and thank all the contributing authors for
their valuable time and efforts in submitting their work to this book.
1
Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid

Composites: An Overview
Chandrasekar Muthukumar 1 , Senthilkumar Krishnasamy 2,3 , Senthil Muthu
Kumar Thiagamani 3 , Rajini Nagarajan 3 , and Suchart Siengchin 4
1
Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Kelambakkam,
Chennai 603103, Tamilnadu, India
2
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering
for Manufacturing (CoI-DEM), 1518 Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
3
Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Krishnankoil
626126, Tamil Nadu, India
4
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), Department of Materials and Production Engineering, 1518
Wongsawang Road, Bangsue, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
1.1 Introduction
Hybrid composite is fabricated by adding two or more fibers into a single polymer
system [1]. The resulting material has a unique feature that combines the advantages
of each fiber. Since different fibers are added together, the benefits of one particu-
lar type of fiber property could be compensated with the other fiber lacking a spe-
cific property. The performance of hybrid composites could be influenced by many
factors [2–7]:
i. Fiber length
ii. Fiber loading
iii. Fiber orientation
iv. Fiber layer sequence
v. Fiber/matrix interfacial bonding
vi. Failure strain of fiber
The hybrid effect is termed as an apparent synergistic improvement of properties
due to different fibers in a single matrix system. The selection of fibers and their
properties is of main importance to achieve the enhanced properties for the hybrid
composites. Besides the physical, chemical, and mechanical stabilities of fiber, the
Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties and Applications, First Edition.

Edited by Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Senthil Muthu Kumar Thiagamani,
Chandrasekar Muthukumar, Rajini Nagarajan and Suchart Siengchin.
© 2022 WILEY-VCH GmbH. Published 2022 by WILEY-VCH GmbH.
2 1 Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid Composites: An Overview
matrix system also defines the strength of the hybrid composites. The different types
of hybrid composites are characterized as follows [8–12]:
i. Tow by tow: the fibers are mixed up randomly or regularly.

ii. Sandwich hybrid composites: one material is sandwiched between two different
layers.
iii. Inter-ply or laminated: two or more fiber layers are alternatively stacked regu-
larly.
iv. Intimately mixed fibers: various types of fibers are mixed up randomly.
Though the hybrid composites have many advantages, the prime challenges
are replacing the synthetic fiber-reinforced composites using biocomposites. Bio-
composites exhibit functional and structural stability during storage and degrade
upon disposal into the environment. “Engineered natural fiber” is one of the
exciting concepts to obtain the enhanced strength in the biocomposites, which
involves the blending of the leaf and stem fibers. The correct blending of these two
fibers exhibits optimum balance in mechanical properties, resulting in balanced
stiffness–toughness properties [13–15].
The mechanical and physical characteristics of the natural fiber are influenced
by many factors: (i) maturity of the plant fiber, (ii) harvesting time and region,
(iii) soil condition, (iv) rain, (v) sun, etc. Since the natural fibers are nonabrasive and
hypoallergenic, they could be processed efficiently. Amongst the various properties
of natural fibers, the low density and the cellular structure allow them to exhibit
better thermal properties. However, the amorphous hemicellulose on the fiber
surface can be a potential threat to the better interfacial bonding between the matrix
and the fiber, thereby reducing the properties. Hence, the mechanical and thermal
properties of the biocomposites could be further enhanced through chemical
treatments [16]. Natural fiber has cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin susceptible
to degradation on exposure to elevated temperature [17–19]. Thus, many studies
exploring the thermal properties of the biocomposites have been published over the
years [20–22]. By botanical type, the natural fibers are classified into six major types
(Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Classification of the natural fibers.
Seed Bast Leaf Core Grass and seed Others
Kapok Jute Banana Flax Canary Roots

Coir Ramie Pineapple Kenaf Barley wood
Cotton Flax Curaua Hemp Wheat
Oil palm Hemp Sisal Jute Grass
Rice Kenaf Abaca Corn
1.2 Thermal Characterization

The thermal analyses encompass a family of techniques that would share a common
feature, whereby any material’s response could be measured through heating or
cooling. Thus, a significant connection is held between the temperature and the
physical property of the materials. The most common thermal techniques that
have been used by researchers and by industrial organizations for thermal char-
acterization are thermomechanical analysis (TMA), thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and dynamic mechanical analysis
(DMA). These techniques are not only used for measuring the physical properties
with respect to the temperature changes but also used in the following areas: (i) to
substantiate mechanical properties and thermal history of the biocomposites, (ii) to
estimate the service life of composites in different environments, and (iii) as one
of the quality control approaches in polymers and their manufacturing industries.
Figure 1.1 shows some of the essential thermal analysis techniques and the
characteristics measured [23–25]. In terms of research, thermal behavior of the bio-
composites has been investigated by varying fiber volume fractions [26–28], varying
fiber layering patterns [29, 30], using different types of chemical treatments [31, 32],
adding different kinds of fillers [19, 33, 34], and using polymer blends [35, 36].
For instance, Table 1.2 presents some of the experimental works carried out on
thermal properties using different natural fibers.
1.2.1 DMA
Figure 1.2 presents the step-by-step process involved in the DMA of the polymers
and polymer-based composites. Output parameters such as storage modulus (E′ or
G′ ), loss modulus (E′′ or G′′ ), and damping factor (tan 𝛿) obtained as the function
of temperature are shown in Figure 1.3a. As the polymer or composite is heated
in the temperature range with the simultaneous application of oscillatory load, it
undergoes displacement or strain where some energy gets stored in the material,
Thermal analysis techniques
DSC DTA TG or TGA TMA/ TD DMA DEA µ/n-TA
ΔT, ΔT Mass Penetration,

Length
differential or Viscoelastic Dielectric ΔT
power input volume properties properties
Figure 1.1 Various thermal analysis techniques and their applications. DFA, dielectric
analysis.
Table 1.2 Reported thermal based works of natural fiber-reinforced hybrid composites.
Hybrid composites Details of study References
Thermoset polymers
Flax/sugar palm/epoxy DMA [6]
Flax/woven aloe vera/epoxy TGA, DMA [20]
Sisal/cattail/polyester Thermal conductivity [37]
Date palm/coir fiber/epoxy TGA [38]
Sisal/jute/sorghum/polyester TGA [39]
Coir/Luffa cylindrica/epoxy DMA [40]
Bamboo/kenaf/epoxy TGA, DMA, DSC [41]
Ramie/sisal/epoxy Sisal/curaua/epoxy TGA, DSC [42]
Flax/aloe vera/hemp/epoxy TGA, DMA [43]
Kenaf/pineapple leaf fiber/phenolic TGA [44]
Thermoplastic polymers
Sugar palm/roselle/polyurethane TGA [45]
Jute/bamboo/polyethylene DSC, TGA [46]
Sugar palm/roselle/polyurethane TGA [47]
Seaweed/sugar palm fiber/thermoplastic sugar TGA [48]
palm starch agar
Coir/pineapple leaf fiber/polylactic acid (PLA) TGA [49]
Coir/pineapple leaf fiber/ PLA TGA, TMA [50]
Biodegradable polymers
Sisal/hemp/bioepoxy DMA, TGA [29]
Kenaf/sisal/bioepoxy TGA, DSC, DMA [51]
Sisal/hemp/bioepoxy TGA [52]
while some energy is dissipated as heat due to the internal friction. The resultant
strain measured by applying the oscillatory load is represented as loss modulus, stor-
age modulus, and phase angle or damping factor. The ability of the tested material to
store the energy is termed as the storage modulus while the tendency of the material
to dissipate heat energy is termed as the loss modulus. Storage modulus represents
the stiffness of a polymer or composite and is often related to Young’s modulus. Loss
modulus is related to the molecular chain motions such as transition and relaxation
within the polymer during the heating process and applied load. Tan 𝛿 is a dimen-
sionless number obtained through the ratio of loss modulus to the storage modulus.
Lower tan 𝛿 indicates higher stiffness and better interfacial bonding between fiber
and polymer matrix, which restricts the molecular mobility within the polymeric
chains.
• D4440 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties Melt Rheology
• D4473 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: Cure Behavior
• D5023 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In Flexure (Three-Point Bending)
• D5024 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In Compression
ASTM
• D5026 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In Tension
standards
• D5279 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In Torsion
• D5418 Standard Test Method for Plastics: Dynamic Mechanical Properties: In Flexure (Dual Cantilever Beam)
• Specimen geometry
• Frequency or strain
• Type of load and clamping
Input
• Temperature program
• Elastic Modulus vs. temperature

• Viscous Modulus vs. temperature,
• Damping Coefficient (tan 𝛿) vs. temperature
Output
• Complex shear modulus in torsional mode
• Glass transition temperature

• Peak on loss modulus curve
• Peak on tan 𝛿 curve
Assessment
• Peak on storage modulus curve
Figure 1.2 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite

through DMA, step-by-step process.
Polymers are viscoelastic and can be classified into crystalline, amorphous,

and semicrystalline (has both crystalline and amorphous characteristics) depend-
ing upon the composition. It is because of this characteristic that polymers or
polymer-based composite undergoes phase change during the simultaneous appli-
cation of the load and heating process (Figure 1.3b). Figure 1.3a shows the typical
data obtained from DMA. Glass transition temperature (T g ) is the tangent obtained
in the phase change region between glassy state and rubbery state. T g can be below
the melting temperature for a polymer, which has both crystalline and amorphous
characteristics. The material tends to get softer rather than melting at T g . DMA is
particularly useful in identifying the cross-linking density of the polymer, as shown
in Figure 1.3b. It can be noticed that polymers with a high cross-linking density
have higher T g and greater loss modulus and storage modulus, while it is vice versa
for polymers with low cross-linking density [53].
1.2.2 TMA
TMA is a common technique used for investigating the dimensional change of mate-
rial under the combination of temperature and a fixed load. Figure 1.4 presents
the step-by-step process involved in the TMA of the polymers and polymer-based
composites. Dimensional change of material (at nanoscale) under the influence of
temperature and load can be measured in various testing modes shown in Figure 1.5.
Changes in the free volume of material depending upon the heat absorption or heat
release with respect to the temperature can also be determined with this technique.
Figure 1.6a–c shows that the T g measurement for a polymer or a polymer com-
posite can be derived from the TMA, DSC, and DMA.
104 104
146 °C
0.7
Eʹ (Storage modulus)
0.6 103
Storage modulus, (MPa)
Loss modulus, (MPa)

103 0.5
102
Tan delta
Eʺ (Loss modulus) 0.4
0.3 101
102
0.2
–21 °C 100
Tan δ 0.1
101 0.0
10–1
–100 –50 0 50 100 150 200
Temperature (°C)
(a)
Glassy Transition Rubbery

region region plateau
region
Log E′ (G″) and E″ (G″)
Highly cross-linked
Very hard and

rigid solid Lightly cross-linked
Storage
modulus Stiff to soft rubber
Loss
modulus
Temperature
(b)
Figure 1.3 Thermal characterization of polymer and polymer-based composite with DMA.
(a) Typical curve. (b) Viscoelastic characteristics of the polymer. Source: Saba et al. [53].
1.2.3 DSC
Figure 1.7 presents the step-by-step process involved in the DSC of the polymers
and polymer-based composites. In DSC, the sample is heated around 30 to the ele-
vated temperature beyond 300 ∘ C with the constant supply of liquid nitrogen in a
controlled chamber. Heat flow from the sample is measured as a function of the
temperature shown in Figure 1.8. The changes in crystalline properties (T g ), melting
temperature (T m ), and cold crystallization temperature (T c ) due to the introduction
of two or more natural fibers in the hybrid composite can be evaluated.
1.2.4 TGA
Figure 1.9 presents the step-by-step process involved in the TGA of the polymers
and polymer-based composites. It is an effective technique for evaluating thermal
• D696 Standard Test Method for Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion of Plastics Between –30
and 30 °C with a Vitreous Silica Dilatometer
ASTM
standards
• E831-19 Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Solid Materials by Thermomechanical
Analysis
• Specimen preparation
• Type of load
Input
• Heating rate
• Start/end temperature
• Change in dimension vs. temperature

• Volumetric change vs. temperature
Output
• Coefficient of linear thermal expansion

• Free volume
• Shear modulus
Assessment
• Young’s modulus
• Creep
• Flexural stress
• Softening point and heat deflection temperature

through TMA, step-by-step process.
Load direction
Probe
Chuck
Sample
Sample
cylinder
Expansion/Compression Penetration Tension 3-Point bending Voulmetric expansion E-modulus
Figure 1.5 Test modes in TMA. Source: Saba and Jawaid [54].
decomposition characteristics of the polymers and polymer composite reinforced

with the natural fibers or the synthetic fibers. It provides the quantitative mass
change of the sample due to the heating under the controlled atmosphere. A natural
fiber obtained from the plants and trees is made up of the constituents such as cel-
lulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, wax, moisture, and ash. The percentage of con-
stituents can vary from one fiber to another, which has a significant influence on the
thermal decomposition characteristics of natural fiber and their composites. Also,
these fiber constituents are volatile and can decompose at elevated temperatures.
TMA DSC DMA
Tg, E’
Dimension change
Heat flow (exo)

Tg Tg
Modulus drop
Log E′
Rubbery plateau
Temperature Temperature
Temperature
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.6 T g measured from the various thermal characterization techniques: (a) TMA, (b)
DSC, and (c) DMA. Source: Saba and Jawaid [54].
• D3418-15 Standard Test Method for Transition Temperatures and Enthalpies of Fusion and Crystallization of
Polymers by Differential Scanning Calorimetry
ASTM • E1269-05 Standard Test Method for Determining Specific Heat Capacity by Differential Scanning Calorimetry
standards
• Specimen weight
• Purge gas and gas flow rate
Input • Heating rate
• Start/end temperature
• Heat flow vs. Temperature

Output

• Melting temperature
• Crystallization temperature
Assessment • Specific heat capacity
• Heat of fusion

through DSC, step-by-step process.
A few milligram of sample is placed in the TGA chamber and heated from room
temperature to as high as 700 ∘ C at a defined ramp rate in the presence of nitrogen to
prevent oxidation inside the chamber. The thermal stability of a polymer-based com-
posite is usually assessed from the thermogram (TG curve) and the derivative ther-
mogram (DTG curve) obtained from the TGA, as shown in Figure 1.10. Parameters
Heat
flow
Tg Tc Tm
Temperature
Figure 1.8 Thermogram from the DSC. Source: Chandrasekar et al. [55].
• D2288 Test Method for Weight Loss of Plasticizers on Heating

• D4202 Test Method for Thermal Stability of PVC Resin
• D2115 Test Method for Volatile Matter (including water) of Vinyl Chloride Resins
• D2126 Test Method for Response of Rigid Cellular Plastics to Thermal and Humid Aging
• D3045 Recommended Practice for Heat Aging of Plastics Without Load
ASTM • D1870 Practice for Elevated Temperature Aging Using a Tubular Oven
standards • D4218 Test Method for Determination of Carbon Black Content in Polyethylene Compounds by a Muffle-Furnace
• D1603 Test Method for Carbon Black in Olefin Plastics
• D5510 Practice for Heat Aging of Oxidatively Degradable Plastics
• E1131 Standard Test Method for Compositional Analysis by TGA
• E1641 Standard Test Method for Decomposition Kinetics by TGA
• Specimen weight
Input
• Purge gas and flow rate
• Heating rate
• Weight % vs. Temperature

Output
• Derivative weight % vs. Temperature,
• Residue %
• Onset temperature
• Inflection temperature
Assessment • Endset temperature
• Filler content
Figure 1.9 Thermal characterizations of polymer and polymer-based composites through

TGA, step-by-step process.
such as the onset, endset, inflection temperature, and residue percentage at the end
of the heating process in the TGA chamber are usually compared to identify changes
due to the reinforcement percentage and type of fiber. Degradation temperature
at 5%, 10%, 20%, 40%, and 80% weight loss along with the residue can also be
discussed.
In the case of a polymer, thermal decomposition usually occurs in single stage,
whereas, for the natural fiber, thermal decomposition occurs in two or three stages
100
Mass derivative, (1/ °C)

Legend:
80 Pure epoxy
Kenaf/epoxy
Bamboo/epoxy
Mass (%)
60 0.01
B:K:70 : 30
B:K:50 : 50
B:K:30 : 70
40
20
0
200 400 600 200 400 600
(a) Temperature, (°C) (b) Temperature, (°C)
Figure 1.10 A typical TGA curve of the hybrid composite with kenaf and bamboo fibers.
(a) Thermogram. (b) Derivative thermogram. Source: Chee et al. [41].
depending on the fiber constituents. Initial mass loss between 50 and 150 ∘ C is due
to the evaporation of moisture in the fiber. The weight loss at a temperature range
between 150 and 300 ∘ C is associated with the decomposition of hemicellulose and
lignin. The final weight loss between 300 and 700 ∘ C is attributed to the decompo-
sition of cellulose. Since the fiber constituents vary from one fiber to another, TGA
has proved to be an excellent tool for determining the changes in thermal decompo-
sition characteristics of the hybrid polymer composite reinforced with two or more
natural fibers. Thermal stability is also evaluated by residue percentage at the end of
the heating process. The higher the residues, the better the thermal stability of the
composite.
1.3 Conclusion
Thermal characterization of the hybrid composites using various commercially
available techniques such as DMA, TMA, DSC, and TGA has been discussed. The
following are the conclusions:
● DMA is useful in determining the creep properties and interfacial interactions of
the composites and measuring their stiffness, material behavior with respect to
the phase transitions, damping, and relaxation processes in a range of frequencies
and temperatures.
● TMA helps in defining the material structure with respect to the dimensional
and volumetric change, surface roughness, molecular structure, cure, and
cross-linking polymerization under both static and dynamic loads.
● DSC is considered as one of the primary tools for thermodynamic analysis and
cure kinetics. It gives useful information on the phase transitions upon heating
and quantifies the glass transition temperature, melting temperature, and crystal-
lization temperature related to the polymers and polymer-based biocomposites.
References 11
● TGA has been widely used to illustrate the thermal stability of the composites,
which provides the quantitative mass change of the sample due to heating. It also
provides vital information on the decomposition characteristics of the constituents
of the composites at elevated temperatures.
The forthcoming chapters of this book would give extensive information on the
above-discussed thermal characterization techniques with respect to different natu-
ral fibers and polymers targeted for various applications.
Acknowledgment
This study was financially supported by the King Mongkut’s University of Tech-
nology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand, through grant no. KMUTNB-BasicR-
64-16 and through grant no. KMUTNB-64-KNOW-07.
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Another random document with
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The Tariff Speech of Samuel J. Randall.
Delivered in the House of Representatives, May 18, 1888.

He opened by referring to the President’s recent message, in which
the Executive advised Congress that the surplus in the Treasury by
the 30th of June, at the end of the current fiscal year, would be
expected to reach the sum of $140,000,000, including prior
accumulations; or more closely stated, the sum of $113,000,000,
apart from prior accumulations, over and above all authorized
expenditures, including the sinking fund for the current year.
He then quoted from the President’s message defining his position
on the tariff and internal revenue questions, and said that, from the
utterances of the President, he understands the Executive to be
adverse to any reduction of the internal taxes, as that mode of
taxation afforded, in the opinion of the President, “no just complaint,
and that nothing is so well able to bear the burden without hardship
to any portion of the people.”
The President further said that the tariff law was a vicious and
illegal source of inequitable tax, and ought to be revised and
modified, and the President had urged upon Congress the immediate
consideration of this matter to the exclusion of all others. The
President had asserted in substance that the reduction necessary
should be made by additions to the free list, and by the lowering of
the rates of duty.
In the presence of such language, emanating from the Executive,
authorized by the direction of the Constitution to communicate and
from time to time give to Congress information on the state of the
Union, and recommend such measures as he should judge necessary,
it was imperatively required of the representatives of the people to
give fair, intelligent, and prompt attention to the suggestions made.
He had done so.
He had introduced and had referred to the Committee on Ways
and Means a bill to reduce and equalize duties on imports and to
reduce the internal revenue taxes, and some provisions of that bill
showed that the remedies he would apply were at variance with those
recommended by the President. The President sought to prevent the
continuation of the surplus revenue by resorting to changes in the
customs duties only.
The remedy he (Randall) proposed was through the repeal of
internal revenue taxes as well as by a full revision of the tariff, as
promised to the people by the Democratic Convention of 1884. The
reduction provided for in his bill aggregated $77,000,000 on
internal taxes.
Those taxes had always been the last to be levied, and the first to
be repealed when no longer necessary.
Jefferson had given the death-blow to excise taxes, that most
vicious of all taxes, and among the things he received the thanks of
the Legislature of his native State for doing, was for having the
internal taxes abolished. The first tax also to be repealed after the
War of 1812 had been the excise tax, which was recommended by
Madison, and was the first law enacted under the administration of
Monroe. The Democratic Convention of 1884 declared that internal
revenue was a war tax, and this declaration, taken in connection with
the other declarations of the platform, clearly established the fact
that the opinion of the Convention was that some of the internal
revenue taxes should first go, and that they should all go whenever a
sufficient sum was realized from custom-house taxes to meet the
expenses of the Government economically administered.
The country was practically in such a condition now, and the true
response to those declarations warranted the repeal of the internal
revenue taxes to the extent proposed by his bill. He favored now, as
he had always done, a total repeal of the internal revenue taxes.
In the bill which he introduced he proposed to sweep all these
taxes from the statute books, except a tax of fifty cents on whiskey,
and he would transfer the collection of that tax to the customs
officials if that was found to be practicable.
With Albert Gallatin, he regarded excise taxes as offensive to the
genius of the people, tolerated only as a measure of emergency, and
as soon as the occasion for them had passed away they should cease
to exist.
Gallatin and Jefferson had secured the repeal of the internal taxes,
and relieved the people from their annoyances and the hordes of
officials clothed with dangerous power. If this internal revenue
system was abolished to-day we would have no surplus revenue to
scare the country, while the administration of public affairs would be
rendered purer and better. His bill proposed a revision of the tariff
on the principle believed to be in harmony with the authorized
declarations of the Democratic party in their last convention.
Those declarations clearly recognized the fact that a difference
existed in the cost of production of commodities in this and other
countries on account of a higher rate of wages in the United States,
and declared for a duty ample to cover that difference. There was a
cardinal principle which must cover every intelligent revision of the
tariff. Labor in this country received a much larger share of what was
annually produced than in any other country, and this advantage to
labor could only be maintained by giving to the industries protection
equal to that difference.
He quoted from Edward Atkinson that since the end of the Civil
War, and yet more since the so-called panic of 1873, there had been
greater progress in the common welfare among the people of the
United States than ever before. The statements of Mr. Atkinson
would seem to settle the question as to whether we should adhere to
the benevolent policy of protecting home manufactures. It
demonstrated unmistakably the truth that, to increase wages,
products must be increased, for in the end wages were but the
laborer’s share of products.
While a dollar might buy more in another country than here, a
day’s labor here would obtain more of the comforts of life than
anywhere else. Under free trade this advantage to labor disappeared.
It was impossible it should be otherwise. If the tariff itself did not
give higher wages to the laborer, it did preserve from foreign
competition the industries from which the laborer received his
wages. He wished to refer to a few fundamental propositions which
had been maintained throughout this debate, and which appeared to
exercise and control influence over the opinion of men.
First. That the duties were always added to the price to the
consumer.
On articles not produced in this country, this doubtless was true as
a general rule, and measurably true on articles in part produced in
this country, but not in sufficient quantities to supply the home
market. But on all commodities produced in sufficient quantities to
supply the home market, a different principle controlled. In these
things competition determined the price, and the foreign producer
came into this market, where the prices were fixed, and the duties
were what he paid for the privilege of coming into the market.
Another erroneous proposition was that duties on articles produced
in this country were a tax or bounty which the consumer paid to the
manufacturer, by means of which the manufacturer derived large
profits. If this were true, it was not easy to see what justification
there was for the committee bill any more than for the present tariff
law. But that it was erroneous seemed apparent on a closer
examination of the laws of trade. Adam Smith long ago had laid
down the proposition that larger profits in one industry than in
another could not long prevail in the same country. The United
States formed a world of its own. Would it be possible that one class
of consumers would pay a perpetual tax to another?
Suppose last year we had manufactured $1,000,000,000 worth of
products less than we actually did, and had gone abroad to supply
our deficiency, expecting to pay for the goods with our agricultural
products—we had sold Europe last year all of the wheat and corn the
continent could take—who could tell what prices Europe would have
paid if we had thrown upon her markets $1,000,000,000 worth of
agricultural products in excess of the quantity we had sold. The
farmer and manufacturer in this country must depend almost
exclusively upon our home market.
Any other policy would mean ruin and bankruptcy to the country.
The greater the producing power of the people the more independent
and wealthy would the country be.
Mr. Randall next entered into an explanation of the principles
upon which his bill had been constructed. He said that in fixing the
duties the rates had been adjusted as nearly as possible to cover the
difference in the margin of cost of production here and abroad. In
working out the details of the bill it had been his purpose to lower
duties wherever possible.
Between the extreme free trader on one hand and a prohibitory
tariff on the other there were intermediate positions. One of them
was to fix a revenue line on imports just high enough to realize a
sufficient revenue for the needs of the Government. Another was to
make the tariff sufficiently high to cover the difference of cost of
production in this country and other countries. To lower the rate of
duty when that line was passed must be to increase the revenue. To
raise the rate of duty when the line of maximum revenue was
reached would result in a decrease of duty.
Any computation that did not take these facts into account would
be utterly worthless. It might safely be assumed that when the
importation of any line of merchandise steadily increased from year
to year, and there was no good reason why those goods could not be
produced in this country, and the result of the increased
importations had been to suppress our manufactures, it was proof
positive that the duty should be increased.
Otherwise it might be assumed that the duties were quite high
enough. And when the duties were high enough to permit the
existence of trusts to raise the prices of the commodity, the duty
should be reduced as closely as possible to the line. He stated
distinctly that if it could be made to appear in any case that the
measure he proposed conferred more protection than was needed to
cover the cost of production, he was ready to lower it. If in any
instance the rate was too low to cover that cost, he was ready to raise
it.
Monopolies existed without the tariff. The standard oil trust, the
whiskey trust, and the cotton-seed oil trust, and others that he could
mention—the greatest trusts in the whole country—were not
protected by the tariff. He was for the protection of labor, not in one
State merely, but in all States.
He was for the protection and maintenance of that system that
allows to labor a larger proportionate share of its products than was
realized in any other country or under any other system.
The late Secretary Manning had signalized his accession to the
control of the Treasury Department by a more thorough examination
of the economic questions of the day than had been made by any of
his predecessors. His reports and public utterances were marvels of
honest, conscientious, and effective labor.
He had strongly urged the necessity for the substitution of specific
for ad valorem duties. The Custom House officers charged with the
collection of the revenues had given valuable and emphatic
testimony in favor of the change. The present Secretary of the
Treasury had taken the same grounds. (At this point Mr. Randall
quoted extensively from Secretary Fairchild’s utterances on the
subject. He then proceeded with his description of the objects of his
own bill.) Certain provisions of the metal schedules, he said, had
been very sharply assailed, and he devoted some time to answering
the speakers who had attacked his measure.
He took up the schedules relating to steel rails, and quoted figures
at length to sustain his action in fixing the duties at the rates he
proposed in his bill. The duty on cotton ties, he said, was one of the
inconsistencies of the present tariff. It was only fair that they should
pay a duty as hoop iron and as an article of manufacture. The present
law was a positive discrimination against the home manufacturer
and in favor of the foreign producer. The rate of wages in England in
cotton tie manufactories was hardly one-half of the wages paid in
such manufactories in Pittsburg.
He then proceeded to a criticism of the committee bill as follows:
A declared purpose of this bill is to secure “free raw materials to
stimulate manufactories.”
In execution of this idea, the bill places on the free list a large
number of articles which are really manufactured articles, such as
salt, sawed and dressed lumber, glue, various oils and chemicals,
china, clay, etc. These constitute the products of large and useful
industries throughout the United States in which many millions of
capital are invested, and employing many thousands of working
people. At the same time the bill leaves or puts upon the dutiable list,
lead, iron, zinc and nickel ores, and coal, which might be called raw
materials. Further than this, the bill not only makes so-called “raw
materials” free, but places on the free list the manufactured products
of these materials. Thus the manufacture of such articles is made
impossible in this country, except by reducing American labor to a
worse condition than that of labor in Europe. It goes even further,
and places or leaves dutiable certain so-called raw materials, such as
iron ore, lead, coal, paper, paints, etc., while placing on the free list
articles made from these materials, such as hoop iron and cotton
ties, tin plates, machinery, books and pamphlets, etc.
In other words, the bill leaves or makes dutiable the raw material
and puts on the free list the articles manufactured from it; thus not
only placing an insurmountable barrier in the way of making such
articles here, but actually protecting the foreign manufacturer and
laborer against our own, and imposing for their benefit a burden
upon the consumer in this country. Again, the bill places lower rates
on some manufactured articles than on the raw materials used in
making them. For instance, type metal, 15 per cent.; pig lead, 44 per
cent.; carpets, 30 per cent.; yarns used in their manufacture, 40 per
cent.
It leaves an internal revenue tax of more than 100 per cent. on
alcohol used in the arts, amounting to as much as the entire amount
of duty collected on raw wool. This article enters as a material into a
vast number of important and needful articles which the committee
have either made free or have so reduced the rates thereon that the
duty would be less than the tax on the alcohol consumed in their
manufacture.
In some cases, the difference between the duty imposed by the bill
on the so called raw materials and the articles made from them is so
small as to destroy these industries, except upon the condition of
levelling the wages of home labor to that of Europe. This was so in
the case of pig lead and red lead, which is made from it, and of pig
iron and steel blooms and steel rails.
Such legislation would leave the ore in the mines, or the pig lead in
the smelting works, or the pig iron to rust at the furnaces, while
foreigners would supply our markets with these manufactured
products. In a large number of articles throughout the schedules the
reductions proposed by the bill are so large that the effect must be to
destroy or restrict home production and increase enormously foreign
importations, thus largely increasing customs revenue instead of
reducing it, as claimed by the advocates of the bill. Particular
mention in this connection is made of earthen and chinaware, glass,
leaf tobacco, manufactures of cotton, flax, hemp, and jute, carpets,
brushes, leather, gloves, manufactures of India rubber, and pipes.
Mr. Randall asserted that instead of the bill reducing customs
revenues $64,000,000, as was claimed, it would be fair to estimate
that its effect would be to largely increase the revenue, instead of
reducing it, while the amount of material wealth it would destroy is
incalculable.
Those supporting the bill, he said, hold themselves out as the
champions of the farmer, while they take from him the protection
duties on his wool, hemp, flax, meats, vegetables, etc. And what do
they give him in return. They profess to give the manufacturer better
rates than he now has. If this be so, how is the farmer to be benefited,
or where does he get compensation for the loss of his protective
duties?
Much has been said about removing taxes on necessaries and
imposing them upon luxuries. What does this bill propose? It gives
olive oil to the epicure and taxes castor oil 95 per cent.; it gives free
tin plates to the Standard Oil Company and to the great meat-
canning monopolies, and imposes a duty of 100 per cent. on rice; it
gives the sugar trust free bone-black and proposes prohibitory duties
on grocery grades of sugar; it imposes a duty of 40 per cent. on the
“poor man’s” blanket and only 30 per cent. on the Axminster carpet
of the rich; it admits free of duty the fine animals imported by the
gentlemen of the turf, makes free the paintings and statuary of the
railway millionaire and coal baron.
Mr. Randall said he yielded to no man on his side of the House in
his desire for continued Democratic control in the administration of
the Federal Government. He did not believe the adoption of the
committee’s bill would make such result certain, and added:
“I cannot be coerced into any particular action upon economic questions by the
direction of party caucus. The period of the political caucus has departed never to
return, and yet we should confer and have unity, if it is possible.
“In these matters I speak only for myself. My convictions on the tariff are strong,
and founded, as I think, upon principle, and upon information and intelligent
comprehension of the subject. When any one here enters upon the task of invoking
caucus power or other modes of coercion, I can only say to him, if he acts with
good purpose, that it will prove a fruitless undertaking; or if with ill motive, then I
consign him to all the natural contempt which such self-constituted
superciliousness deserves.”
In conclusion, Mr. Randall quoted from the earliest statesmen in
support of his views upon the tariff, and said:
“If Jackson could say he was confirmed in his opinions by the opinions of
Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, how much more am I confirmed in my opinions
by his great authority added to that of the founders and builders of the Democratic
party? I warn the party that it is not safe to abandon principles so fundamental to
our institutions and so necessary to the maintenance of our industrial system;
principles which attest the wisdom of those who established them by the fruits they
have borne, the full fruition of which, however, can only be realized in the
extension of diversified industries to all parts of the country, not in the North and
East alone, but in the South and West as well. A new era of industrial enterprise
has already dawned upon the South; no section of the country possesses greater
natural advantages than the South, with her genial climate, her limitless raw
materials, her mines of coal and iron, with abundant labor ready to develop them.
Considering what has been there achieved in a single decade, what may not a
century bring forth from her under a system calculated to favor the highest
industrial development? When I read the history of my country and consider the
past and present, and reflect on what is before us, I cannot believe that the idea
that went down in the convulsions of 1861 will ever again dominate the destinies of
the Republic.”
Tariff Speech of Major Wm. McKinley, Jr.,
Member of Congress from Ohio.

In the great tariff campaign of 1888 the two most distinguished
Republican speakers were Mr. Blaine and Major McKinley. The latter
was invited by the Chautauqua Society of Georgia to explain the
doctrine of Protection, and did so in the following comprehensive
speech:
Fellow-citizens: I make my acknowledgments to the Piedmont

Society for the courtesy and cordiality of its invitation, which has
given me the opportunity to meet, for the first time, an assemblage of
the citizens of Georgia.
I have come, upon the suggestion of the committee, to address you
upon a public question of great national import, which concerns not
only the prosperity of one section, but of all sections of our common
country, and which is of commanding interest to our sixty millions of
people. It is no new subject which I propose to consider. It is as old
as government by men. Taxation, with few exceptions, has been the
chief and absorbing issue for more than a century of the republic.
A revenue tariff is such a one as will produce the largest revenue
from the lowest duty. The lowest rate of duty will encourage
importations, diminish home production, and inevitably increase the
revenue. It will, of necessity, check competition at home, and send
our merchants abroad to buy; it affords no protection, not even
incidental, for the very instant that you discover that such duty
favors the home producer, that instant you discover that
importations and revenue are checked, and that our own producers
are able to control the home market or a part of it. Then at once the
advocate of a revenue tariff reduces the duty, brings it down to the
true revenue standard, for it must not be overlooked, according to
the free trade maxim, “where protection begins, revenue ends,” and
the question of revenue is always controlling. A revenue tariff is
inconsistent with protection; it is intended for a wholly different
purpose. It loses its force and character as a genuine revenue tariff
when it becomes to any extent protective. It has but one object. It can
have but one effect—that of opening up our markets to the foreign
producer—impoverishing the home producer and enriching his
foreign rival.
England is more nearly a free trade country than any other, and
her system of taxation furnishes an unmistakable example of the
practice and principle of a revenue tariff. Her import duties are
imposed almost exclusively upon articles which cannot be produced
by her own people upon her own soil. Tobacco, snuff, cigars, chicory,
cocoa, currants, figs, raisins, rum, brandy, wine, tea, and coffee—
these are the articles from which her customs revenue is derived—
articles, in the main, not produced in England, but which must be
supplied from abroad; while, practically, all competing products of
foreign make and production are admitted through her custom-
house free of duty.
A brief statement of the dutiable imports of Great Britain will not
be without interest.
It will be observed that her duties are more largely imposed upon
the peculiar American products than upon any others. The duty upon
tobacco is, according to moisture, from 84 to 92 cents per pound for
the raw or unmanufactured article; and, if manufactured, it pays a
duty of from $1.04 to $1.16 per pound. The manufactured article is
made dutiable at 20 cents a pound greater than the raw product,
which, with all of England’s boasted free trade, is intended as a
protection to those engaged in the manipulation of tobacco. It is
almost prohibitive to Americans who would export manufactured
tobacco. The ad valorem equivalent of the duty on tobacco is nearly
2000 per cent. Cigars pay a duty of $1.32 per pound, and from
tobacco and snuff over $43,000,000 of duties are collected annually.
The duty on tea is 12 cents a pound. How would the Americans enjoy
paying such a duty upon this article of everyday use? The duty
collected from this source is over $18,000,000 annually. Coffee pays
a duty of 3 cents a pound; but, if ground, prepared, or in any way
manufactured, it must pay a duty of 4 cents a pound—another
example of where England protects those engaged in manufacture.
Cocoa pays a duty of 2 cents a pound, but if it is in any form
subjected to manufacture it pays 4 cents a pound, the duty on the
manufactured article being double that on the raw material.
Besides the articles named, there are about ninety or a hundred
others, chiefly of American production, patented and other
medicines, which are dutiable at $3.36 per gallon. More than
$96,000,000, or nearly one-fourth of the British revenues, are
raided from customs duties.
You will note the character of taxation to which the revenue
reformer invites the people of the United States. Both the breakfast
table and the sick room are made to bear a large part of the burden
under the British system of taxation. It is not without significance
that the nearer we approach this system the more generous the
bestowal of British commendation. Every step we take in that
direction, every enlargement of the free list of competing foreign
products, every reduction of duty upon such products is hailed as a
vindication of Cobden and a beneficence to British interests. It is in
vain for the British statesman to assure us that their system is best
for us. We are not accustomed to look to our commercial rivals for
disinterested favors. “It is folly,” said Washington in his farewell
address, “for one nation to look for disinterested favors from
another; that it must pay, with a portion of its independence, for
whatever it may accept under that character. There can be no greater
error than to expect or calculate upon real favors from nation to
nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, and which a just
pride ought to discard.” We are not insensible to the good opinion of
mankind and of the English-speaking race, but when it is to be had
only at the expense of our industrial independence, at the sacrifice of
the dignity and independence of labor and the destruction of
national prosperity, we must regard it with supreme suspicion, and
turn from it as the eulogy of selfish interest and the commendation
of interested greed.
The other theory of taxation, and the one which I believe to be
essential to American development and national prosperity, is based
upon an exactly opposite principle. It permits all articles of foreign
production, whether of the field, the factory, or the mine, except
luxuries only, which we cannot produce in the United States, to enter
our ports free and unburdened by custom-house exactions. The duty
is to be imposed upon the foreign competing product; that is, the
product which, if brought into this country, would contend with the
products of our own soil, our own labor, and our own factories, in
our own markets. Under this system, if the foreign producer would
enter our market with a competing product, he must contribute
something for the privilege which he is to enjoy, and this something,
in the form of duties, goes into the Treasury, furnishing revenue to
the Government; and these duties operate to protect the joint
product of labor and capital against a like foreign product.
This mode of levying duties answers a double purpose. It produces
revenue to the Government, and at the same time fosters and
encourages the occupations of our own people, promotes industrial
development, opens up new mines, builds new factories, and
sustains those already established, which in turn furnish
employment to labor at fair and remunerative wages. A revenue tariff
accomplishes but a single purpose—that of raising revenue; it has no
other mission; while a protective tariff accomplishes this and more—
it brings revenue to the American treasury and discriminates in favor
of the American citizen. A revenue tariff invites the product of
foreign labor and foreign capital to occupy our markets free and
unrestrained in competition with the product of our own labor and
capital. A protective tariff invites the product of foreign labor and
foreign capital which are necessary to the wants of our people (which
we cannot produce in the United States) to occupy our markets and
go untaxed to the people, but insists that every foreign product which
is produced at home, or can be, successfully, in quantities capable of
supplying the domestic consumption, shall, whenever necessary to
maintain suitable rewards to our labor, bear a duty which shall not
be so high as to prohibit importations, but at such a rate as will
produce the necessary revenues and, at the same time, not destroy
but encourage American production. It says to the world of
producers: “If you want to share with the citizens of the United
States their home market, you must pay for the privilege of doing it.
Your product shall not enter into free and unrestrained competition
with the product of our own people, but shall be discriminated
against to such an extent as to fully protect and defend our own.”
It is alleged as a serious objection to protective duties that the tax,
whatever it may be, increases the cost of the foreign as well as the
domestic product to the extent of such tax or duty, and that it is
wholly paid by the consumer. This objection would be worthy of
serious consideration if it were true; but, as has been demonstrated
over and over again, it is without foundation in fact. Wherever the
foreign product has successful competition at home, the duty is
rarely paid by the consumer. It is paid from the profits of the
manufacturer, or divided between him and the merchant or the
importer, and diminishes their profit to that extent. Duty or no duty,
without home competition the consumer would fare worse than he
fares now. There is not in the long line of staple products consumed
by the people a single one which has not been cheapened by
competition at home, made possible by protective duties. There is
not an article that enters into the everyday uses of the family, which
is produced in the United States, that has not been made cheaper
and more accessible as the result of home production and
development, which was to be secured only by the sturdy
maintenance of the protective system. While this is true of protective
tariffs, exactly the opposite is true of revenue tariffs. They are always
paid by the consumer. When a duty is put on a foreign product the
like of which is not produced at home, and which enters our markets
free from home competition, the cost to the American consumer is
exactly the foreign cost with the duty added, whatever that may be,
much or little. Supposing, for example, there was a tax upon tea and
coffee. There being no production of these articles in the United
States, and therefore no competition here, the cost to the American
public would be the cost abroad and the duty added. We imported
last year 526,489,000 pounds of coffee. A duty of 10 cents a pound
would have produced to the Government over $52,000,000, which
would have been paid by the 12,000,000 families of this country,
consumers of this article; 87,584,000 pounds of tea were imported
last year; at 10 cents a pound, $8,000,000 and upward would have
gone into the Treasury, every dollar of which would have been paid
by our own people. Take sugar as another example. We produced last
year in this country about eight per cent. of what our people
consumed. The duty collected from imported sugar amounted to
$58,000,000. The domestic production was so inconsiderable as
compared with the domestic consumption as to have had little, if
any, appreciable effect upon the price to the consumer, and therefore
this sum was almost wholly paid by our own citizens, and the cost of
sugar to the American consumer, because of the inadequate home
supply, is practically the foreign price, duty added, the domestic
production being so small contrasted with the domestic demand that
it in no wise controlled or influenced the price.
The revenue tariff periods of our history have been periods of
greatest financial revulsions and industrial decadence, want, and
poverty among the people, private enterprises checked and public
works retarded. From 1833 to 1842, under the low tariff legislation
then prevailing, business was at a standstill, and our merchants and
traders were bankrupted; our industries were paralyzed, our labor
remained idle, and our capital was unemployed. Foreign products
crowded our markets, destroyed domestic competition, and, as
invariably follows, the prices of commodities to consumers were
appreciably raised. It is an instructive fact that every panic this
country has ever experienced has been preceded by enormous
importations. From 1846 to 1861 a similar situation was presented
under the low tariff of that period.
Contrast this period with the period from 1860 to 1880, the former
under a revenue tariff, the latter under a protective tariff. In 1860 we
had 163,000,000 acres of improved land, while in 1880 we had
287,000,000, an increase of 75 per cent. In 1860 our farms were
valued at $3,200,000,000; in 1880 the value had leaped to
$10,197,000,000, an increase of over 300 per cent. In 1860 we
raised 173,000,000 bushels of wheat; in 1880, 498,000,000. In
1860 we raised 838,000,000 bushels of corn; in 1880, 1,717,000,000
bushels. In 1860 we produced 5,000,000 bales of cotton; in 1880,
7,600,000 bales, an increase of 40 per cent. In 1860 we
manufactured cotton goods to the value of $115,681,774; in 1880 the
value reached $211,000,000, an increase of upward of 80 per cent.
In 1860 we manufactured of woollen goods $61,000,000; in 1880,
$267,000,000, an increase of 333 per cent. In 1860 we produced
60,000,000 pounds of wool; in 1880, 240,000,000 pounds, an
increase of nearly 300 per cent. In 1860 we mined 15,000,000 tons
of coal; in 1880, 79,000,000 tons, an increase of over 400 per cent.
In 1860 we made 987,000 tons of pig iron; in 1880, 3,835,000 tons.
In 1860 we manufactured 235,000 tons of railroad iron, and in 1880,
1,208,000 tons. In 1860 our aggregate of national wealth was
$16,159,000,000; in 1880 it was $43,000,000,000.
From 1848 to 1860, during the low tariff period, there was but a
single year in which we exported in excess of what we imported. The
balance of trade during twelve of the thirteen years was against us.
Our people were drained of their money to pay for foreign purchases.
We sent abroad, over and above our sales, $396,216,161. This vast
sum was drawn from the United States, from its business, from the
channels of trade, which would have been better employed in
productive enterprises, and thus supplied our wants for which we
were compelled to go abroad. During the last thirteen years, under a
protective tariff, there was but one year that the balance of trade was
against us. For twelve years we sold to our foreign customers in
excess of what we bought from them $1,612,659,755.
This contrast makes an interesting exhibit of the work under the
two systems. You need not be told that the government and the
people are most prosperous whose balance of trade is in their favor.
The government is like the citizen; indeed, it is but an aggregation of
citizens; and when the citizen buys more than he sells, he is soon
conscious that his year’s business has not been a success.
Our wealth increases $875,000,000 every year, while the increase
of France is $375,000,000, Great Britain $325,000,000, and
Germany $200,000,000. The total carrying capacity of all the vessels
entered and cleared from American ports during the year 1886–7 in
the foreign trade was 28,000,000 tons. The amount of freight
transported by the railroads of the United States was alone
482,000,000 tons during the same period.
The sum of our industries exceeds that of any other people, or
tribe, or nationality. Mulhall, the English statistician, places the
industries of the United States at $11,405,000,000 annually, which
is $2,205,000,000 greater than those of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain, nearly twice those of France or Germany, nearly three
times those of Russia, and almost equal to the aggregated industries
of Austria, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Holland, Australia, Canada, and
Sweden and Norway.
This advancement is the world’s wonder. The nations of the earth
cannot furnish such a splendid exhibition of progress in any age or
period. We defy a revenue tariff policy to present such an exhibition
of material prosperity and industrial development. Art, science, and
literature have held their own in this wonderful march. We are
prosperous to-day beyond any other people. The masses are better
cared for, better provided for, more self-respecting, and more
independent than ever before in our history, which cannot be said of
the masses of other countries.
One of the striking differences between a revenue tariff and a
protective tariff is that the former sends the money of its people
abroad for foreign supplies and seeks out a foreign market. The latter
keeps the money at home among our own people, circulating through
the arteries of trade, and creates a market at home, which is always
the best, because the most reliable.
Surely a new era of industrial development has come to the South.
Nothing should be permitted to check or retard it. To her nature has
been most prodigal with her gifts. Her hills and valleys have been
made the storehouses of richest treasure. Coal and iron mines wait
impatiently the touch of labor and capital, and tempt both with the
promise of lavish profit.
Raw materials are found at every turn to invite the skilled artisan
to transform them into the finished product for the highest uses of
man. She possesses the fibres in rich abundance; her skilled labor
should weave the fabric.
It is said that there is nothing grown in any of the States, except
Florida, that Georgia cannot profitably produce. She has coal, iron
deposits, marble and building stone, cotton and the cereals. Nothing
but her own folly, nothing but blindness to her highest and best
interests can keep her from the front rank of the industrial States of
the Union.
Whether we discuss this question from principle, from statistics,
or experience, we must reach the same conclusion; all lead to the
same conviction.
One of the chief complaints against the protective system is its
alleged hindrance to foreign trade and a foreign market for our own
products. It is argued that if we could import raw material from other
countries free, and manufacture such raw material into products for
use, we could export them at great profit, and thus secure a standing
in the markets of the world. This theory is wholly, as I believe,
illusory. It is without substance. We have an example of free raw
material in a certain line of manufactures—that of leather for boots,
shoes, etc. In 1872 hides and skins were made free, so that our
manufacturers could import them without custom-house burdens.
They have had “free trade” in their raw material now for sixteen
years. This industry has been an exceptionally successful one, and yet
you cannot avoid being surprised when I say to you that in these
sixteen years we have been able to export but two per cent. of the
leather production of this country.
But if free raw material be necessary to secure an export trade and
the foreign markets, then I answer that our manufacturers to-day
have substantial free trade in foreign raw materials which they make
into the finished product in the United States, provided they export
it. Sections 3019, 3020, 3021, and 3022 of the United States Statutes
provide for the remission of duties on all foreign materials used in
manufacturing for the export trade. The law is positive that all
articles manufactured for export from imported materials upon
which duties have been paid, shall, when exported, be entitled to a
drawback of 90 per cent. of the duties paid on such raw materials.
Some use has been made of these laws. The remission of duties in
1884 paid upon imported material manufactured for foreign markets
amounted to $2,256,638. On some articles the drawback is equal to
the duty paid, but in no instance where articles are imported to be
manufactured here and sent abroad is the duty to exceed 10 per cent.
And yet we are gravely told by the tariff reformers that we cannot
reach foreign markets on account of the high tariff on the raw
material, when, in fact, for foreign trade foreign raw materials are
practically free. This principle was recognized as early as the
administration of George Washington, and has been enlarged and
made applicable to all imported materials, the drawbacks varying
from 60 to 100 per cent. What becomes, then, of the cry for free raw
materials in the presence of this fact? The truth is, we are not so
much concerned about the foreign market as we are about the home
market. The latter is the best, and we have not yet been able to
control it, and, until we do, that should be our chief concern. But if
any of our people are sighing for a foreign market, and value it more
highly than our own, they can import foreign raw material practically
free of duty, and after advancing it into the higher forms of
manufacture, can go out and possess the world’s markets. Taxed raw
materials do not stand in their way, and it is hypocrisy to claim
otherwise.
“The markets of the world,” in our present condition, are a snare
and a delusion. We will reach them whenever we can undersell
competing nations, and not sooner. Tariffs do not keep us out, and
free trade will not make it easier to enter them.
Upon what terms can we adopt a revenue tariff system in this
country? In one way only; by accepting European conditions, and
submitting to all the discomforts and disadvantages of our
commercial rivals. The chief obstruction in the way of a revenue
tariff are the wages paid American workingmen, and any return to
that policy involves a reduction of the cost of labor. We cannot afford
to have cheap labor in the United States. Cheap labor means cheap
men and dear money. I would rather elevate and improve the
condition of my fellow-citizens than increase the value of money and
the power of “money-bags.” This is a republic of free and equal
citizenship. The government is in the hands of the masses, and not of
the few. This is our boast, and it is a proud one. The condition of the
masses, their well-being, their intelligence, their preparation for the
civil duties which rest upon them, depend largely upon the scale of
industrial wages. It is essential, therefore, that the best possible
wages attainable shall be secured and maintained. This is vital and
fundamental. We cannot, without grave danger and serious
disturbance—we ought not under any circumstances—adopt a policy
which would scale down the wages and diminish the comforts of the
American workingmen. Their welfare and independence, their
progress and elevation are closely related to the welfare and
independence and progress of the republic. We have got no
pampered class in this country, and we want none. We want the field
kept open. No narrowing of the avenues, no lowering of our
standard. We want no barriers raised against a higher and better
civilization. The gateway of opportunity must be open to all, to the
end that they may be first who deserve to be first, whether born in
poverty or reared in luxury. We do not want the masses excluded
from competing for the first rank among their countrymen and for
the nation’s greatest honors, and we do not mean they shall be.
Free trade, or a revenue tariff, will, of necessity, shut them out. It
has no respect for labor. It holds it as the mere machinery of capital.
It would have cheap men that it might have cheap merchandise.
With all of its boasted love for the struggling millions, it is infinitely
more interested in cutting down the wages of labor than in saving
twenty-five cents on a blanket; more intent in reducing the
purchasing power of a man’s labor than the cost of his coat. Things
are not always dearest when their price is nominally the highest. The
price is not the only measure, but the wherewith to buy it is an
essential factor. Few men before me but have found in the course of
their lives more than once that that which was cheapest when
measured by mere price was the dearest when they were without
money and employment, or when their products could find no
market, and, finding it, commanded no price at all commensurate
with the labor required to produce them. Primarily, it is labor which
is interested most in this question of protection. The man with
money can seek other avenues of profit and investment, or can wait
for his dividends, but the laborer cannot wait for his dinner, and the
United States do not want citizens who make presidents, and
senates, and the house of representatives, to be in a condition of
dependence and destitution. That is not the sort of citizenship we
want.
We are different from any other nation, and it is that difference
which makes us the best. Our political system rests upon a principle
different from that of any other. It is founded upon the consent of the
people. If we had wanted it otherwise we would not have left home,
but would have remained the obedient child of an imperious parent.
We would not have turned away from the mother country. We would
have remained one of her dependencies. We would not have fought
our way through blood and sacrifice to independence. We separated
to set up for ourselves a free and independent political society, and
that policy is the best for us which best subserves the purposes of our
organization, our citizenship and civilization. It is ours to work out
our own destiny, and, in doing so, furnish an example of a free and
progressive people, whose industrial policy has made it possible to
satisfy the best and highest aspirations of men, and which closes no
field to human endeavor. We would wish for all mankind the
beneficence of our system and the opportunities which it presents.
We bid them level their condition up to ours; we will not level ours

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Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

Thermal Properties and Applications

Thermal Properties and Applications

Edited by Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Senthil Muthu Kumar

Cover Image: © derrrek/Getty Images

1 Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid

2 Thermal Properties of Hybrid Natural Fiber-Reinforced

3 Thermal Properties of the Natural Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid

4 Thermal Properties of Sugar Palm Fiber-Based Hybrid

5 Thermal Properties of Sisal Fiber-Based Hybrid

6 Thermal Properties of Flax Fiber Hybrid Composites 93

7 Thermal Properties of the Pineapple Leaf Fiber-Based Hybrid

8 Thermal Properties of the Grass/Cane Fiber-Based Hybrid

8.5.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis 142

9 Thermal Properties of the Banana Fiber-Based Hybrid

10 Thermal Properties of Kenaf Fiber-Based Hybrid

10.3.6 Flammability Tests 177

11 Thermal Properties of Hemp Fiber-Based Hybrid

12 Thermal Properties of Cellulose Nanoﬁbers and Their

13 Inﬂuence of Graphene Nanoparticles on Thermal Properties of

14 Inﬂuence of Nanoclay on the Thermal Properties of the

15 Effect of CNT Fillers on Thermal Properties of the Bamboo

16 Effect of Metal Oxide Fillers on Thermal Properties of the

17 Inﬂuence of Chemical Treatments on the Thermal Properties

18 Physical, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of

We are glad to present the book entitled “Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites:

Thermal Characterization of the Natural Fiber-Based Hybrid

Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Thermal Properties and Applications, First Edition.

i. Tow by tow: the fibers are mixed up randomly or regularly.

Table 1.1 Classiﬁcation of the natural ﬁbers.

Seed Bast Leaf Core Grass and seed Others

Kapok Jute Banana Flax Canary Roots

1.2 Thermal Characterization

Thermal analysis techniques

DSC DTA TG or TGA TMA/ TD DMA DEA µ/n-TA

ΔT, ΔT Mass Penetration,

Hybrid composites Details of study References

• Elastic Modulus vs. temperature

• Glass transition temperature

Figure 1.2 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite

Polymers are viscoelastic and can be classified into crystalline, amorphous,

Storage modulus, (MPa)

Loss modulus, (MPa)

Glassy Transition Rubbery

Very hard and

• Change in dimension vs. temperature

• Coefficient of linear thermal expansion

Figure 1.4 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite

Expansion/Compression Penetration Tension 3-Point bending Voulmetric expansion E-modulus

decomposition characteristics of the polymers and polymer composite reinforced

TMA DSC DMA

Heat flow (exo)

(a) (b) (c)

• Heat flow vs. Temperature

• Glass transition temperature

Figure 1.7 Thermal characterizations of the polymer and polymer-based composite

• D2288 Test Method for Weight Loss of Plasticizers on Heating

• Weight % vs. Temperature

Figure 1.9 Thermal characterizations of polymer and polymer-based composites through

Mass derivative, (1/ °C)

Delivered in the House of Representatives, May 18, 1888.

Member of Congress from Ohio.

Fellow-citizens: I make my acknowledgments to the Piedmont